NEHRU INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

T. M. Palayam, Coimbatore-641 105

(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)
Accredited by NAAC, Recognized by UGC under Section 2(f) and 12(B)
NBA Accredited UG courses: AERO, CSE, MECH

LAB MANUAL

ME8512 THERMAL ENGINEERING LABORATORY

V SEMESTER MECHANICAL ENGINEERNG

 Vision of the Institute

Our Vision is to mould the youngsters to acquire sound knowledge in technical and scientific fields to face
the future challenges by continuous upgradation of all resources and processes for the benefit of humanity
as envisaged by our great leader Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru.

Our Mission of the Institute

To build a strong centre of learning and research in engineering and technology.

To facilitate the youth to learn and imbibe discipline, culture and spirituality.
To produce quality engineers, dedicated scientists and leaders.
To encourage entrepreneurship.
To face the challenging needs of the global industries.

Vision of the Department

To mould the Mechanical Engineering aspirants Into Employable Engineers and Successful Entrepreneurs.

Mission of the Department

 To be centre of excellence in Mechanical Engineering in providing Quality Education.

 To upgrade infrastructure and faculty competency for Continuous Development.
 To inculcate a work culture that yields Socio-Economical Engineers and Intellectual Leaders.
 To instill leadership qualities to pursue Professional Career and Entrepreneurship.

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEO)

PEO1: To excel in career applying knowledge in mathematics, science and engineering fundamentals
essential to create, solve and analyze Mechanical Engineering related problems.
PEO2: To design, analyze and implement cost-effective solutions to engineering problems encountered in
the field that are beneficial to the society.
PEO3: To establish careers in industry and entreprenuership by exhibiting professionalism that meets the
needs of national and multinational companies with adequate technical learning and communication skills.
PROGRAMME SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSO)
Upon graduation the student should be able to
• PSO1: Identify, Formulate and Solve engineering problems in core streams of mechanical
Engineering ie., design, thermal, manufacturing and industrial engineering
• PSO2: Apply modern tools to interpret data, design and develop solutions to complex Mechanical
Engineering issues employing ethical principles and professional engineering practice.
• PSO3: Function as an Engineering solution provider, entrepreneur with abilities to manage,
innovate, communicate, train and get trained to lead teams for continuous development of the society.
 Objectives of the laboratory

1. To study the value timing-V diagram and performance of IC Engines

2. To Study the characteristics of fuels/Lubricates used in IC Engines
3. To study the Performance of steam generator/ turbine
4. To study the heat transfer phenomena predict the relevant coefficient using implementation
5. To study the performance of refrigeration cycle / components

Outcomes of the laboratory

Upon the completion of this course the students will be able to

CO1 : conduct tests on heat conduction apparatus and evaluate thermal conductivity of materials.
CO2 : conduct tests on natural and forced convective heat transfer apparatus and evaluate heat transfer
coefficient.
CO3 : conduct tests on radiative heat transfer apparatus and evaluate Stefan Boltzmann constant and
emissivity.
CO4: conduct tests to evaluate the performance of parallel/counter flow heat exchanger apparatus and
reciprocating air compressor.
CO5: conduct tests to evaluate the performance of refrigeration and airconditioning test rigs.

PROGRAMME OUTCOMES
1. An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics and engineering sciences to develop
mathematical models for industrial problems.
2. An ability to identify, formulates, and solve complex engineering problems. with high
degree of competence.
3. An ability to design and conduct experiments, as well as to analyze and interpret data
obtained through those experiments.
4. An ability to design mechanical systems, component, or a process to meet desired needs
within the realistic constraints such as environmental, social, political and economic
sustainability.
5. An ability to use modern tools, software and equipment to analyze multidisciplinary
problems.
6. An ability to demonstrate on professional and ethical responsibilities.
7. An ability to communicate, write reports and express research findings in a scientific
community.
8. An ability to adapt quickly to the global changes and contemporary practices.
9. An ability to engage in life-long learning.
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

I.C. ENGINE LAB

1. Valve Timing and Port Timing diagrams.

2. Actual p-v diagrams of IC engines.
3. Performance Test on 4 – stroke Diesel Engine.
4. Heat Balance Test on 4 – stroke Diesel Engine.
5. Morse Test on Multi-cylinder Petrol Engine.
6. Retardation Test on a Diesel Engine.
7. Determination of Flash Point and Fire Point of various fuels / lubricants.

STEAM LAB
1. Study on Steam Generators and Turbines.
2. Performance and Energy Balance Test on a Steam Generator.
3. Performance and Energy Balance Test on Steam Turbine.

HEAT TRANSFER LAB:

1. Thermal conductivity measurement using guarded plate apparatus.
2. Thermal conductivity measurement of pipe insulation using lagged pipe apparatus.
3. Determination of heat transfer coefficient under natural convection from a vertical cylinder.
4. Determination of heat transfer coefficient under forced convection from a tube.
5. Determination of Thermal conductivity of composite wall.
6. Determination of Thermal conductivity of insulating powder.
7. Heat transfer from pin-fin apparatus (natural & forced convection modes)
8. Determination of Stefan – Boltzmann constant.
9. Determination of emissivity of a grey surface.
10. Effectiveness of Parallel / counter flow heat exchanger.

REFRIGERATION AND AIR CONDITIONING LAB

1. Determination of COP of a refrigeration system
2. Experiments on Psychrometric processes
3. Performance test on a reciprocating air compressor
4. Performance test in a HC Refrigeration System
5. Performance test in a fluidized Bed Cooling Tower

TOTAL: 60 PERIODS
 LIST OF EQUIPMENT FOR A BATCH OF 30 STUDENTS

S.No. NAME OF THE EQUIPMENT Qty.

1 I.C Engine – 2 stroke and 4 stroke model 1 set

2 Apparatus for Flash and Fire Point 1 No.

3 4-stroke Diesel Engine with mechanical loading. 1 No

4 4-stroke Diesel Engine with hydraulic loading. 1 No.

5 4-stroke Diesel Engine with electrical loading. 1 No.
6 Multi-cylinder Petrol Engine 1 No.

7 Single cylinder Petrol Engine 1 No.

8 Data Acquisition system with any one of the above engines 1 No.

9 Steam Boiler with turbine setup 1 No.

10 Guarded plate apparatus 1 No.

11 Lagged pipe apparatus 1 No.
12 Natural convection-vertical cylinder apparatus 1 No.
13 Forced convection inside tube apparatus 1 No.

14 Composite wall apparatus 1 No.

15 Thermal conductivity of insulating powder apparatus 1 No.

16 Pin-fin apparatus 1 No.

17 Stefan-Boltzmann apparatus 1 No.

18 Emissivity measurement apparatus 1 No.

19 Parallel/counter flow heat exchanger apparatus 1 No.

20 Single/two stage reciprocating air compressor 1 No.

21 Refrigeration test rig 1 No.

22 Air-conditioning test rig 1 No.

 CO - PO MAPPING

CO / PO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

        
CO1   
  
CO2         
  
  
CO3         
  
  
CO4         
  
  
CO5         
  
  
 I.C. ENGINE LAB

Ex.No : 1(a) VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF FOUR STROKE

DIESEL ENGINE
AIM:
To determine the timings of valve openings and closing for the given four
stroke diesel engine.

SPECIFICATIONS:
It is a four stroke Single Cylinder multi cylinder-Diesel Engine.

THEORY AND DEFINITIONS :

A four – stroke diesel engine works on the diesel cycle, which involves suction
stroke, compression stroke, and power stroke (expansion) and exhaust stroke.
The cycle and the corresponding strokes are shows in fig. During the suction
stroke fresh air is drawn in to the cylinder by the movement of piston from top
dead center (TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC). During this period the exhaust
valve is closed completely. And air drawn must be compressed during the
movement of piston from BDC to TDC. The air present in the cylinder must
undergo compression. Both inlet valve and exhaust valve will remain closed
during compression stroke. Diesel fuel is injected in to the cylinder nearly at the
end of compression stroke and it will get ignited due to the pressure and
temperature in the cylinder, resulting in power stroke (expansion stroke). During
power stroke both the valves are closed. The expanded gasses must be expelled
from the cylinder after completion of expansion stroke. Again fresh air can be
drawn during the suction stroke. During the movement of piston from BDC to
TDC the exhaust valve is kept opened, while inlet valve is closed so that gases
will expelled from the cylinder. The movement of piston from BDC to TDC is
called exhaust stroke. After completion of exhaust stroke, suction stroke starts.
Theoretically the inlet valve is assumed to open or close Instantaneously same in
the case with the exhaust valve. But the valves to function need time to opening
or closing. Thus the inlet valve opens even before piston reaches TDC and it will
be filly closed after suction is completed and later, piston moving from BDC to
TDC.
The following definitions are useful in the study of valve timings.
 Lead: A valve is said to be lead, when it opens before the piston has
reached dead centers.

 Lag: A valve is said to have lag when it closes after the piston has
reached dead centers.

 Overlap: Overlap is the period during which both inlet and exhaust valves
are open.

Inlet valve period: Inlet valve opens before Top Dead Center (TDC)
and closes after bottom dead center (BDC) with reference to a vertical engine.
The reason for giving lead to inlet valve (generally 10 – 15 degrees of crank
angle) is to provide sufficient time for full opening of the valve and avoid throttling
of incoming air. Also the depression in the cylinder at the end exhaust stroke
caused by the momentum of the outgoing gases, which assist the fresh charge to
be drawn into the cylinder overcoming its inertia. But the valve can’t be opened
too early as other wise the higher pressure inside may blow back the incoming
charge. For some period, known as overlap both inlet and exhaust valves are
open that help in scavenging the cylinder of burnt gases. The piston moves from
TDC to BDC to facilitate drawing of air into cylinder. However the inlet valve is
not closed at BDC, but after piston crosses BDC and is moving up there is a lag
in the closing of the inlet valve. The inlet valve is closed after BDC, the lag is
given about (30 – 60 c). This is done so as to induce as large a fresh charge as
possible. During the high speed of Piston, the air does not keep pace with the
speed of the piston and if the inlet valve is closed at BDC the cylinder could not
be completely filled with fresh mixture. In case of Spark ignition in engine and
fresh air in case of compression ignition (CI) engine. Advantage is taken of the
high momentum of air dur to which the suction continues even after the piston
reaches BDC. Therefore closing the inlet valve a little later than BDC induces
more charge into the cylinder as the piston is relatively stationary and the crank
can swing through a wide angle with little motion of the piston. The compression
will take place inside the cylinder. When both valves are closed.

PROCEDURE:

 Note the location of the inlet valve and exhaust valves of the given engine
 slowly start cranking the engine by hand and observe the inlet valve
carefully
 when the inlet valve opens mark the position IVO on the fly wheel note
that inlet valve opens a few degrees (10-15) before TDC
 Mark the position of TDC at about 10 from the IVO position on the
flywheel. BDC is located exactly 180 opposite TDC mark, mark BDC.
 Continue cranking the engine and observe and mark the position of inlet
valve closing as IOC on the fly wheel.
 Further cranking the engine completes the compression stroke. If the
engine is petrol engine cranking is not difficult and if the engine is diesel
cranking is difficult so decompress the engine by operating de
compression lever after the completion of compression stroke fuel is
injected at about 10to 15 before piston reaches TDC.
 After completion of expansion stroke exhaust valve opens before BDC.
mark the position EVO on the fly wheel
 Crank the engine further till the exhaust valve closes and mark the point
EVC on the flywheel. Now the valve timing diagram is completed.
 Measure the lengths L1 , L2, L3 and L4 and diameter of fly wheel
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Before
Reference Point (near dead Linear Angular
S.No. Particulars (or )
centre) Distance Distance
After
1 IVO TDC
2 IVC BDC
3 EVO BDC
4 EVC TDC

Circumference of the fly wheel = mm

But, 1 revolution =360°

Therefore, circumference (mm) =360°
So, 1mm=360°/circumference

Suction = ϕ1+180°+ϕ2
Compression = 180- ϕ2
Power = 180- ϕ3
Exhaust = ϕ3+180°+ϕ4
Valve overlap = ϕ1+ϕ4
 ExNo: 1(B). PORT TIMING DIAGRAM OF TWO STROKE
PETROL ENGINE

AIM:
To determine the timings of port openings and closing for the given
two stroke
petrol engine.

SPECIFICATIONS:
It is a single cylinder petrol engine.

PROCEDURE:

i).In the petrol engine transfer, inlet and outlet ports are identified
ii) The inlet and outlet ports are kept as the reference for finding the angles of the
suction, compression, power and the exhaust strokes respectively.
iii) The tabulation is drawn for the linear and the angular measurements
iv) The angles of the stroke of the stroke are calculated and the readings are
tabulated.
v) The port timing diagram is drawn for the representation of the opening and
closing of the ports.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS:

Before
Reference Point (near dead Linear Angular
S.No. Particulars (or )
centre) Distance Distance
After
1 EPO BDC
2 EPC BDC
3 IPO BDC
4 IPC BDC

Circumference of the fly wheel = mm

But, 1 revolution =360°

Therefore, circumference (mm) =360°
So, 1mm=360°/circumference

Suction = ϕ1+ϕ2
Compression =180- ϕ4
Power = 180- ϕ3
Exhaust = ϕ3+ϕ4
 Ex No :2 ACTUAL P-V DIAGRAMS OF I.C. ENGINES.

Aim:
To draw actual P-V diagram for a 2-stroke and 4-stroke I.C engine.
P-V Diagram:

a) TWO STROKE PETROL ENGINE

b) TWO STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
C) FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE
C) FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE
 Ex. No : 3(A). PERFORMANCE TESTON 4- STROKE
SINGLE CYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE WITH
ELECTRICAL LOADING

Aim:
To conduct performance test on 4-stroke single cylinder diesel engine and to
measure the BHP at constant speed keeping different load Fuel consumption at
variable speed Air consumption Heat balance sheet
Specification of engine
Four stroke single – cylinder diesel engine, water cooled engine.
Rated speed :
Starting by : hand cranking the crank shaft
Loading : electrical alternator and loading rheostat
Bore diameter 0.087 meters
Stroke length 0.110mtrs
Measurements
Air intake by engine; The engine is connected to volumetric tank of air tight;
one end of the tank is fitted with an orifice 18.5 mm dia, the tank is connected to
U-tube manometer through ¼ inch, hose nipple fitting by polythene transparent
tube. The deflection of manometer caused due to velocity difference between the
tank and atmospheric air velocity measures the velocity of air by which we can
calculate quantity of air flowing into the engine cylinder.

Fuel flow measurement; The control panel is fitted with a fuel tank which is
connected to a 3-way manifold where one end of the manifold is connected to
measuring burette of 100 CC and the other end is connected to the engine. The
fuel flow to the engine can be measured by closing the stop cock provided at the
top of 3-way manifold.
Speed: Speed of the engine can be measured with a digital rpm indicator which
is connected by sensor. The sensor is fitted near the rotating shaft of the prime
mover, where according to the speed the pulse signals are sent to the indicator.
Temperature: A multi channel digital temperature indicator is connected with
sensors at various points to measure temperatures of exhaust gas, cooling water
circulation and room temperature.
Rota meter and water meter for measurement of water flow to the engine and
for calorimeter Rota meter and water meter are provided respectively.
Description of equipment
The engine is 4-stroke single cylinder diesel engine, fuel injection into
compressed air type. The engine flywheel is connected to electrical
dynamometer for loading the engine.
The brake power from the engine can be calculated by electrical alternator with
rheostat loading along with voltmeter and ammeter. The air intake tank, fuel
measuring system, cooling water flow rate and temperature measurement
instrumentations, exhaust gas calorimeter, speed indicator, manometer have
been provided for completeness of the test rig. All measuring instrumentations
are provided on an independent panel separated from the engine and. Also see
the details under the “measurement” above, where the function of individual
instrumentation is indicated.
PROCEDURE FOR OPERATION:
Fill the fuel tank with clean fuel.
Check the sufficient lubrication oil in the oil sump (crank case).
Check the sufficient cooling water circulation (say about 100 LPH) in the Rota
meter being circulated through engine.
Connect the control panel to electrical mains 230 V.
Keep the engine exhaust valve to open position by operating the lever provided
on engine head.
Start the engine by cranking the crankshaft and simultaneously closing the
exhaust valve lever provided on engine head.
 Load the engine by rotating the wheel so that the electrode dips in to the water
to get load up to 75% of maximum load capacity.
Take down the manometer reading for air consumption, rpm reading, and burette
reading for fuel consumption.
Repeat the procedure for different loads to conduct the load test. Each time note
down the manometer reading fuel consumption reading and rpm.
Note down the temperature readings for final reading to calculate heat balance
sheet at full load.

OBSERVATION;

TABULATION

Sl Speed Load Time taken Brake Torque Total Fuel Specific Fuel Indicat Mecha
no. (N) 10 cc/ml of Power (T) consumption consumption. ed nical
Rpm fuel (BP) Nm (TFC) kg/hr. (SFC) Power. Efficie
Volt Ammet consumption kW Kg/kW hr. (IP) ncy
meter er in sec.
reading reading
(V) (I)
1.
No load

2.

3.

4.

Formulae for specimen calculation:

1. BP=V×I
2. Torque,
We know that, BP=2π.NT/60
 So, T=P×60/2π.N

3. Total Fuel Consumption,

TFC= (Volume/t) × (Density/1000) ×3600 (kg/hr)
Where,
Volume= 10cc
T= Time for 10cc fuel consumption in (Sec)
Density of the diesel= 0.8409 gm.

4. Specific Fuel Consumption, (SFC)

SFC= TFC/BP (kg/kWhr)

5. Indicated Power, (IP)

IP= BP=FP

Where, FP= Friction Power [Found out from the graph drawn between BP
(x-axis) &

TFC (y-axis)]

6. Mechanical efficiency
ɳ mech= (BP/IP)*100
 Ex.No : 3(B). PERFORMANCE TESTON 4- STROKE
SINGLE CYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE WITH MECHANICAL
LOADING (BRAKE DRUM DYNOMETER)

Aim:
To conduct performance test on 4-stroke single cylinder diesel engine and to
measure the BHP at constant speed keeping different load Fuel consumption at
variable speed Air consumption Heat balance sheet
Specification of engine
Four stroke single – cylinder diesel engine, water cooled engine.
Rated speed :
Starting by : hand cranking the crank shaft
Loading : electrical alternator and loading rheostat
Bore diameter 0.087 meters
Stroke length 0.110mtrs
Measurements
Air intake by engine; The engine is connected to volumetric tank of air tight;
one end of the tank is fitted with an orifice 18.5 mm dia, the tank is connected to
U-tube manometer through ¼ inch, hose nipple fitting by polythene transparent
tube. The deflection of manometer caused due to velocity difference between the
tank and atmospheric air velocity measures the velocity of air by which we can
calculate quantity of air flowing into the engine cylinder.
Fuel flow measurement; The control panel is fitted with a fuel tank which is
connected to a 3-way manifold where one end of the manifold is connected to
measuring burette of 100 CC and the other end is connected to the engine. The
fuel flow to the engine can be measured by closing the stop cock provided at the
top of 3-way manifold.
Speed: Speed of the engine can be measured with a digital rpm indicator which
is connected by sensor. The sensor is fitted near the rotating shaft of the prime
mover, where according to the speed the pulse signals are sent to the indicator.
Temperature: A multi channel digital temperature indicator is connected with
sensors at various points to measure temperatures of exhaust gas, cooling water
circulation and room temperature.
Rota meter and water meter for measurement of water flow to the engine and
for calorimeter Rota meter and water meter are provided respectively.
Description of equipment
The engine is 4-stroke single cylinder diesel engine, fuel injection into
compressed air type. The engine flywheel is connected to electrical
dynamometer for loading the engine.
The brake power from the engine can be calculated by electrical alternator with
rheostat loading along with voltmeter and ammeter. The air intake tank, fuel
measuring system, cooling water flow rate and temperature measurement
instrumentations, exhaust gas calorimeter, speed indicator, manometer have
been provided for completeness of the test rig. All measuring instrumentations
are provided on an independent panel separated from the engine and. Also see
the details under the “measurement” above, where the function of individual
instrumentation is indicated.
PROCEDURE FOR OPERATION:
Fill the fuel tank with clean fuel. Check the sufficient lubrication oil in the oil sump
(crank case). Check the sufficient cooling water circulation (say about 100 LPH)
in the Rota meter being circulated through engine. Connect the control panel to
electrical mains 230 V. Keep the engine exhaust valve to open position by
operating the lever provided on engine head. Start the engine by cranking the
crankshaft and simultaneously closing the exhaust valve lever provided on
engine head. Load the engine by rotating the wheel so that the electrode dips in
to the water to get load up to 75% of maximum load capacity.
Take down the manometer reading for air consumption, rpm reading, and burette
reading for fuel consumption. Repeat the procedure for different loads to conduct
the load test. Each time note down the manometer reading fuel consumption
reading and rpm.
 Note down the temperature readings for final reading to calculate heat balance
sheet at full load.

OBSERVATION;

TABULATION

Sl Speed Load Torque Time taken Brake Total Fuel Specific Fuel Indicated Mechanical
no. (N) T 10 cc/ml of Power consumption consumption. Power. Efficiency
Rpm (Nm) fuel (BP) (TFC) (SFC) (IP)
Load Load consumption kW kg/hr. Kg/kW hr.
(Kgf) W×9.81 in sec.
W (N)

1.
No
load

2.

3.

4.

Formulae for specimen calculation:

1. Radius of the brake drum
Circumference of brake drum =2π.r
So,
r= (circumference of brake drum) /(2π)
2. Effective radius
Reff = r + belt thickness

3. Rated Power (P) = kW (given in name plate)

But, P=2π.NT/60
 So, T= (P×60)/ (2π.N)
But T=W max × Reff
Where, W max→ Max. Load

4. Maximum Load
W max= T/ Reff
5. Torque
T= (W max × Reff )/1000 (kN)

6. Brake Power
BP=2π.NT/60

8. Total Fuel Consumption,

TFC= (Volume/t) × (Density/1000) ×3600 (kg/hr)
Where,
Volume= 10cc
T= Time for 10cc fuel consumption in (Sec)
Density of the diesel= 0.8409 gm.

9. Specific Fuel Consumption, (SFC)

SFC= TFC/BP (kg/kWhr)

10. Indicated Power, (IP)

IP= BP=FP

Where,
FP= Friction Power [Found out from the graph drawn
between BP
(X-axis) & TFC (y-
axis)]

11. Mechanical efficiency

ɳ mech= (BP/IP)*100
 Ex No 4. HEAT BALANCE TEST ON 4-STROKE TWIN
CYLINDER DIESEL ENGINE WITH ELECTRICAL
LOADING DYNOMETER

Aim:
To draw the heat balance sheet for 4-stroke TWIN cylinder diesel engine and to
measure the BHP at constant speed keeping different load Fuel consumption at
variable speed Heat balance sheet
Specification of engine
Four stroke single – cylinder diesel engine, water cooled engine.
Rated speed :
Starting by : hand cranking the crank shaft
Loading : electrical alternator and loading rheostat
Bore diameter 0.087 meters
Stroke length 0.110mtrs
Measurements
Air intake by engine; The engine is connected to volumetric tank of air tight;
one end of the tank is fitted with an orifice 18.5 mm dia, the tank is connected to
U-tube manometer through ¼ inch, hose nipple fitting by polythene transparent
tube. The deflection of manometer caused due to velocity difference between the
tank and atmospheric air velocity measures the velocity of air by which we can
calculate quantity of air flowing into the engine cylinder.
Fuel flow measurement; The control panel is fitted with a fuel tank which is
connected to a 3-way manifold where one end of the manifold is connected to
measuring burette of 100 CC and the other end is connected to the engine. The
fuel flow to the engine can be measured by closing the stop cock provided at the
top of 3-way manifold.
Speed: Speed of the engine can be measured with a digital rpm indicator which
is connected by sensor. The sensor is fitted near the rotating shaft of the prime
mover, where according to the speed the pulse signals are sent to the indicator.
Temperature: A multi channel digital temperature indicator is connected with
sensors at various points to measure temperatures of exhaust gas, cooling water
circulation and room temperature.
Rota meter and water meter for measurement of water flow to the engine and
for calorimeter Rota meter and water meter are provided respectively.
Description of equipment
The engine is 4-stroke single cylinder diesel engine, fuel injection into
compressed air type. The engine flywheel is connected to electrical
dynamometer for loading the engine.
The brake power from the engine can be calculated by electrical alternator with
rheostat loading along with voltmeter and ammeter. The air intake tank, fuel
measuring system, cooling water flow rate and temperature measurement
instrumentations, exhaust gas calorimeter, speed indicator, manometer have
been provided for completeness of the test rig. All measuring instrumentations
are provided on an independent panel separated from the engine and. Also see
the details under the “measurement” above, where the function of individual
instrumentation is indicated.
PROCEDURE FOR OPERATION:
Fill the fuel tank with clean fuel. Check the sufficient lubrication oil in the oil sump
(crank case). Check the sufficient cooling water circulation (say about 100 LPH)
in the Rota meter being circulated through engine. Connect the control panel to
electrical mains 230 V. Keep the engine exhaust valve to open position by
operating the lever provided on engine head. Start the engine by cranking the
crankshaft and simultaneously closing the exhaust valve lever provided on
engine head.
Load the engine by rotating the wheel so that the electrode dips in to the water
to get load up to 75% of maximum load capacity.
Take down the manometer reading for air consumption, rpm reading, and burette
reading for fuel consumption.
Repeat the procedure for different loads to conduct the load test. Each time note
down the manometer reading fuel consumption reading and rpm.
 Note down the temperature readings for final reading to calculate heat balance
sheet at full load.

Tabulation

Sl Speed Volt Ammeter Time taken Water Exhaust Gas Brake Mass of Mass of
no. (N) meter reading 10 cc/ml of Temperature Temperature Power fuel fuel
Rpm reading (I) fuel (BP) (mf) (ma)
(V) consumption kW
in sec.
T1 T2 T3 T4

1.
No load

2.

3.

4.

5
 S.No. Credit (kJ/s) % Debit (kJ/s) %
1 Heat
Supplied -
Q
2 Heat equivalent
to BP
-
Q1
(kJ/s)
3 Heat carried
away by cooling
- water
Q2
(kJ/s)
4 Heat carried
away by exhaust
- gas
Q3
(kJ/s)
5 Unaccountable
heat losses
-
Q4
(kJ/s)
TOTAL

1. Heat supplied by fuel

Q = mf x C.V of fuel kJ/s
C.V. of diesel=42,700 kJ/kg
mf = mass of fuel supplied in kg/s
mf = (Volume/t)*(density/1000)
Density of the fuel supplied =0.8409gm
2. Heat equivalent to BP
Q1 = V×I (kJ/s)
3. Heat carried away by cooling water
Q2=mw Cpw (t2-t1) ` (kJ/s)
mw = mass of cooling water supplied in kg/s
Cpw = specific heat of water which may be taken as 4.18 kJ/kg K
t1 = inlet temperature of water
t2= outlet temperature of water
4. Heat carried away by exhaust gases

Q3 = mg Cpg Δ t kJ/min

mg – mass of exhaust gas produced in kg/s

mg= mf+ ma
ma→ mass of air = mf+ 10
Cpg = specific heat of exhaust gas which may be taken as 2.1 kJ/kg
Δ t = rise in temperature

5. Unaccountable heat losses

Q4 = Q-[Q1+ Q2 + Q3] (kJ/s)
Ex.No : 5. MORSE TEST ON MULTI-CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE
WITH HYDRAULIC CURRENT DYNAMOMETER LOADING

INTRODUCTION:

When and I.C. engine is designed and manufactured and, then it is tested
in laboratory.
The purpose of testing are:
1. To determine the information which cannot be obtained by
calculations?
2. To confirm the data used in design.
3. To satisfy the customer regarding performance of the engine
Aim:

To conduct performance test on 4-stroke multi cylinder petrol engine and to

measure the

1. BHP at variable speed keeping load constant

2. Fuel consumption at variable speed
3. Air consumption
4. Heat balance sheet
5. FHP and IHP by mores method

Specification of engine

Four stroke multi – cylinder petrol engine, 800 CC capacity, water cooled variable
speed.
Rated speed : 2000 to 3000 rpm
Starting by : battery start by ignition method
Loading : by eddy current dynamometer 10HP at 3000 rpm,
Spring balance 0 to 50 Kg
Measurements

1. Air intake by engine the engine is connected to volumetric tank of air tight;
one end of the tank is fitted with an orifice 18.5 mm dia, the tank is connected
to U-tube manometer through ¼ inch, hose nipple fitting by polythene
transparent tube. The deflection of manometer caused due to velocity
difference between the tank and atmospheric air velocity measures the
velocity of air by which we can calculate quantity of air flowing into the engine
cylinder.

2. Fuel flow measurement: the control panel is fitted with a fuel tank which is
connected to a 3-way manifold where one end of the manifold is connected to
measuring burette of 100 CC capacities and the other end is connected to the
engine. The fuel flow to the engine can be measured by closing the stop cock
provided at the top of 3-way manifold.

3. Speed: speed of the engine can be measured with a digital rpm indicator
which is connected by sensor. The sensor is fitted near the rotating shaft of
the prime mover, where according to the speed the pulse signals are sent to
the indicator.

4. Temperature:A multi channel digital temperature indicator is connected with

sensors at various points to measure temperatures of exhaust gas, cooling
water circulation and room temperature.

5. Rota meter and water meter : for measurement of water flow to the engine
and for calorimeter Rota meter and water meter are provided respectively.
 Description of equipment

The engine is 4-stroke multi cylinder petrol, spark ignition type. The engine
is connected to eddy current dynamometer for loading the engine.

The brake power from the engine can be calculated by torque weighing
dynamometer. The air intake tank, fuel measuring system, cooling water flow rate
and temperature measurement instrumentations, exhaust gas calorimeter, speed
indicator, exhaust (back), pressure measuring manometer, speed change
throttle, electrical load controller have been provided for completeness of the test
rig. All measurements instrumentations are provided on an independent panel
separated from the engine-dynamometer unit. Also see the details under the
“measurement” above, where the function of individual instrumentation is
indicated.
PROCEDURE FOR OPERATION:

a. Fill the fuel tank with clean petrol.

b. Check the sufficient lubrication oil in the oil sump (crank case).
c. Check the sufficient cooling water circulation (say about 100 LPH) in
the Rotameter being circulated through engine.
d. Connect the control panel to electrical mains 230 V.
e. Keep the engine throttle (speed adjuster) to the partially open position.
f. Start the engine with the ignition key provided on the main panel board
provided.
g. Adjust the speed, say at around 1000 rpm
h. Load the engine with the help of eddy current dynamometer by
operating the excitation device provided on the side of the control
panel. Operate the knob till the spring balance reads at 15 or 20 kg.
i. Take down the manometer reading for air consumption, rpm reading,
and burette reading for fuel consumption.
 j. Adjust the speed say about 1500 rpm, note down the readings as
above.
k. Repeat the procedure for different speeds to conduct the load test.
Each time note down the manometer reading fuel consumption reading
and rpm.
l. Note down the temperature readings for final reading to calculate heat
balance sheet at full load.
PROCEDURE FOR MORSE TEST

1. The Morse test is adopted to find out IHP of each cylinder. First
calculate the brake power of the engine when all the cylinders are in
operation at constant speed and load.
2. One of the cylinder (say cylinder no 1) is cut off so that it does not
develop any power. This is done by operating knife switch provided at
front panel near the engine. The speed of the engine decreases, in
order to bring back the speed to the original speed, the load on the
engine is reduced.
3. The brake power is now measured in this new conditions which gives
the brake of the remaining cylinders.
4. Repeat the procedure for other two cylinders and measure the brake
power each time keeping the speed constant.
Tabulation

Sl no. Cylinder Speed Load Torque Brake Power Indicated

W (BP) Power.
Position (rpm) kW (IP)
T
(k Nm)
(kg) (N)

1. All
cylinders
working
2. Ist
cylinder
working
3. IInd
cylinder
working
4. IIIrd
cylinder
working
5. IVth
cylinder
working

Perpendicular distance
r= 0.62m
FORMULAE FOR SPECIMEN CALCULATION

1. Torque
T= (W×r)/1000 (kN-m)
2. Brake Power (kW)
BP=2π.NT/60
BP1=2π.NT1/60
BP2=2π.NT2/60
BP3=2π.NT3/60
BP4=2π.NT4/60
3. Indicated Power (kW)

IP1= [BP- BP1]

IP2= [BP- BP2]
IP3= [BP- BP3]
IP4= [BP- BP4]
 IP= IP1+ IP2+ IP3+ IP4
4. Mechanical efficiency
ɳ mech= (BP/IP)*100

5. Frictional Power
FP= IP-BP
 Ex. No : 6 . RETARDATION TEST TO FIND FRICTIONAL
POWER OF A DIESEL ENGINE.
Aim:
To find the frictional power of a diesel engine using retardation test.

Specification of engine
Four stroke single – cylinder diesel engine, water cooled engine.
Rated speed :
Starting by : hand cranking the crank shaft
Loading : electrical alternator and loading rheostat
Bore diameter 0.087 meters
Stroke length 0.110mtrs
Measurements
Air intake by engine; The engine is connected to volumetric tank of air tight;
one end of the tank is fitted with an orifice 18.5 mm dia, the tank is connected to
U-tube manometer through ¼ inch, hose nipple fitting by polythene transparent
tube. The deflection of manometer caused due to velocity difference between the
tank and atmospheric air velocity measures the velocity of air by which we can
calculate quantity of air flowing into the engine cylinder.
Fuel flow measurement; The control panel is fitted with a fuel tank which is
connected to a 3-way manifold where one end of the manifold is connected to
measuring burette of 100 CC and the other end is connected to the engine. The
fuel flow to the engine can be measured by closing the stop cock provided at the
top of 3-way manifold.
Speed: Speed of the engine can be measured with a digital rpm indicator which
is connected by sensor. The sensor is fitted near the rotating shaft of the prime
mover, where according to the speed the pulse signals are sent to the indicator.
Temperature: A multi channel digital temperature indicator is connected with
sensors at various points to measure temperatures of exhaust gas, cooling water
circulation and room temperature.
Rota meter and water meter for measurement of water flow to the engine and
for calorimeter Rota meter and water meter are provided respectively.
Description of equipment
The engine is 4-stroke single cylinder diesel engine, fuel injection into
compressed air type. The engine flywheel is connected to electrical
dynamometer for loading the engine.
The brake power from the engine can be calculated by electrical alternator with
rheostat loading along with voltmeter and ammeter. The air intake tank, fuel
measuring system, cooling water flow rate and temperature measurement
instrumentations, exhaust gas calorimeter, speed indicator, manometer have
been provided for completeness of the test rig. All measuring instrumentations
are provided on an independent panel separated from the engine and. Also see
the details under the “measurement” above, where the function of individual
instrumentation is indicated.

PROCEDURE FOR OPERATION:

i) Fill the fuel tank with clean fuel. Check the sufficient lubrication oil in the oil
sump.
ii) Start the diesel engine using the handle, the engine runs at the rated speed(
say 660rpm)
iii) Stop the engine by cutting the fuel supply, so that the engine speed decrease.
Note the speed in the display.
vi) Note down the time taken to each particular speed.
v) Again start the engine and note down the corresponding time taken to
decrease in a particular speed.
Vi) the above readings are repeated for next steps.
TABULATION

NO LOAD CONDITION:
Time taken to reach actual
Maximum Actual speed speed.
S.No.
speed(rpm) (rpm) t
(sec)

LOAD CONDITION:

Time taken to reach actual

Maximum Actual speed speed.
S.No.
speed(rpm) (rpm) t
(sec)

Formulae for specimen calculation:

1. Radius of the brake drum
Circumference of brake drum =2π.r
So,
r= (circumference of brake drum) /(2π)
2. Effective radius
 Reff = r + belt thickness/2

3. Torque
TL= W× Reff

A graph is drawn between time (x-axis) and speed (y-axis)

From the graph t1 and t2 are obtained.

(Tf+TL)/ Tf=t1/t2

4. Frictional Power
FP=2π.[(N1+N2)/2]. (Tf/60) kW
Ex. No : 7.DETERMINATION OF FLASH POINT AND FIRE
POINT

AIM: To determine the flash and fire point of medium oil by pensky martin
apparatus.

APPARATUS: Ables apparatus, thermometer, given OIL grade.

THEORY:
FLASH POINT:
It is the lowest temperature at which the fuel will flash when an external source of fire is
brought in contact with the vapors over its surface.

FIRE POINT:
Fire point is the lowest temperature at which the formation of combustible gases from
the oil is enough to maintain a steady combustible gas fire after it is ignited.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Using a rheostat regulate the heating range to sufficiently low rate to avoid errors.
2. Provide adequate heating.

PROCEDURE:
a. Note down the name and serial number of oil sample.

b. The closed cup is filled with the given sample of oil up to the standard filling mark in
the cup.
c. A thermometer is held in the oil such that it does not touch the metallic parts.

d. When the sample of oil is kept stirred and heated it gives out a vapor.
e. A test flame using a glowing splinter is applied at a short distance over the surface of
the oil, while watching for a flickering sound and a flash.

f. The minimum temperature at which the momentary flash is obtained is called the flash
point.
g. The flash point is noted from the thermometer. Heating is continued further. As done
earlier a test flame is applied but watching for the continuous burning of the vapour.

h. The lowest temperature at which the ignited vapors continuously burns is called the
fire point the fire point is noted from the thermometer

i. Repeat the procedure for different sample

TABULAR COLUMN:
Types of oil = SAE 20

S.No. Temperature Observation

 Ex No : 8. STUDY OF STEAM GENERATORS AND TURBINES.
STEAM BOILER
Steam is mainly required for power generation process heating purposes. The capacity of
the boilers used for power generation is considerably large compared with other boilers.
Since high efficiency is required to produce at high pressure and in very large quantity.
They are in size and of individual design depending upon the type of fuel used. But for
process heating the tellers’ are of smaller size and steam is generated at a lower pressure.
They are simply in simple in design and are repeatedly constructed to the same design.
A steam generator popularly known, as boiler is a closed vessel made up of high
quality steel in which steam is generated by the application of heat. The water receives
heat from the hot gases through the heating surfaces of the boiler. The hot gases are
formed by burning fuel may be coal or oil or gas. Heating surface of the boiler is the part
of the boiler that is exposed to hot gasses on one side and water or steam on the other
side. The steam that is collected over the water surface is taken from the boiler through
super bestirs and then suitable pipes to drive engines or turbines for some industrial
heating purposes. A boiler consists of not only a steam generator but a number of parts to
hold in safe and efficient operation of the system as a whole these parts are called
mounting and accessories.

CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS:
1. According to the contents in the tube
a) Fire tube or smoke tube and
b) Water tube
2. According to the position of the furnace
a) Internally fire and
b) Externally fired
3. According to the axis of the shell
a) Vertical and
b) Horizontal and
4. According to the number of tube
a) Single tube and
 b) Multi tubular
5. According to the method of circulation of water and steam
a) Natural circulation and
b) Forced circulation
6. According to the use
a) Stationary and
b) Mobile and also
7. According to the source of heat.

TECHNICAL SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Model no : RXA 03/NON IBR
2. Type : SUPERTHERM 4 – pass, Force
Circulation, coil type,
Water tube, fully automatic,
Oil fired
3. Capacity F & A 100 deg.c : 300 Kgs/hr
4. Working pressure : 10.54 Kg/cm2
5. Fuel consumption : L.D.O/H.S.D/18 Kgs/hr
6. Electrical load
Feed pump motor HP : 0.75 HP
Blower motor HP : 1.5 H.P
Oil pump motor : 0.5 H.P
7. Fuel gas outlet in mm : 219mm
8. Boiler status : Non – IBR

BOILER IN GENERAL

CONTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
Boiler is a fully automatic – cum manual oil fired, forced draught forced circulation,
water tube, boiler which generates steam within a few minutes of cold start. It has a
helical steam coil fabricated from steel tubes. The coil is constructed to from the
combustion chamber and is placed at the center of the two sheets, one inside the other.
The shell that is adjustment to the steam coil is called the inner shell and the outside the
inner that is adjacent to the steam coil is called the inner shell and one side the inner shell
is called the outer shell. The inner the steam coil are concentric with the outer small.
The burner is situated at the top center of the boiler. The burner is down firing,
forced draught type with direct electric spark ignition. The air blower and fuel pump are
at the base of the unit and driven by separate motors. A reciprocation type pump mounted
on the main chassis supplies water to the boiler. The boiler mountings such as steam
safety value, main stream stops value, steam pressure gauge etc. Are connected at the
outlet of the steam coil. A fuel filter is mounted on the boiler base frame and is connected
to the fuel inlet part of the pump. The power and control panel mounted on the boiler
shell incorporates most of the electrical safety and controls of the boiler. The flue gas
outlet is at the top rear of the unit.

OPERATIONAL FEATURES:
The feed water pump, pump soft water to the boiler, soft water is available from
the base exchange type softener, is supplied with the unit, is stored in a short water
service tank. IT IS TO BE NOTED THAT IT IS A MUST TO FEED ONLY SOFT
WATER TO THE BOILER TO AVOID SCALE FORMATION AND CHOKING
OF THE COIL.
Heat liberated by burning fuel in the combustion chamber, is utilized for water in
the coil. The products of combustion, after they exchange their heat with water in the coil
are let out of the unit and combustion air and air – preheating is archived by circulating
the combustion chamber. A high degree of air preheating ensures high thermal efficiency.
Steam is available at the outlet of the unit within a few minutes of cold start.
CONTROLS AND SAFETIES
The following contribute for the safe operation of the boiler
Sequence controller : to control the automatic functions of the
Boiler
Temperature indicator : To control the boiler operation
Cum-controller : With respect to steam temperature
Pressure switch : To control the boiler operations with
Respect to steam pressure
Safety valve : Additional safety against high steam
Pressure.
Photo resistor : To trip the boiler in absence of flame

Flue gas temperature

Controller : To trip the boiler against high flue gas
Temperature due to reasons like boiler
Running dry, heat transfer not taking
Place properly due to excessive carbon
Formation in the boiler and excessive rate
of firing.
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS
When the main electrical switch is put on, supply comes on the control panel
board.
Put the selector switch on fill and the water will start water starts filling in the
coil. To check the same, open the auxiliary value to see if water comes out in a steady
stream. Now put the selector switch on ‘fire ‘position, now fuel is sprayed into the
combustion chamber and the flame is established. If the flame is not detected then the
photocell trips all circuits, pressings the push button after proper check on the equipment
on the boiler side can restart the sequence. Once the flame is established the supply to the
ignition transformer is disconnected and the boiler is ready for normal operation.

Now pressure starts building up the boiler keeps on firing till the steam
temperature / temperature controller/ pressure switch. When limit is reached solenoid
value de-energizes and cuts off oil supply. Subsequently blower and water pump also
stops. The boiler restarts when the steam temperature / pressure come below the set limit.
 OPERAING INSTRUCTION
BEFORE STARTING THE BOILER FOLLOW THE FOLLOWING INSTRUCTION
 Make sure by carrying out soap test that the boiler water is soft test that the boiler
feed water is soft.
 Add 10 drops of soap solution in 40 deg c of water, shake the bottle well. There
should be good lather and it should last for at least five minutes without braking.
Adding lesser number of drops of soap solution and getting a good lather is
always preferred.
 It is recommended that the test be carried out after every four hours of operation.
If found unsatisfactory regenerate the softener immediately (Alternatively
hardness test kit may be used to as certain water hardness).
 Check that the soft water tank is full.
 Check that the fuel filter is clean.
 Ensure that fuel filter is clean.
 Open fuel line.
 Put on electrical main switch.
 Close the main stop valve.
 Open the bypass auxiliary valve.
 Open the feed water inlet valve.
 Check that coil blow down valve is fully closed.
 Check and ensure that the temperature indicator – cum- controller setting is not
altered. It should be set at a temperature 10 deg. C above the desired temperature.
 Check the fuel pressure as indicated on the fuel pressure gauge and ensure that is
not altered.
 Observe steam escaping to drain through the bypass auxiliary valve
 Now gradually open the main stop valve and close the bypass valve.

Running attention:
It is advisable on the part of the operator to make it a practice to check the
following occasionally.
 The soap test should be carried out after every four hours of the boiler of more
frequently if required. If water in the soft water service tank is found to be hard at any
time during the operation of the boiler, stop the boiler immediately. Drain the soft water
service tank. Regenerate the water softener. Fill the tank with fresh soft water and then
restart the boiler.
NOTE: THE BOILER SHOULD NEVER BE WORKED WITH HARD FEED
WATER
 Whether any excessive sound is coming from the motors of any moving
part.
 Whether all valves and joints are leak tight
 Whether any part of boiler body is getting overheated.
 Whether proper water flow and fluid flow are maintained
 Whether the flame in the combustion chamber is steady and no flickering
 Whether the exhaust from the chimney is normal and almost colorless
 Note that the no sparking or loose contact is there in the electrical circuit
 Whether the boiler stops and starts smoothly without excessive vibration
of smoke

IF ANY OF THE ABOVE CONDITIONS IS NOT FULFILLED, A THROUGH

CHECK UP SHOULD BE CARRIED OUT IMMEDIATELY.
STOPPING AT THE END OF THE DAY
Close fully the stop valve. The pressure switch/ temperature controller will cut off
the boiler. Close the water inlet valve. Open the coil blow down valve fully and blow
down the boiler. Also open the economizer blow down valves. Normal blow should be
done from the maximum pressure to flush out the residue.

Now close the blow down valve and open the pass valve. Fully open the water
inlet valve. Put the rotary switch ‘fill’ and start the feed water pump (filling the oil water
minimizes oxidation and rusting over night as also cools the entire boiler.)
Close the water inlet valve after the temperature reaches 50 0 C
Close the fuel oil inlet valve
Fill the fuel oil service tank for the next day’s operation
Put off the electric main switch
Clean the boiler, its top and surrounding off any of dripped oil etc.
ECONOMIZER
Introduction:
Energy conservation to one of the most important factors in any power station. The
exhaust gases coming out of the boiler consists of considerable heat energy and to make
use of this energy economizers are used. The feed water to the boiler is first fed into the
economizer where the exhaust gases heat up the water and thus minimizes the energy
required to raise the water to the state of steam in the boiler.
BASIC DESIGN FEATURES
The exhaust gasses coming out of the boiler is directed to the economizer. The
economizer consists of tubes through which exhaust gases pass and escape out through
chimney. The feed water is fed to the V and it passes through it to the boiler. When the
water flows around the pipes heat is transferred from exhaust gas to the water. This raises
the feed water temperature.
HEAT BALANCE SHEET FOR THE ECONOMIZER
Heat balance sheet can be drawn for the economizer with the following data.
a) Mass flow rate of feed water through auxiliary steam value (mco)
b) Mass flow rate of exhaust gases(Mcx)

(Sum of mass flow rate of fuel and mass flow rate of air)

c) Inlet temperature of feed water inlet to economizer (TI)

d) Outlet temperature of feed water outlet of economizer (T2)
e) Inlet temperature of exhaust gases of economizer (T3)
f) Outlet temperature of exhaust gases of economizer (T4)
g) Specific heat capacities of exhaust gas (Cpa )0.99

And that of water (cpw) and using the following formula.

Heat absorbed by the feed water=Mw X Cpw X (T2-T1)

Heat lost by exhaust gas =Mc X CPA X (T3-T4)

 STEAM TURBINE

Introduction:

A Steam turbine is a prime mover in which rotary motion is obtained by the gradual
change of momentum of the steam. In the steam turbine the force is exerted on the blades
and it rotates the vanes or buckets or blades. The action of steam in this case is known as
‘Dynamic’. On general a steam turbine, essentially consists of following two parts.

1. Nozzle

2. Blades

1. The flow of steam through nozzle

The steam nozzle is a passage of varying cross section by means of which the heat energy
of steam is converted into kinetic energy. The nozzle is so shaped that it will perform this
conversion of energy with minimum loss. These nozzles can be classified into three
categories viz. convergent, divergent & convergent-divergent nozzles. The flow of steam
through a nozzle may be regarded in it’s a simplest from, as being an adiabatic
expansion. The steam enters the nozzle with a relatively negligible velocity and high
initial pressure. As the steam expands the velocity will increase. The heat energy of the
steam be converted to kinetic energy. It will be interesting to know that the steam enter
with high pressure and negligible velocity but leaves the nozzle with a very high velocity
and low pressure. During the expansion of steam through nozzle no heat is supplied (or)
rejected and also increasing kinetic energy of the steam does no external work. The
expansion is therefore an adiabatic expansion and flow through the nozzle is regarded
adiabatic flow. It should be noticed that the expansion of steam is not a free expansion
and the steam is not throttled. Because it has a large velocity at the end of expansion.
Flow over blades:
The steam turbine obtains its motive power from the change of momentum of a jet OD
steam flowing over curved vanes. The steam jet, in moving over the curve surface of the
blades exerts a pressure on the blades owing to its centrifugal force. This centrifugal
force is exerted normal to the blade surface and acts along the hole length of the blade.
The resultant of this centrifugal force plus the effect of change of velocity is the motive
force on the blade. It should be realized that the value obtains no motive force from the
static pressure of steam or form any impact of jet, because the blade is designed so that
steam jet will glide on and off the blade without any tendency to strike it. Thus the basic
principle of operation of a steam turbine is the generation of high velocity steam jet by
the expansion of high pressure steam and then conversion of kinetic energy so obtained in
to mechanical work on rotor blades.
CLASSIFICATION OF STEAM TURBINES
The steam turbine can be classified in to following types:
1. According to the mode of steam action
a) Impulse turbine
b) Reaction turbine
2. According to the direction of steam flow
a) Axial flow turbine
b) Radial flow turbine
3. According to the exhaust condition of the steam
a) Condensing turbine
b) Non – condensing turbine
4. According to the pressure of steam
a) High Pressure Turbine
b) Low Pressure Turbine
c) Medium Pressure Turbine
5. According to the number of stages
a) Single Stage
b) Multi Stage

BASIC DESIGN FEATURES

The steam turbine is of single impulse turbine, Condensing type. The turbine consists of a
wheel manufactured from a single forging. The blades are fixed on the wheel. The blades
have large clearance at he side of the wheel. The blade is designed in such a way that
there is negligible end thrust. The wheel is mounted on a shaft carried on ball bearings
and enclosed in a pressure tight casing. The silicon seal is there in between the wheel and
bearings to prevent escape of the operating medium (Steam from the shaft). The critical
speed of the shaft is well above the operating speed. The steam enters the casing through
a valve. The casing is pressure tested. The steam enters in to the nozzle and the steam is
directed to the blades. The steam having given up the most of its energy is exhausted in to
the casing, which is vertically split. The alignments are ensured by spigot and finally
located by dwelling. The exhaust casing steam is directed to the condenser.
TECHNICAL DATA
Operating medium : Steam
Power output : 1 Kw
Inlet pressure : 3-7 Kg/cm2
Inlet temperature : 120-160 deg.c

EDDY CURRENT DYNAMOMETER

Please note that if the prime mover has to be tested at different speeds, and then
bring the torque setting potentiometer to minimum position before changing the speed of
the prime mover. Noe change the speed of the prime mover and when the speed of the
prime mover is stabilized, start rotating the torque setting potentiometer in clockwise
direction solely until the desired load on the prime mover is applied.
2 NT x 9.81
H.P = ---------------- Kw
60 x 1000
SEPERATING & THROTTLING CALORIMETER
Introduction:
Steam may exit in three conditions namely wet, dry saturated or super heated. If
the steam contains moisture (particles of water in suspension) it is said to be wet steam.
When the wet steam is further heated and it does not contain any suspended particle of
water, it is known as dry saturated steam. When the dry steam is further heated steam. If
any application of steam like steam engines, steam turbines etc. The state os steam is a
necessary data. To ascertain the actual state of steam it is necessary to determine the
quality of steam. Considering a system in which steam is flowing through a pipe, the
temperature and pressure can be measured directly using a thermometer and pressure
gauge. The saturation temperature can be found from steam tables with the aid of
pressure. If the observed the temperature is above saturation temperature of steam it is
known that the vapor is in super headed condition on the other hand if the temperature
corresponds to sutured temperature of steam, then the steam may be sutured or wet, the
state may be anything form saturated liquid to dry and sutured steam. At this stage we
need to find out the quality of steam before calculating other properties and the quality of
steam is defined by the dryness fraction and the same has to be found out experimentally.
The dryness fraction of the wet saturated steam is defined as the ratio of the mass of dry
steam present in the total mass of steam.
Using steam calorimeter the dryness fraction of the steam is found out
experimentally. Four typed of calorimeter are available for this purpose. They are,
1. Tank or barrel calorimeter
2. Separating calorimeter
3. Throttling calorimeter
4. Separating & throttling calorimeter.

The value of dryness fraction found by separating calorimeter is always higher

that the value of actual because if incomplete separation of moisture by mechanical
means. In case of throttling calorimeter the minimum dryness fraction of the steam
should not be too low. The above said separating, throttling calorimeter together can
eliminate the drawbacks and the same is known as separating & throttling calorimeter.
Even if the steam is too wet (say 0.6 – 0.9 dry) the dryness fraction can be found out
accurately.
BASIC DESIGN FRATURES
The unit mainly consists of a separating calorimeter which has S.S tube lagged with glass
wool and a water level indicator. The steam from the main line is sampled out over a
period of time through the sampling tube and control value. The pressure of the steam is
inside the separating calorimeter is indicated by a pressure gauge provided. The steam
impinges on a perforated cup inside the separating calorimeter which separates the
suspended water particles from the steams and due to gravity water is collected at the
bottom. The amount of water separated from the steam can be found out from the water
level indicator.
After water particles are being separated out of the separating calorimeter comparatively
dry steam enters the throttling calorimeter. The throttling calorimeter consists of a
suitable narrow aperture, pressure and temperature indicator, the throttling calorimeter is
also lagged with glass wool. The steam from separating calorimeter enters the throttling
calorimeter through a narrow aperture, thus increasing the temperature dropping, pressure
of the steam. The steam from the throttling calorimeter is condensed in condenser
provided.

Operating instructions:
1. Allow steam by opening the control value for a short while for stabilization and
close the value.
2. Fill water in the separating calorimeter through the funnel provided on the top of
water level indicator to a visible level in the indicator and close the funnel value.
3. Connect water connections to the condenser and maintain a steady flow.
4. Note down the initial water level in the level indicator.
5. Keep a graduated jar underneath of the condenser to collect the condensate.
6. Now sample out the steam and allow the steam in to the separating calorimeter
through the control value until there is considerable raise in water level in the
indicator.
7. Now stop the steam by closing the control value.
8. Dain out the water collected in the separating calorimeter through the drain cock
provided at the bottom until the initial water level is reached and record the
amount of water separated.
9. Note the pressure at separating calorimeter.
10. Record the amount of condensate collected from the condenser in the graduated
jar.
11. Note down the pressure and temperature at throttling calorimeter.

STEAM CONDENSOR
Introduction:
A steam condenser is a device which helps the exhaust steam from the turbine to
condense in to water by exchanging the heat to the continuously circulating cooling
media (water). The steam condenser can be broadly classified into two categories
depending upon the way in which the steam is condensed.
1. Jet condensers or mining tube condensers and
2. Surface condensers or non – mixing type condensers.

The jet condensers can be classified further depending upon the tubing systems
arrangement and direction of flow of the condensate. They are
Parallel flow het condenser.
Counter flow or low level jet condenser.
Barometric or high level jet condenser.
Ejector condenser.

Also the surface condensers can be further classified depending upon the direction of
flow of the condensate the arrangement of tubing system and the position okf extraction
pump.
1. Down flow surface condenser
2. Central flow surface condenser
3. Regenerative surface condenser and
4. Evaporative condenser.

Advantage of using a steam condenser in a steam power plant

1. Due to the continuous condensation the back pressure on the turbine is reduced
and this increases the work done.
2. The expansion ration of steam is increased and hence the efficiency of the plant is
increased.
3. The temperature of the exhaust steam is reduced and this also increases the work
done.
4. By reusing the condensate as the boiler feed water, the cost of power generation is
reduced as the amount of heat supplied per Kg of steam is reduced.

Basic design features:

The condenser is fabricated out of mild steel shell of.... mm diameter and 1110mm long,
56 no’s of 25mm dia pipes, 1145mm long are arranged in triangular pitch. On the either
side of the shell end caps are fixed. The baffle provided at one end of the cap makes the
water to flow in one direction through the lower half of the tubes and return in opposite
direction through the upper half. The end cap on the other side is known as water box.
This entire set up is mounted on M.S. Channel frame. Provisions for inlet, condensate
outlet, and water inlet and water outlet are provided. The respective temperature can be
also measured.
The cooling water is pumped through a pump of 3 Hp capacities. The condenser outlet is
pumped out by means of a reciprocating pump. A vacuum gauge is provided to measure
the pressure inside the condenser.
 ExNo : 9. Performance and Energy Balance Test on a Steam
Generator.

Aim:
To determine the dryness fraction of the steam
Apparatus Required:
Boiler
Feed Pump
Condenser
Economizer
Steam separator
Injector

Procedure:
It is advisable on the part of the operator to make it a practice to check the
following occasionally.
The soap test should be carried out after every four hours of the boiler of more
frequently if required. If water in the soft water service tank is found to be hard at any
time during the operation of the boiler, stop the boiler immediately. Drain the soft water
service tank. Regenerate the water softener. Fill the tank with fresh soft water and then
restart the boiler.
 Whether any excessive sound is coming from the motors of any moving
part.
 Whether all valves and joints are leak tight
 Whether any part of boiler body is getting overheated.
 Whether proper water flow and fluid flow are maintained
 Whether the flame in the combustion chamber is steady and no flickering
 Whether the exhaust from the chimney is normal and almost colorless
 Note that the no sparking or loose contact is there in the electrical circuit
 Whether the boiler stops and starts smoothly without excessive vibration
of smoke
Operating instructions:
1. Circulate cooling water in the condenser.
2. Now allow the steam coming out of the turbine into the condenser.
3. Switch on the reciprocating pump to extract the condensate.
4. After stabilization note down the temperatures inlet of cooling water, temperature
outlet of cooling water and vacuum gauge reading.

Tabulation:

Water Pressure on Pressure Temp after Condensate Remarks

separated in Separating after throttling water collected
the separating calorimeter throttling after throttling
calorimeter

Calculation:

Dryness fraction for separating calorimeter

X1 = Ws

W + Ws
Where
Ws – Quantity of water condenser in throttling calorimeter
W- Quantity of water separated out from separating calorimeter.

Dryness fraction for throttling calorimeter

X2 = hg+ Cp(T-Ts) – hf1
L
Where,
Hg = Enthalpy of steam corresponding to throttling pressure.
Cp= Specific heat of steam = 0.55
T= Temperature of steam at throttling
TS= Saturated temperature corresponding to throttling pressure
Hf1= Enthalpy of steam corresponding to separating calorimeter steam inlet pressure.
L= Latent heat (hfg)
 CONDENSER

Condense efficiency = T5- T4

------------------ %
TS - T4

Where,
T4= Condenser water in let temp
T5=Condenser water outlet temp
TS= Saturation temp corresponding to vacuum gauge
Reading in kg per cm2
Ex No :10. Performance and Energy Balance Test on Steam
Turbine.

Aim:
To determine the dryness fraction of the steam
Apparatus Required:
Boiler
Feed Pump
Condenser
Economizer
Steam separator
Injector

Procedure:
1. Connect the steam turbine panel to a 3 phase 440v power source with neutral
connection.
2. Start the condenser water circulating pump with the help of starter provided on
the panel and allows water to circulate through the condenser.
3. Start the condensate reciprocating pump by the D.P. switch provided in the panel
after the steam enters the condenser.
4. When the sufficient pressure (7 – 10 Kg/cm2) is built in the boiler, slowly open
the boiler main value provided at backside of the boiler and open the steam valves
of turbine provided on the steam turbine.
5. When all the condensed water in the steam line and turbine is driven out close the
value under the turbine partly to release condensed water only.
6. Now the turbine starts picking up speed when the turbine speed reaches 3000RPM
load the turbine with the torque control knob provided on the eddy current
dynamometer
control box on the panel and maintain turbine speed at 3000rpm by controlling
observations.
7. At each load tabulate the readings for the following observations.
 8. At full load draw a sample of steam into the separating and throttling calorimeter
by the valve provided on the calorimeter unit and note down the readings for the
following observations.
9. At the end of the experiment remove the load from the turbine and close the boiler
main valve.
10. Allow the steam in the boiler to build up pressure (10 to 12 Kg/cm2) and turn the
boiler operation switch to ‘OFF’.
11. Open the blow down valve provided at the bottom of the boiler near the feed
water pump, all the steam and water is pushed out of the blow down valve.
12. Put ‘OFF’ the condenser water circulating pump and condensate pump and
disconnect the turbine panel wire wire fron the mains.
13. When the pressure gauge on the boiler reads “Zero” close the blow down valve
and open the boiler by-pass valve and let the water flow through the boiler till the
temperature of the water in the boiler drops to about 50-55 deg.c. put off the main
switch on the boiler panel and disconnect the boiler panel from the mains.

Sl.no Load Speed Turbine Turbine Turbine Turbine Condenser Condenser

Kgs. RPM inlet pr. inlet outlet outlet water inlet water outlet
Kg/cm2 temp. pres. temp. temp. temp.

Separating & throttling calorimeter observation

Formulas
Turbine
2JINT x 9.81
Output = --------------------
60x 1000
Where N = Speed of the Turbine
T = Torque
= W x Re
W = Load in Kgs
Re = Arrm Length in Meters

M∆h
Isentropic work = -------------------- Kw
860.6
∆h = h in – hout
Hin= hf in x xhfg in
H out = hf out + x outlet x hfg outlet

X out let = s in left – sfg outlet

-------------------
Sfg outlet

S inlet = sfg inlet + x inlet x sfg inlet

η Isentropic = Turbine output %

-------------------
Isentropic work
 HEAT TRANSFER LAB

ExNo :11 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY BY GUARDED PLATE METHOD

AIM:
To find the thermal conductivity of the specimen by two slab guarded hot
plate method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Ammeter
2. Voltmeter
3. Thermocouple
4. Temperature indicator

SPECIFICATIONS:
Thickness of the specimen plate = 0.005 m
Specimen diameter = 0.140 m
Area A = 0.0153 m2

FORMULA USED:
Heat transferred through the specimen
dT
Q  KA
dX
Where,
Q – Heat transfer rate, w
K – Thermal conductivity of the specimen plate, W/mK
A – Surface area of the test plate, m2
dT – Temperature drop across the specimen, K
dX – Thickness of the specimen = 0.005m
dT T4  T3

dX 0.005
 Q dx
K , W/mK
A dT

PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the three pin plug to the 230 v, 50 Hz, 15 amps main supply and
switch on the unit.
2. Turn the regulator knob clockwise, set the heat input by fixing the voltmeter
and ammeter readings and note down the heat input Q in the table.
3. Adjust the regulator for guard heater so that the main heater temperature is
less than that of the guard heater temperature.
4. Allow water through the cold plate at a steady rate
5. Allow the unit to attain the steady state condition.
6. When the steady state condition is reached note down the temperature
indicated in the temperature indicators.
7. In the temperature indicator, the temperatures T 1, T6 represents the cold plate
temperature, T2, T5 represents the main heater temperature T 3, T4 represents
the guard heater temperature T 7, T8 represents the water temperature. These
values are noted in the table.
8. Calculate the thermal conductivity of the given specimen by using the given
formula and note the value in the table.
9. Repeat the experiment from step 2 to step 8 by varying the heat input to the
system.
 TABLE:

Q= VI
Guard
Voltmeter Ammeter Cold plate Main heater Water Thermal
heater
Reading Reading Temp Temp Temp Conductivity
S Temp
(volts) (amps) ˚C ˚C ˚C dT/dX of specimen
No ˚C
K
W/mK
V I Watts T1 T6 T2 T5 T3 T4 T7 T8
 Figure 1. Two slab guarded hot plate

RESULT:
Thus the thermal conductivity of the given specimen was calculated.
ExNo :12 THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF PIPE INSULATION USING LAGGED
PIPE APPARATUS

AIM:
To determine the thermal conductivity of the given insulating material by
using lagged pipe apparatus.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Ammeter
2. Voltmeter
3. Thermocouple
4. Temperature indicator

SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Heater diameter, d1 = 0.048 m
2. Heater with asbestos diameter, d2 = 0.075 m
3. Heater with asbestos + sawdust diameter, d3 = 0.106 m
4. Length, L=1m

FORMULA USED:

Heat transfer rate, Q  K 1  2L(T )  K 2  2L(T )

r2 r3
ln( ) ln( )
r1 r2

Where, Q – Heat transfer rate, watts

K1 – Thermal conductivity of asbestos in W/mK
K2 – Thermal conductivity of sawdust in W/mK
L – Length of the pipe, 1 m
ΔT– Temperature difference in K
r1 – Heater radius, 0.024 m
r2 – Heater with asbestos, 0.0375 m
r3 – Radius with asbestos and sawdust, 0.503 m
Thermal conductivity of asbestos

r 
Q  ln  2 
K1   r1 
2L(T )
Where,
ΔT = Tavg (Heater) – Tavg (Asbestos)
Thermal conductivity of sawdust

r 
Q  ln  3 
 r2 
K1 
2L(T )
Where,
ΔT = Tavg (Asbestos) – Tavg (Sawdust)
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the three pin plug to the 230 v, 50 Hz, 15 amps main supply and
switch on the unit.
2. Turn the regulator knob clockwise, set the heat input by fixing the voltmeter
and ammeter readings and note down the heat input Q in the table.
3. Allow the unit to attain the steady state condition.
4. When the steady state condition is reached note down the temperature
indicated by the temperature indicators.
5. In the temperature indicator, the temperatures T 1, T2, T3 represents the
temperature of the heater, T4, T5, T6 represents the temperature of the
asbestos and T7, T8 represents the temperature of the sawdust lagging by
using the multipoint digital temperature indicator. These values are noted in
the table.
6. Calculate K1 (Thermal conductivity of asbestos) and K2 (Thermal conductivity
of asbestos), by using the given formula and note the value in the table.
7. Repeat the experiment from step 2 to step 6 by varying the heat input to the
system.
 TABLE:

Voltmete Heater
r Ammeter Temp.
Asbestos Sawdust
Reading Readings ˚C Asbestos
Q Temp Temp Saw dust
S s K1
˚C ˚C K2
No Amps
Volts W/mk
W/mk
V A Watts T1 T2 Tavg T3 T4 Tavg T5 T6 Tavg
 Figure 2. Lagged pipe apparatus

RESULT:
Thus the thermal conductivity of the given insulating material (Asbestos
and Saw dust) has been calculated.
 ExNo: 13 NATURAL CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER FROM A VERTICAL
CYLINDER

AIM:
To determine the actual heat transfer co-efficient and theoretical heat
transfer coefficient by natural convection.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Voltmeter
2. Ammeter
3. Thermocouple
4. Heater
5. Temperature indicator

SPECIFICATION:

Length of the rod, L = 0.50m

Diameter of the rod, D = 0.04m
Thermal conductivity of air at mean film temperature, (Tf), K
Area of the rod, A =DL = 0.0628 m2

FORMULA USED:
Theoretical heat transfer co-efficient (htheoretical)
For laminar flow
Nu = hL /k = 0.59(GrPr) 0.25 for 10 4<GrPr<10 9
For turbulence flow
Nu = hL /k = 0.10(GrPr) 0.33 for 10 9<GrPr<10 12
Where,
Nu - Nusselt Number
h - Heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 K
k – Thermal conductivity of air in W/mK
 gl 3 T
Grashoff number, Gr 
2
where,
g – Acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
1
β – Co-efficient of expansion,  
T f  273
Tf 
Ts  T 
2
Ts - Surface temperature in ˚C
Tα - Air temperature in ˚C
l – Length = 0.5m
ΔT – Ts - Tα, K
γ – Kinematic Viscosity at mean film temperature (T f) from HMT data
book
Pr – Prandtl number

Actual heat transfer co-efficient (hact)

Q  hact  A  T
Where,
Q – Heat transfer rate = VI, watts
` hact – Actual heat transfer co-efficient, W/m2K
A = Surface area of the heater = DL = 0.0628 m2
T = Ts - Tα
T2  T3  T4  T5
T 
4
T T
T  1 6
2
Where,
Tω = Surface temperature in ˚C
Tα = Air temperature in ˚C
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the three pin plug to the 230 v, 50 Hz, 15 amps main supply and
switch on the unit.
2. Turn the regulator knob clockwise, set the heat input by fixing the voltmeter
and ammeter readings and note down the heat input Q in the table.
3. Keep on the temperature indicator switch in the first position
4. Allow the unit to attain the steady state condition.
5. When the steady state condition is reached note down the temperature
indicated by the temperature indicators
6. In the temperature indicator, T 2, T3, T4 & T5 represents the temperature of the
heater at different points. T 1 represent the inlet temperature of the air and T 6
represents the outlet temperature of the air. These values are noted in the
table.
7. Calculate the theoretical heat transfer coefficient (h theoretical) and actual heat
transfer coefficient (h actual) by using the given formulas.
8. Repeat the experiment from step2 to step 7 by varying the heat input to the
system.
 TABLE:

Ammeter
Inlet Outlet
Voltmeter Reading Heater
Temp of Temp of
Reading Q temperature hTheoretica
S. Ammeter Air Air hActual
Volts ˚C
˚C ˚C l
No Reading (W/m2K)
(W/m2K)
Amps
V I Watts T2 T3 T4 T5 T1 T6
 Figure 3: Natural convection apparatus

RESULT:

The theoretical and actual heat transfer coefficient has been calculated by
using natural convection apparatus
 Ex. No. : 14 FORCED CONVECTION INSIDE TUBE

AIM:
To determine the actual heat transfer and theoretical heat transfer
coefficient using forced convection.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

1. Voltmeter
2. Ammeter
3. Thermocouple
4. Temperature indicator
5. Blower
6. Manometer

SPECIFICATION:
Diameter of the pipe, d1 – 0.04m
Diameter of the orifice, d2 – 0.02m
Length of the pipe, L – 0.5m

FORMULA USED:
Actual heat transfer co-efficient,
Q
hactual = , w/m2k
A  T
Where,
Q - Heat input rate= V x I, Watts
A – Surface area of the pipe = πDL = 0.62 m2
T  Ts  T ˚ C
Ts – Wall temperature, ˚ C
 T1  T 2  T 3  T 4
Ts 
4
Tα – Air temperature, ˚ C
T5T6
T 
2

Theoretical heat transfer co-efficient, htheoretical

hD
Nu  , W/m2k
K
Where,
Nu – Nusselt number
h – Theoretical heat transfer co-efficient, w/m2k
d – Diameter of pipe, m
k –Thermal conductivity of air at Tf , w/mK (From HMT data book)

 w 
Air flow head, h0  h1  h2   1 , m
 a 
Where,
h1, h2 = Manometer readings, m
ρw = Density of water, 1000 kg/m3
ρa = Density of air, 1.1465 kg/m3

Cd .a1 .a 2 . 2 gho
Volume flow of air,
Qv  , m3/sec
a1  a
2 2
2

Where,
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge
 2
a2 = Area of orifice, m2 = d 2 = 3.14 x 10-4 m2
4

a1 = Area of pipe, m2 = d 12 = 1.25 x 10-3 m2
4
 QV
Velocity of air, V = , m/ sec
A
Where,

A – Area of pipe, = d 12 = 1.25 m2
4
Vd 1
Reynolds Number (Re) =

Where,
d1 – Diameter of pipe, m
V – Velocity of air, m/sec
 - Kinematics viscosity at Tf, m2/sec (From HMT data book)

Nusselt number (NU) = 0.023 (Re) 0.8 (Pr) 0.4

Where,
Pr – prandtl number for air at Tf, m2/sec (From HMT data
book)
Re – Reynolds number

Nu  K
hthe 
D
PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the three pin plug to the 230 v, 50 Hz, 15 amps main supply and
switch on the unit.
2. Turn the regulator knob clockwise, set the heat input by fixing the voltmeter
and ammeter readings and note down the heat input Q in the table.
3. Keep on the temperature indicator switch in the first position
4. Allow the unit to attain the steady state condition.
5. When the steady state condition is reached note down the temperature
indicated by the temperature indicators
6. In the temperature indicator, T 1, T2, T3 & T4 represents the temperature of the
heater at different points. T5 represent the inlet in let temperature of the air
and T6 represents the outlet temperature of the air h 1&h2 are the manometer
reading. These values are noted in the table.
7. Calculate the theoretical heat transfer coefficient (h theoretical) and actual heat
transfer coefficient (h actual) for forced convection by using the given formulas.
8. Repeat the experiment from step3 to step7 by varying the heat input to the
system.
TABLE:

Inlet Outlet
Voltmeter Ammeter
Heater temperature Temp of Temp of Manometer h
Reading Reading
Air Air Reading
S.No Q (˚C) W/m2K
Volts Amps m
˚C ˚C

T5 T6
V A T1 T2 T3 T4 h1 h2 hthe hac
 Figure 4. Forced convection apparatus

RESULT:

The theoretical and actual heat transfer coefficient has been calculated
using forced convection apparatus
 ExNO:1 5 HEAT TRANSFER FROM PIN-FIN APPARATUS

AIM:
To determine the temperature distribution of a PIN-FIN for forced
convection and to find the FIN efficiency.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Ammeter
2. Voltmeter
3. Heater
4. Blower
5. Fin specimen
6. Thermocouple
7. Temperature indicator

SPECIFICATION:
Duct width, B = 0.155 m
Duct height , W = 0.105 m
Orifice diameter, do = 0.020m
Orifice coefficient, Cd = 0.6
Fin length , L = 0.145m
Fin diameter, Df = 0.012m

FORMULA USED:
T1  T2  T3  T4  T5  T6  T7 o
1. Surface temperature Ts  C
7
2. Ambient temperature, Tα = T8 , ˚C

Ts  T
3. Mean film temperature Tf  , ˚C
2
 Q  Cd . As 2 gha , m sec
3
4. Volume flow rate,

Where,
Cd = co-efficient of discharge, 0.6
 2
As = Orifice area = d = 1.25 x 10-3, m2
4
ha = Drop in manometric head, m
w
ha  h
a
ρw – Density of water, 1000 kg/m3
ρw – Density of air, 1.14 kg/m3
h – Manometer differential head = h1 - h2, m
Q
5. Velocity of air , V  , m/sec
W .B
Where,
W = Width, m
B = Breadth, m
Vd f
6. Reynolds number, Re 

Where,
V = Velocity, m/sec
df = Diameter of fin, m
 = Kinematic viscosity at Tf, m2/sec (From HMT data book)

8. Nusselt number, Nu  0.989  Re   Pr 

0.333 0.333
, for 1< Re < 4

Nu  0.911  Re   Pr 

0.385 0.333
, for 4< Re < 40

Nu  0.683  Re   Pr 

0.466 0.333
, for 40< Re < 4000

Nu  0.913  Re   Pr 

0.618 0.333
, for 4000< Re < 40000

Nu  0.0266  Re   Pr 

0.805 0.333
, for Re > 40000
Where,
Pr = Prandtl number at Tf (From HMT data book)
 Nu.k
8. Heat transfer coefficient, h  , w/m2K
Df
Where,
K =Thermal conductivity at Tf, w/mK
Df = Diameter of the fin, m
tanh( mL)
9. Fin efficiency,  fin  100%
mL
Where,

m  hP
kA
p = Perimeter = πDf = 0.0376 m
A = Surface area of the pin fin = πDfL = 5.27 x 10-3 m2
L = Length of the pin fin, m
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the three pin plug to the 230v, 50 Hz, 15 Amps main supply and
switch on the unit.
2. Turn the regulator knob clockwise, set the heat input by fixing the voltmeter
and ammeter readings and note down the heat input Q in the table.
3. Keep the thermocouple selectors switch in first position.
4. Allow the unit to attain the steady state condition.
5. Now switch ON the blower.
6. Set the air flow rate to the system by keeping the valve in 1/4 th position.
7. The difference in U tube manometer limb levels h1, h2 is noted in the table.
8. Note down the temperatures by temperature indicator.
9. In the temperature indicator, T 1, T2, T3, T4, T5, T6 and T7 represent the
temperature of the fin surface. These values are noted in the table and T avg is
calculated.
10. Also note down the atmospheric temperature T 8 in the table by using
temperature indicator.
11. Thus the fin efficiency is calculated using the given formula.
12. Repeat the experiment from step 2 to step 11 by varying the air flow rate to
1/2, 3/4, and fully opened position.
13. Tabulate the readings and calculate for different conditions.
.
TABLE:

Fin surface Ambient

Manometer Efficiency
Valve Temperature temperature
readings 
S. No
position C C
%
h1 h2 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 Tavg T8

1 1/4  

2 2/4

3 3/4

4 Full open
 Figure 5. PIN – FIN appararus

RESULT:
Thus the temperature distribution is determined and the fin efficiency is
tabulated.
 EXNo:16 DETERMINATION OF STEFAN-BOLTZMAN CONSTANT

AIM
To find out the Stefan-Boltzman constant using concentric hemisphere.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Voltmeter
2. Ammeter
3. Thermocouple
4. Heater
5. Temperature indicator

SPECIFICATION
Mass of the disc, m = 0.005 kg
Diameter of the disc, d = 0.025m
Material of the disc = copper
Disc weight = 0.008 kg
Specific heat, Cp = 0.381 Kj/kgk

FORMULA USED

Radiation heat transfer


Q  A Th4  Td4 
Q


A Th4  Td4 
Where,
 - Stefean boltzman constant W/m2K4
 - Emissivity of the black body = 1
Q  mCP T
 m - Mass of the disc, kg
Cp – Specific heat of copper = 0.381Kj/KgK
T – dT/dt
dT – Change in temperature, ˚C
dt – Change in time, sec
 2
A - Area of disc, = d =4.9 x 10-6 m2
4
Th - Average temperature of hemisphere, K
T1  T2  T3  T4  T5
Th 
5
Td - Temperature of disc, K

PROCEDURE
1. Allow the water to flow through the heater unit and through the hemisphere
2. Remove the disc from the bottom of hemisphere.
3. Switch on the heater and allow the hemisphere to reach steady state
temperature.
4. Note down the temperatures T 1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 from the temperature
indicator and also note the steady state temperature of the disc T 6 (Td).
These values are noted in the table.
5. The average of T1, T2, T3, T4, and T5 is hemisphere temperature.
6. Close the disc from the bottom of the hemisphere.
7. Allow the unit to attain steady state.
8. When the steady state is reached note down the temperature in the table.
9. Calculate the Stefan - boltzman constant by using the given formula.
10. Repeat the experiment from step 3 to step 9 by changing the heat input to the
system.
TABLE:

Steady
state
Average Temp Stefen
Hemisphere Temperature Time Temp of
o of hemisphere boltzman
C o disc (Td)
Sl.No. C o constant,
C
σ
W/m2K4
T6
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 Th (secs)
 Figure 6. Stefan-Boltzman apparatus

RESULT

Thus the Stefan Boltzman constant of the given concentric hemisphere is

calculated.

ExNo: 17 DETERMINATION OF EMISIVITY OF A GREY SURFACE

91
AIM
To measure the emissivity of the given test plate surface.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1. Ammeter
2. Voltmeter
3. Heater
4. Test plate
5. Black body
6. Thermocouple
7. Temperature indicator

SPECIFICATION
Diameter of the test plate = 0.150 m
Diameter of the black plate = 0.150 m

FORMULA USED

Emissivity of the test plate,

TB4  TC4
EB  EB  4
TP  TC4
Where,
Emmisivity of black body, EB = 1
Average temperature of block body, T ab = Tb(Avg) + 273, K
Average temperature of polished body, T pa = Tp(Avg) + 273, K
Temperature of the chamber, TC = T7 + 273, K

PROCEDURE

92
1. Connect the three pin plug to the 230V, 50Hz, 15 amps main supply and switch
on the Unit
2. Turn the regulator knob clockwise, set the heat input by fixing the voltmeter and
ammeter readings and note down the heat input Q in the table.
3. Keep the thermocouple selectors switch in first position.
4. Keep the toggle switch in position 1. By operating the energy regulators power
will be fed back to black plate.
5. Now keep the toggle switch in position 2 and operate the regulator 2 and feed
power to the test surface.
6. Allow the unit to stabilize.
7. Make sure that the power inputs to the black and test surface are set at equal
values.
8. Turn the thermocouple selector switch clockwise step by step and note down
the temperatures indicated by the temperature indicator.
9. In the temperature indicator the temperatures T 1, T2, T3 represents the polished
body temperature, T4, T5, T6 represents the black body temperature and T 7
represents the chamber temperature. These values are noted in the table.
10. Calculate the emmisivity by using the given formula.
11. Repeat the experiment from step 2 to step 10 by changing the heat input to the
system.

93
 TABLE:

Voltmeter Ammeter Polished Body Average Black Body Average Chamber

Reading Reading Q=VI Temp Temp Temp Temp Temp Emissivity
S. Volts Amps ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C
No
V I Watts T1 T2 T3 Tp(Avg) T4 T5 T6 Tb(Avg) T7 E

94
 Figure 7. Emisivity apparatus

RESULT

The emissivity of the given polished plate was found out and it is tabulated.

EXNo:18 EFFECTIVENESS OF PARALLEL AND COUNTER FLOW HEAT

EXCHANGER

95
AIM:
To find the overall heat transfer co-efficient and the effectiveness in parallel
flow and counter flow heat exchanger.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Heat Exchanger Apparatus
2. Temperature indicator
3. Thermocouple
4. Stopwatch
5. Water heater

SPECIFICATION:
Inner copper tube
Inner diameter, d1 = 0.012m
Outer diameter, d2 = 0.015m
Outer GI tube
Inner diameter, d3 = 0.04m

FORMULA REQUIRED:
1. Parallel flow

Heat ttransfer rate, Q  UALMTD

Q
Overall heat transfer co-efficient, U  , W/m2K
A.(LMTD)
Where,

Q  mh .C ph Thi  Tho , W
mh – Mass of hot water, kg
Cph – Specific heat of hot water = 4.186 Kj/kgK

A – Outer area of inner copper tube = d 2 L = 0.025 m2

LMTD – Logarithmic Mean Temperature difference

96
 Ti  T0
LMTD( P ) 
 T 
ln  i 
 T0 
ΔTi = Thi - Tci
ΔTo = Tho - Tco
Thi – Hot water inlet temperature, K
Tci – Cold water inlet temperature, K
Tho – Hot water outlet temperature, K
Tco – Cold water outlet temperature, K
2. Counter flow
Ti  T0
LMTD( C ) 
 T 
ln  i 
 T0 
ΔTi = Thi – Tco
ΔTo = Tho – Tci
Thi – Hot water inlet temperature, K
Tci – Cold water inlet temperature, K
Tho – Hot water outlet temperature, K
Tco – Cold water outlet temperature, K
3. Effectiveness of heat transfer, 
For parallel flow,


Thi  Th0 
Thi  Tci 
For counter flow,


Tco  Tci 
Thi  Tci 

PROCEDURE:

97
1. Connect water supply at the back of the unit. The inlet water flows through the
geyser and inner pipe of the heat exchanger and flows out.
2. Also the inlet water flows through the annulus gap of the heat exchanger and
flows out.
3. For parallel flow open valve V2, V4 and V5.
4. Control the hot water flow approximately 2lit./min and cold water flow
approximately 5 lit./min.
5. Switch ON the geyser. Allow the temperature to reach steady state.
6. Note temperature T1 and T2 (hot water inlet and outlet temperature
respectively) in the table.
7. Under parallel flow condition T 3 is the cold water inlet temperature and T 4 is the
cold water outlet temperature. Note the temperature T 3 and T4 in the table.
8. Under counter flow condition T 4 is the cold water inlet temperature T 3 is the
cold water outlet temperature. Note the temperatures T 3 andT4 in the table.
9. Note the time for 1 litre flow of hot and cold water and calculate the mass flow
rate by using the given formula.
10. For counter flow open valve V3, V1 and V5 and repeat the experiment from step
5 to step 9 and calculate the mass flow rate by using t he given formula.

TABLE:

98
For Parallel Flow:
Hot water, oC Cold water, oC Time taken Time taken for
Inlet, Outlet, Inlet, Outlet, for 1 lit. of hot 1 lit. of cold
S No
Thi Tho Tci Tco water flow Water flow
T1 T2 T3 T4 (sec) (sec)

For Counter Flow:

Hot water, oC Cold water, oC Time taken
Time taken for
Inlet, Outlet, Inlet, Outlet, for 1 lit. of
S 1 lit. of cold
Thi Tho Tci Tco hot water
No Water flow
flow
T1 T2 T3 T4 (sec)
(sec)

99
 Figure 8. Parallel flow and Counter flow heat exchanger
RESULT: Thus the test on parallel and counter flow heat exchanger is
performed and the overall heat transfer co-efficient and the effectiveness of the
heat exchanger are determined.

100
EX.No :19 DETERMINATION OF COP OF A REFRIGERATION SYSTEM

AIM:
To conduct the test on refrigeration test rig with isobutene and propane as a
refrigerant to determine the Coefficient of Performance (COP).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Refrigeration test rig
2. Thermometer
3. Stopwatch

FORMULA:
1. Co-efficient of performance (Actual)

Re frigeration effect Qw T5i  T5 f 

(C.O.P) actual  
Energy input 860  E f  Ei 

 
Qw T 5i T 5 f  4.186
 3600

860  E f  Ei 
Where,
C.O.P – Co-efficient of performance
QW – Weight of water in evaporator, kg
T5i – Initial temperature of water, ˚C
T5f – Final temperature of water, ˚C
Ei – Initial energymeter reading, Kwhr
Ef – Final energymeter reading, Kwhr

2. Co-efficient of performance (Theoretical)

From p-h diagram of
Propane – R290 – Chart a
Iso butane – R600a – Chart b

(i). Stage1 – Compressor Inlet / Evaporator outlet

101
 ha1  hb1
h1 
2
Where,
h1 – Enthalpy at temperature T1, Kj/kg
ha1- From propane pressure – enthalpy chart for temperature T 1, &
pressure P1
hb1- From iso-butane pressure – enthalpy chart for temperature T 1,
& pressure P1

(ii). Stage2 – Compressor outlet

ha2  hb2
h2 
2
Where,
h2 – Enthalpy at temperature T2, Kj/kg
ha2- From propane pressure – enthalpy chart for temperature T 2, &
pressure P2
hb2- From iso-butane pressure – enthalpy chart for temperature T 2,
& pressure P2

(iii). Stage3 – Evaporator inlet (Before throttling)

ha3  hb3
h3 
2
Where,
h3 – Enthalpy at temperature T3, Kj/kg
ha3- From propane pressure – enthalpy chart for temperature T 3, &
pressure P3
hb3- From iso-butane pressure – enthalpy chart for temperature T 3,
& pressure P3

(iv). Stage4 – Evaporator inlet (After throttling)

h3 = h 4
Where,

102
 h4 – Enthalpy at temperature T4, Kj/kg

C.O.P Theoretical  h1  h4
h2  h1

3. Co-efficient of performance (Relative)

C.O.P relative  C.O.P actual

C.O.P theoretical

PROCEDURE:
1. Fill up the evaporator with known quantity of water.
2. After 5 min, when the system attains steady state the initial energy meter
reading is noted and also the water temperature in the evaporator is noted.
3. After a known period of time say 30 min, note down the energymeter
reading and water temperature. Before noting the water temperature,
physically stir the water to ensure that uniform temperature is attained in the
evaporator.
4. Note down the pressure (P1, P2, P3 and P4), temperature (T1, T2, T3 and T4)
also temperature of water T5 and energymeter reading in the table.
5. Calculate actual COP, theoretical COP and relative COP by using the given
formula.
6. Repeat the experiment from step 3 to step 5 and the readings are noted in
the table.

103
 TABLE:

Time taken Temperature Energymeter

(min) Pressure, Temperature
of water reading
Psig ˚C
S No ˚C Kwhr

t P1 P2 P3 P4 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 E

104
1 bar = 0.069476 Psig
 Liquid received
stage cylinder
P3

P2
Condenser

Rotameter

Filter
P4

P1

Evaporator Compressor

P1 – Compressor inlet/Evaporator outlet

P2 – Compressor outlet/Condenser inlet
P3 – Evaporator inlet (Before throttling)
P4 – Evaporator inlet (After throttling)
V – Compressor changing valve

Figure 9. Refrigeration test rig

RESULT:
Thus, the performance on a refrigeration test rig with isobutene and
propane refrigerant is conducted and the relative Coefficient of Performance was
found out.

105
 Ex No: 20 PERFORMANCE TEST ON TWO STAGE RECIPROCATING AIR
COMPRESSOR
AIM:
To determine the volumetric efficiency of the cylinder at normal temperature
conditions and to draw various performance characteristics curves.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Two stage reciprocating air compressor.

SPECIFICATIONS:
Type = Two stage, single acting
Speed , N = 700 rpm
Type of cylinder cooling system = Air cooled
Low pressure cylinder (LP) bore dia, d1 = 89.9 mm
High pressure cylinder (HP) bore dia, d2 = 63 mm
Stroke length, L = 88.9 mm
Max. Pressure = 300 kg/cm2
Orifice diameter, do = 0.01m
Energymeter constant = 200 rev/Kwhr

FORMULA USED:
Pa
1. Density of air,  a  , kg/m3
Ra .Ta
Where,
Pa – Atmospheric pressure = 1.013 x 105 N/m2
Ra – Universal gas constant = 287 J/kgk
` Ta – Room temperature, K

2. Pressure head in terms of air column, h a

106
  w hw
ha  ,m
T
Where,
 w - Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
hw – Head of water column, m
 a - Density of air = 1.145 kg/m3

3. Velocity of air through orifice, Va

Va  2 gha , m/sec
4. Area of orifice, Ao
 2 2
Ao  do , m
4
Where,
do – Orifice diameter, m

107
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the three pin plug to the 230V, 50Hz, 15 amps main supply and
switch on the Unit
2. The valve is provided at the top of LP and HP cylinders, water drain cock and
the air outlet valves are closed after the motor has gained its speed. The
increase in pressure of air in the receiver tank is indicated by pressure gauge.
3. The pressure of air is maintained constant to the desired valve say (2kgf/cm 2)
by adjusting at the opening of the compressed air outlet valve in the reservoir
manually.
4. The following observations are to be made by keeping reservoir pressure
constant (2 kgf/cm2)
a. Delivery pressure
b. Manometer reading (hw)(pressure difference across orifice)
c. Temperature T1, T2, T3, T4 after attaining the steady state
d. Time taken for 5 revolution of energy meter disc
5. The same procedure is repeated for the observations of other reservoir
pressure (4, 6, 8, 10, 12 kgf/cm2).
6. Then the motor is switched off after releasing the valve provided at the top of
LP and HP cylinders.
7. The Volumetric efficiency, Input power and Cooling factor of the cylinder has
been calculated from the given formula and the performance characteristic
curves are drawn.

GRAPH:
Following graphs are plotted
1. Delivery pressure on X – axis Vs Volumetric efficiency on Y – axis
2. Delivery pressure on X – axis Vs Input power on Y – axis

108
 TABLE:

RESULT:
Delivery Manometeric
pressure Temperature, Time factor
Reading
for 5 rev of Vol. Input
energy Eff power
h1 h2 h1- h2 T1 T2 T3 T4 meter disc Cooling
S No
factor

Kg/cm2 cm cm cm ˚C ˚C ˚C ˚C secs % Kw

109
tabulated and graphs are drawn for above parameters.
The performance test on air compressor was conducted, the results were
Ex. No : 21 Determination of Thermal conductivity of insulating powder .

Aim: To determine the thermal conductivity of an insulating powder.

INTRODUCTION

Conduction of heat is flow of heat which occurs due to exchange of energy from one
molecule to another without appreciable motion of molecules. In any heating process, heat
is flowing outwards from heat generation point. In order to reduce losses heat, various
types of insulations are used in practice. Various powders e.g. asbestos powder, plaster of
paris etc, are also used for heat insulation. In order to determine the appropriate thickness
of insulation, knowledge of thermal conductivity material is essential. The unit enables to
determine the thermal conductivity of insulating powders, using ‘sphere in sphere’ method.

APPARATUS

The apparatus consists of a smaller (inner) sphere, inside which is fitted a mica electric
heater. Smaller sphere is fitted at the center of outer sphere. The insulating powder, whose
thermal conductivity is to be determined, is fitted in the gap between the two spheres. The
heat generated by the heater flows through the powder to the outer sphere. The outer sphere
loses heat to atmosphere. The input to the heater is controlled by a dimmerstat and is
measured on voltmeter and ammeter. Four thermocouples are provided on the outer surface
of inner sphere and six thermocouples are on the inner surface of outer sphere, which are
connected to multichannel digital temperature indicator. Average of outer & inner sphere
temperatures give the temperature difference across the layer of powder.

SPECIFICATION:

1. INNER SPHERE – 100 mm O.D., halved construction.

2. OUTER SPHERE – 200 mm I.D., halved construction.
3. HEATER – Mica flat heater, fitted inside inner sphere.
4. CONTROLS – 1) Main Switch – 30 A , DPDT Switch
2) Dimmerstat – 0-230 volts, 2A capacity

MEASUREMENTS-
1) Voltmeter – 0-200 volts
2) Ammeter- 0-1 Amp.
3) Multichannel digital temperature indicator, calibrated for cr/Al thermocouples.

PROCEDURE:

1. Keep dimmerstat knob at ZERO position and switch ON the equipment.

2. Slowly rotate the dimmerstat knob, so that voltage is applied across the heater. Let the
temperature rise.
3. Wait until steady state is reached.

110
 4. Note down the temperatures and input of heater in terms of volts and current.
5. Repeat the procedure for different heat input.
6. Do not exceed 40 watt.
7. Insulating material plaster powder.

.
OBSERVATIONS:

Sr. No. TEMPERATURES OC HEATER INPUT

T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T10 Volts Amps

THEORY

Consider the transfer of heat by conduction through the wall of a hollow sphere formed
of insulating powder (Ref. fig.)

Let, ri = radius of inner sphere, m

ro = radius of outer sphere, m
Ti = avg. inner sphere temperature ◦c
To = avg. outer sphere temperature ◦c

Consider a thin spherical layer of thickness dr at radius r & temperature difference of dT

across the layer. Applying Fourier Law of heat conduction, heat transfer rate,

q = - k . 4π . r2. [dT/dr]

Where, k = thermal conductivity of insulating powder

q dr
…………… × …………… = - dT
4.π.k r2
Integrating between, ri to ro & Ti to To, we get

or Q/4 × [1/ri - 1/ro] = (Ti –To)

4.π.k.ri .ro. (Ti- To)

or q= ……………………………………
(ro – ri)

111
From the measured value of q, Ti and To thermal conductivity of insulating powder can
be determined as,
q (ro - ri)
k = ………………
4.π.ri.ro.(Ti – To)
CALCULATION:

112
  Heater input ; q = V × I watts
 
Avg. inner sphere surface temperature
T1 + T2 + T3 + T4
Ti = ……………………………… °C
4

Avg. outer sphere surface temperature To = …………………………… °C 6
  Inner sphere radius = 50 mm = 0.05 m
 
Outer sphere radius = 100 mm = 0.01 m
q. (ro – ri)
Now, k= ……………………… W/m K
4.π.ri.ro. (Ti –To)

Ti + To
at ……………… °C
2
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Operate all the switches and control gently.
2. If thermal conductivity of the powder other than supplied is to be determined,
then gently dismantle the outer sphere and remove the powder, taking care that
heater connections and thermocouples are not disturbed.
3. Earthing is essential for the unit.

Schematic Diagram:

113
 EX. No 22 Determination of Thermal conductivity of the composite wall

AIM: - To determine the overall heat transfer coefficient of the composite wall and compare the same with that
calculated from the equation.

THEORY:-

The heat conducted through the composite wall is given by

A(T1T 2)
Q  L1  L2  L3
K1 K2 K3

Q = UA∆T

Where Q = Rate of heat conducted in Watts .

A = Area of Heat flow: m2

∆T = Overall temperature difference: C

U = Overall heat transfer coefficient: W/ m2 -K.

U= 1/(L1/k1 + L2/k2 +L3/k3)

Where L1, L2, L3 are the thickness of the three layers

K1 ,K2 , K3 are the thermal conductivity of the three layers .

DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS:

The Apparatus consists of three slabs made of mild steel, asbestos and brass having same thickness. The
three slabs are clamped on both the sides using bolts and nuts. On one side of the composite wall a heater is
provided .The heater input can be varied using a dimmerstat . Thermocouples area embedded at three different
places in each section to find out the average temperature. On the outside of the wall, cooling water jacket is
provided which takes away the heat conducted through the slabs. The mass flow rate of the water and its raise in
temperature can be determined.

SPECIFICATIONS:-

Diameter of the composite wall: D = 150 mm

Thickness of the slab: L = 06 mm

114
Thermal conductivity of steel: K1 = 45 W/m-K

Thermal conductivity of asbestos: K2 = 0.1662 W/m-K

Thermal conductivity of brass: K3 =100 W/m-K

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect the equipment to the power supply.

2. Adjust the power input to the required value.
3. Allow sufficient time to attain steady state.
4. Note down all the temperature by operating the knob.
5. Measure water flow rate and its raise in temperature.
6. Repeat the experiment for different heat input.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

1. Heater Input:

Voltmeter Reading V: volts

Ammeter Reading I: Amps
Heat input VI: Watts

2 .Temperature Measurements C

Hot end
T1 = , T2 = , T3 =

Cold End
T4 = , T5 = , T6 =

Water inlet temperature T7 =

Water outlet temperature T8 =

3. Flow rate of Water in cc/minute =

CALCULATIONS:

115
 Ex No 23 Psychrometric processes

Psychrometric is the study of air and water vapor mixtures. Air is

amixture of five main gases. Nitrogen 78.03%, Oxygen 20.99%, Argon
0.94%, Carbon Dioxide 0.03%, and Hydrogen 0.01% by volume.

The Ideal Gas Laws are used to determine psychrometric data for air
so that the engineer can carry out calculations. easier a chart has been
compiled with all the relevant psychrometric data indicated. This is called
the Psychrometric Chart.

Relative Humidity RH %

116
 O

117
 EX.No: 24 : Performance test in a HC Refrigeration System

Aim:

To determine the actual Carnot cycle and relative COP of the given Refrigeration system

Apparatus Required:

Compressor, condenser, Evaporator, Capillary tube, energy meter, temperature indicator,

pressure gauge

Technical specification:

Refrigerant – HC Gas
Compressor – hermetically sealed
Condenser – air cooled
Energy meter for power measurement of compressor and the fan
Pressure gauge – 2 Nos.
Discharge pressure gauge – 0 to 17 bar

Formulae used:
Actual COP = COP act =Refrigeration effect / Energy consumed
Refrigeration effect = m x Cp x [dT / dt]
Energy consumed = No of revolutions in energy meter disc x 3600 / [ time for revolutions
x energy meter constant]
Carnot cycle = Lower Temperature / [Higher Temperature – Lower Temperature]
Relative COP = Actual COP / Carnot COP

Procedure:
1. Fill measured quantity of water in condenser and evaporator tanks
2. note down the initial temperature of tanks by means of selector switch
3. note down the energy meter and switch on the power supply to compressor.
4. run the compressor for unit time ( say 30 minutes)
5. note down the change in temperature and energy meter reading
6. Repeat the procedure for cooling coil also.

118
Tabulation:

SNo Time Refrigerated Time Temperature Pressure Actual Carnot Relative

period t Temperature for in chiller gauge COP Cycle COP
minutes Reading energy reading COP
meter
disc x
rev in
sec

Result:
Thus the experiment on the HC Refrigeration system was conducted and results were
tabulated

Actual COP Carnot Cycle COP Relative COP

119
 EX.No: 25 Performance test in a fluidized Bed Cooling Tower

AIM :
To conduct performance test in fluidized Bed Cooling Tower and determine the efficiency
of the cooling tower

DESCRIPTION :
The Bench Top Cooling Tower behaves in a similar manner and has similar components
to a full size cooling tower and may be used to introduce students to their characteristics and
construction.
Water Circuit:
Warm water is pumped from the load tank through the control valve and water flow meter
to the column cap. After its’ temperature is measured (t5), the water is uniformly distributed over
the top packing deck and, as it spreads over the plates, a large thin film of water is exposed to the
air stream. During its downward passage through the packing, the water is cooled, largely by the
evaporation of a small portion of the total flow.
The cooled water falls from the lowest packing deck into the basin, where its temperature
(t6) is again measured and then passes into the load tank where it is re-heated before re-
circulation. Due to evaporation, the level of the water in the load tank tends to fall. This causes
the float operated needle valve to open and transfer water from the make-up tank into the load
tank. Under steady conditions, the rate at which the water leaves the make-up tank is equal to
the rate of evaporation plus any small airborne droplets in the air discharge.
Air Circuit :
Air from the atmosphere(with temperature t7), enters the fan at a rate which is controlled
by the intake damper setting. The fan discharges into the distribution chamber and the air passes
wet and dry bulb sensors (which measure the temperature t2 and t1 respectively) before entering
the packed column. As the air flows through the packings, its’ moisture content increases and the
water is cooled. On leaving the top of the column the air passes through the droplet arrester,
which traps most of the entrained droplets and returns them to the packings. The air is then
discharged to the atmosphere via the air measuring orifice and further wet and dry bulb sensors
(which measure the temperature t4 and t3 respectively).
Droplets of water (resulting from splashing, etc.) may become entrained in the air stream
and then lost from the system. This loss does not contribute to the cooling, but must be made
good by "make-up" water. To minimize this loss, a "droplet arrester", or "eliminator" is fitted at the

120
tower outlet. This component causes droplets to coalesce, forming drops which are too large to be
entrained and these fall back into the packings.
Under the action of the fan, air is driven upward through the wet packings. It will be seen that the
change of dry bulb temperature is smaller than the change of wet bulb temperature, and that at air
outlet there is little difference between wet and dry bulb temperatures. This indicates that the air
leaving is almost saturated, i.e. Relative Humidity - 100%. This increase in the moisture content
of the air is due to the conversion of water into steam and the "latent heat" for this accounts for
most of the cooling effect. If the cooling load is now switched off and the unit allowed to stabilise,
it will be found that the water will leave the basin close to the wet bulb temperature of the air
entering. According to the local atmospheric conditions, this can be several degrees below the
incoming air (dry bulb) temperature. With no load, the water would be cooled to the incoming wet
bulb temperature, but this condition cannot be attained since the pump transfers about 100W to
the water.
Flow through the column may be observed through the transparent casing.
Three sets of different packings, each in its own casing, are available. These may be
interchanged quickly and without using tools. Water is heated using a 1kW and/or 0.5kW electric
heater.

Tabulation:

S Rota Temperature Air Air Air Mass Actual Mass of Efficiency

No meter deg C inlet outlet flow flow discharge water of cooling
reading temp temp rate rate LPM evaporated Tower
deg deg C deg deg kg %
C C C

Formula:

Result:

Thus , a test on cooling tower is conducted efficiency and mass of water

evaporated is determined

121