Master Universitario Oficial en Energía Solar

Centro Mixto CIESOL

ASIGNATURA: Energía solar y desalación

TEMA 6: Tecnologías de desalación mediante energía solar

de baja capacidad (Solar stills & HDH)

• Fecha: 19 de enero de 2022

• Profesor: Guillermo Zaragoza
(e-mail: [email protected])
 Index
Low capacity solar thermal desalination technologies

1. Passive solar distillation technologies (Solar Stills)

Introduction
Energy balance
Efficiency
Designs for improving efficiency
Commercial systems

2. Humidification-dehumidification (H-DH) technologies

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 Solar stills: introduction

Old-age sailors were already obtaining drinking water from the air’s humidity
when temperature dropped below dew point (natural condensation)

→ If extraction of humidity from the air is combined with thermal evaporation

from salt water, then we have desalination, replicating the natural cycle of water.

The most basic system is based on passive solar desalination: the solar still
• natural evaporation in a contained volume with natural condensation
• evaporation and condensation in the same space.

Other systems aim to improve the solar still performance by making use of
humidification-dehumidification cycles
• forced evaporation
• physical separation of evaporation and condensation.

Evaporation is an energy-consuming process: 650 kWh/m3

Important to reuse the energy released in condensation → multi-effect concepts
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 Solar stills: introduction

The desalination mechanism of a solar still is similar to that of nature.

A shallow pool of brackish or seawater absorbs solar energy and as a result vapor
is formed in the space above the water.
Vapor condenses on the inside of the glass cover and is collected in a side trough.

A conventional solar still has a simple geometry. The still is formed of a square or
rectangular box, which is equipped with a sloped glass cover.

The top cover is transparent to allow passage of solar energy (radiation).

solar solar
radiation
radiation

co ver transparent cover

nt
are condensation
r ansp collector
t air-vapor mixture
condensation
collector air-vapor
mixture
basin
basin

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 Solar stills: introduction
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Simple Design  Relatively low efficiency
 Affordable Investment  High ground area demand
 Proven technology  Limited system capacity (100 l/d)

The solar stills are classified into

two groups:

Passive Solar Stills: Conventional

systems which use solar energy as
single source of thermal energy.

Active Solar Stills: An extra thermal

energy is given to the solar still for
faster evaporation.
Classifications of developments for single-effect solar stills.
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 Solar stills introduction

Materials used in the solar still must:

• have long life under exposed conditions
• resist corrosion from saline and distilled water
• be strong enough to resist wind damage and slight earth movements
• not emit volatile or soluble compounds under the temperature of operation
(could give taste to the water)

The materials for the Basin are the most sensitive:

Metals corrode, concrete and asbestos cement absorb water (can develop cracks)
plastics do not resist high temperatures easily
→ basin covered with liner materials
must be watertight, capable of absorbing solar radiation and withstanding high
temperatures (butyl or silicon rubber, asphalt mats and even plastic)

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 Solar stills: introduction

The sealing must guarantee air and water tightness (silicon or rubber materials).
The insulation is most important under the basin.

The cover must have high transmittance for solar radiation and low transmittance
for long wavelength radiation emitted by the water.
Also, high stability; mechanical resistance and wettability with water to avoid
condensation forming as water droplets.
Glass is the best material for the cover
Transparent plastic film:
+ lower cost per unit surface cover area; flexibility and lightness in construction
- degradation due to UV radiation; dust collection (high electrostatic); low wettability
→ Cellulose acetate (after washing with a strong solution of sodium hydroxide)
→ Polyvinyl fluoride (Tedlar, rendered wettable by mechanically roughening the surface)
→ 3-layer coextrusion PE (polyethylene) with inner layers of EVA (ethylene vinyl acetate)
containing anti-drip additives

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 Solar stills: introduction

The distilled water is generally potable; the quality of the distillate is very
high because all the salts, inorganic and organic components and
microbes are left behind in the bath.

Under reasonable conditions of sunlight the temperature of the water will

rise sufficiently to kill all pathogenic bacteria. UV Radiation is suitable to
kill a reasonable part of the bacteria after some hours as well.

A film or layer of sludge is likely to develop on the bottom of the tank and
this should be flushed out as often as necessary.

The basin must be replenished by addition of saline water and withdrawal of

brine:
→ batch-type operation is preferable than continuous filling because it wastes
less heat.

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Solar stills: energy analysis

incident solar
radiation

convective losses

condens.
surface (g)

radiative
evap. surface (w) losses
absorbed heat loss by
radiation evaporation
conduction
losses

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 Solar stills: energy analysis

rate of convective heat transfer per unit area

Qcw  hcw T hcw convective heat transfer coefficient [W m-2 K-1]

function of: (i) operating temperature range;
(ii) geometry of condensing cover;
(iii) physical properties of the fluid;
(iv) flow characteristics of the liquid.

rate of evaporative heat transfer per unit area

Qew  hew T  mw L hew evaporative heat transfer coefficient [W m-2 K-1]

mw evaporation rate per unit area [kg m-2 s-1]
L latent heat of vaporization [J kg-1]

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 Solar stills: energy analysis

rate of evaporative heat transfer per unit area

Chilton-Colburn’s analogy between heat and mass transfer (Lewis relation):

Mw L 1 P C Pa specific heat capacity of humid air [J kg-1 K-1]

hew  hcw M a molecular weight of humid air [kg kmol-1]
M a CPa Le ( Pa ) LM T
1/3

M w molecular weight of water vapor [kg kmol-1]

( Pa ) LM log mean of air partial pressure [Pa]
Le Lewis number (ratio thermal/mass diffusivity)

Mw L P P
hew  hcw  k hcw k mass vs heat transfer proportionality constant
M da CPda PT T T
k = 0.013 for saturated air at 50ºC [Malik et al.,1982]
k = 0.016273 experimental value [Dunkle; 1961]
k = 0.008 for T>55ºC [Clark; 1990]

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 Solar stills: energy analysis
Nusselt number (Nu): ratio of convection to fluid conduction heat transfer
hcw ka thermal conductivity of humid air [W m-1 K-1]
Nu 
ka / X X characteristic thickness (mean length evap–cond surface) [m].
Grashof number (Gr): ratio between buoyancy and viscous forces [type of flow]
g acceleration due to gravity [m s-2]
g β ρ X ΔT
2 3
Gr  a
 coefficient of volumetric thermal expansion [K-1]
μa2 a density of humid air [kg m-3]
a dynamic viscosity of humid air [N s m-2]
Prandtl number (Pr): ratio between momentum diffusivity (i.e. viscosity) and thermal
diffusivity [type of fluid]
μa CPa
Pr  C Pa specific heat capacity of humid air at constant pressure [J kg-1 K-1]
ka
Rayleigh number (Ra): used to characterize transition in a boundary
Ra  Gr  Pr layer during natural convection
(critical value above which convection dominates conduction)
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 Solar stills: energy analysis
For upwards heat flow from the horizontal water surface: [Jakob; 1957]

Gr < 103 (convection negligible): C = 1; n = 0

Nu  C (Gr  Pr ) n

104 < Gr < 3.2 ·105 (laminar flow): C = 0.21; n = 1/4

3.2 ·105 < Gr < 107 (turbulent flow): C = 0.075; n = 1/3

In solar stills, mass transfer takes place due to a differential in fluid density (function
of temperature and composition).
→ evaporation increases the driving buoyancy force caused by the difference in
temperature (water vapor is lighter than dry air)

modified Grashof number Gr’ based in: [Sharpley and Boelter; 1938]

ΔP M da molecular weight of dry air

ΔT '  Δ T  ( Tw  273.15 )
M da PT M w molecular weight of water vapor
 Pw
M da  M w PT total pressure of air in the still [Pa]
PW sat vapor pressure in evap area

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 Solar stills: energy analysis
First theoretical model for the prediction of heat and mass transfer processes in
solar stills: [Dunkle; 1961]
ΔP(Tw  273.15 ) (air - water vapor at
hcw  0.884( ΔT ') 1/ 3
ΔT '  ΔT 
268.9 103  Pw atmospheric pressure)

Dunkle’s model was derived for operating temperatures around 50°C, upward
heat flow with parallel evaporative and condensing surfaces), and assuming
saturated air and turbulent flow.
Other experimental models have been derived suited for other conditions.
The more general approach:
g β ρa2 X 3 ΔT ' ΔP(Tw  273.15 )
Nu  C ( Gr' Pr) n
Gr'  ΔT '  ΔT 
μa2 268.9 103  Pw

ka
hcw  C ( Gr' Pr)n C and n derived from regression analysis
X based on experimental data

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 Solar stills: efficiency
Thermal instantaneous efficiency of a solar still:
Qew
 (ratio of evaporative heat transfer water surface-cover to
instantaneous solar radiation intensity)
I (t )

Performance of a solar still during a certain time Δt:

PRP 
 m t w Production rate performance:
 I t ratio of total distilled water to total energy absorbed

Productivity [L/m2d]: R: solar radiation [J m-2 d-1]

U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Office of Saline Water R&D Report
“Manual on solar distillation of saline water” (Talbert, Eibling and Löf; 1970)
10 years of experience and data from 27 of the largest basin solar stills

 L L L
P  3.26 2 1.2 2   20
md  m year  m2 d
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 Solar stills: efficiency

Productivity depends almost solely upon the intensity of solar radiation, other
atmospheric variables are of minor importance.
• The productivity of a solar still increases slightly with ambient air temperature
(~5% for each 5ºC rise) [Eibling et al.; 1971]
• The net effect of increased wind speed is a slight decrease in productivity.

For a still to produce the most, it should be designed to achieve high brine
temperatures with minimum thermal lag.
• The rate of evaporation decreases exponentially with the temperature of the
brine.
• Inverse proportionality between productivity and thermal inertia of solar stills
(time lag between maximum instantaneous solar radiation and maximum
evaporation rate) [Hirschman and Roffler, 1970]

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 Solar stills: efficiency

Water depth increases the volumetric heat capacity of the basin but reduces
water temperature, which decreases evaporation rate and productivity.
• Depth is inversely proportional to the productivity of the still [Cooper; 1973]
• With depth temperature and production rate are uniform and less affected by
solar intensity variations in a short period of time.
• The heat stored in the water mass is released during absence of sunshine
and production continues even during night.
• Thermal inertia can sometimes compensate losses for lack of insulation to
make deep basins perform better than shallow ones.

Insulation has a stronger effect on shallow basins and benefits only small stills.
• Insulation under basin increases productivity by about 15% for a 2” deep basin,
and by about 20-30% for a 1” deep basin. [Bloemer et al., 1965]
• For stills larger than a few thousands m2 is hard to find it economically viable.

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 Solar stills: advanced designs
Improving the performance by optimization of the light transmission:

For lower latitudes, double-slope still is preferred (requires a minimum inclination

to collect condensation)

For higher latitudes single-slope still is preferred

single-slope still gives better performance than a double slope for cold climatic
conditions where energy loss significantly controls still performance

Optimum cover tilt angle that is close to the latitude angle of the site [Khalifa, 2011]
sun tracking system to a fixed solar still has improved the performance of the
traditional fixed single slope solar system by 22% [Abdallah and Badran 2008].

Tilted stills are approximated with stepped (staircase) and cascade solar stills

Reflectors can be added to increase radiation received at the basin

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 Solar stills: advanced designs
Improving the performance by optimization of the light transmission:

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 Solar stills: advanced designs
Improving the performance by optimization of the light transmission:

o v er
tc
p aren
ns
tra
in s
bas
p p ed
ste ver
co
r ent
spa
n
tra
condensation
collector

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 Solar stills: advanced designs
Improving the performance by optimization of the light transmission:

From: N.H.A. Rahim; Desalination 138 (2001) 121–128

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 Solar stills: advanced designs
Improving the performance by enhancing evaporation:

Increasing evaporation area: (20% for x4 area, max gain of 30% [Kwatra; 1996])
stirring water mass (air bubbles); placing sponge cubes in the basin; adding a
floating wick; adding fins to the basin
Establishing vacuum in the tight area (up to 100% [Al-Hussaini and Smith; 1995])

Increasing absorption:

- asphalt basin liners

- heating surface water by adding (black) dyes (better than some absorbing salts)
- heat release from photochemical properties (vessels filled with bromide or iodine)
- fine particles of charcoal and coal; black charcoal absorbing pieces
- submerged screens
- floating foils (aluminum or copper); perforated surface of aluminum; floating wicks

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 Solar stills: advanced designs
Improving the performance by enhancing evaporation:
Increasing absorption:
- baffle plates to separate top surface water from remaining water of deep basin

Storing the incident solar energy:

- black rubber or black gravel; volcanic rocks; metallic wiry sponges

- phase change materials (emulsion of paraffin wax, paraffin oil and water)
- sandy heat reservoirs

Reduction of the depth of water in the basin: (up to 48% [Khalifa and Hamood; 2009])

- wicks (light cotton, light jute; sponge sheet) or porous rocks as spread materials

Pre-heating the water:

solar collectors; solar concentrators; solar pond (active solar stills)

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 Solar stills: advanced designs
Improving the performance by enhancing evaporation:
Increasing absorption:
aluminum plate separating perforated black coated sheet
top water layer from deep basin floating over the water surface

from: N.H.A. Rahim; Desalination 138 (2001) 121–128

from: P. Valsaraj; Renewable Energy; 25 (2002) 607–612
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 Solar stills: advanced designs
Improving the performance by enhancing evaporation:

w ick
d
w ette

v er
en t co jute cloth wicks
ar
sp
tra
n
a t ion
condensation sul
collector in
evaporation
surfaces

brine
storage
transparent
cover
polythene sheets
for separation

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 Solar stills: advanced designs
Improving the performance by enhancing condensation:

- Cooling the cover (intermittent shading; flowing water over cover → regenerative)
- Increasing the condensation surface (glass tubes in the upper part)
- Addition of a passive condenser in the shaded region of a single-sloped still
- Adding internal condensers → regenerative solar still
- Adding external condensers → separating evaporating and condensing zones
- Extracting water vapour from evaporating zone to an external condenser
(passive or active solar still)

Improving the performance by reusing the latent heat of condensation

in two or more stages:
Multi-effect stills → basins on top of each other; wick combined with basin
Diffusion still
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 Solar stills: advanced designs
Improving the performance by enhancing condensation:

internal
condenser

condensation
collector

external
condenser

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 Solar stills: advanced designs
multi-effect solar stills

from: H.E.S. Fath; Desalination; 116 (1998) 45-56

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 Solar stills: advanced designs

overflow release feed

1st effect
evaporation

v er
condenser plate t co
1st effect p aren
ns
tra
u ble
do
condensation 2nd effect
collectors evaporation

condenser plate
2nd effect
brine

multiple effect tilted solar still with stepped basins as designed by Selçuk (1966).

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 Solar stills: advanced designs
multi-effect diffusion-type solar still
feed

A number of parallel partitions in contact

with saline-soaked wicks with narrow gaps transparent
between partitions. cover

Heat penetrates the first partition plate, and

water vapor evaporates from the saline- 1st
absorbing
soaked wick of the first partition, diffuses plate
across the gap and condenses on the
uncovered surface of the second partition.
condensation
plates
The latent heat of condensation contributes
to further evaporation from the wick of the
second partition. In this manner, the latent
heat of condensation is recovered and
recycled to increase production. reflecting
mirror

condensation
collection brine

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 Solar stills: summary

• State of the art well understood from the standpoints of thermodynamic and
geometric effects.
• Some modified types of solar stills have shown to improve productivity:
tilted wicks
inclined trays
forced convection with external condensation
multiple-effect solar stills.
Sometimes the increase may be twice that of a simple-basin solar still but these
improvements can be hardly justified on an economic basis yet.

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 Solar stills: summary

Parameters that affect efficiency of water stills include water depth, solar
radiation intensity, cover inclination and material, feed water temperature.

Investment: 10.000 to 20.000 €/m²

A simple solar still has a daily production rate not larger than 3-5 l/m2·d.

Simple modifications in the system design may result in the increase of the
production rates.

 Use of wick material instead of water basin or adjustment of the glass

cover inclination can increase the production rate 50%.

 Use of multi-effect stills can increase production rates by a factor of 4

(a 4-effect solar still with heat recovery and electric blowers, with T>90ºC
reached >6 l/m²h with energy input ~ 2 kW/m² and GOR >2.3).

However, these improvements can be hardly justified on an economic basis.

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Solar stills: Commercial systems

Watercone© MAGE WATER MANAGEMENT GmbH

Yemen
Capacity: 1.5 l/d
Working since 2007

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 Solar stills: Commercial systems

Suns River
Solar Still

Tested at BGNDRF in Alamogordo (NM) in 2012

Production: 12 l/m2.d (radiation < 6 kWh/m2.d)

34

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 Solar stills: Commercial systems

Solwa Solar Still

Production: 8 l/m2.d (Jordan Valley) < 10 €/m3

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 Solar stills: Commercial systems

Solar Dew©

Solar Dew One

Capacity: 7-12.5 l/d

Triple layer design: residual heat from top layer facilitates

pervaporation in second and third layers Solar Dew Two

~6-10 l/m2.d Capacity: 8.5-15 l/d

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 Solar stills: Commercial systems

The efficiency of the solar still is low as a result of the loss of latent heat
of condensation through the cover.
Even when the latent heat is reused (multi-effect stills) the performance is
relatively low.

In the solar still the various functional processes occur within a single
component.
Thermal inefficiencies are reduced by separating these functions into different
components
→ humidification-dehumidification desalination.

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 Index
Low capacity solar thermal desalination technologies

1. Passive solar distillation technologies (Solar Stills)

2. Humidification-dehumidification (H-DH) technologies

Introduction
Typology (different cycles)
Commercial technologies
Advanced systems

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 H-DH technologies: Introduction

The principle of Humidification-Dehumidification (HDH) desalination is

distillation under atmospheric conditions by an air loop saturated with
water vapour.

HDH desalination operates on the principle of

mass diffusion using dry air to evaporate
saline water, thus humidifying the air.

The humidification cycle is established

by a combination of evaporator and
condenser: the airflow is humidified in
the former and dehumidified in the
latter.
Air is circulated by natural or forced
convection.

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 H-DH technologies: Introduction

The HDH processes are based on the fact that air can be mixed with important
quantities of vapor. The vapor carrying capability of air increases with temperature,
i.e., 1 kg of dry air saturated with vapor can carry additional 0.26 kg of water vapor
(about 208 kJ/kg) when its temperature increases from 30°C to 80°C.

Temp. Pressure H of liquid ΔvapH ΔvapW ρ of vapor

0 °C 0.612 kPa 0.00 J/g 2496.5 J/g 126.0 J/g 0.004845 kg/m³
10 °C 1.227 kPa 42.0 J/g 2473.5 J/g 130.5 J/g 0.009398 kg/m³
20 °C 2.536 kPa 83.8 J/g 2450.9 J/g 135.1 J/g 0.01728 kg/m³
30 °C 4.242 kPa 125.6 J/g 2427.9 J/g 139.7 J/g 0.03036 kg/m³
40 °C 7.370 kPa 167.2 J/g 2404.9 J/g 144.2 J/g 0.05107 kg/m³
50 °C 12.33 kPa 209.0 J/g 2381.4 J/g 148.7 J/g 0.08285 kg/m³
60 °C 19.90 kPa 250.8 J/g 2357.6 J/g 153.0 J/g 0.1300 kg/m³
70 °C 31.15 kPa 292.7 J/g 2332.9 J/g 157.3 J/g 0.1979 kg/m³
80 °C 46.12 kPa 334.6 J/g 2307.7 J/g 161.5 J/g 0.2931 kg/m³
90 °C 70.10 kPa 376.6 J/g 2282.6 J/g 165.5 J/g 0.4232 kg/m³
100 °C 101.32 kPa 419.0 J/g 2256.3 J/g 169.4 J/g 0.5974 kg/m³

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 H-DH technologies: Introduction

The humidification cycle is established by a combination of evaporator and

condenser: the airflow is humidified in the former and dehumidified in the latter.
Air is circulated by natural or forced convection.

Airflow extracts vapour from salt

water at the expense of sensible heat.
Freshwater produced by condensing
out the water vapour, which results in
dehumidification of the air.
Condensation occurs in another
exchanger in which salt water is
preheated by latent heat recovery.
An external heat contribution is
necessary to compensate for the
sensible heat loss.
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 Sistemas H-DH: introducción

The HDH units are characterized by great functioning simplicity and flexibility,
ensured by a low number of apparatus.
The principal innovation consists of maintaining a continuous humid air flow
from the evaporator to the condenser.
→ allows operation in small desalination plants with heat recovery
corresponding to a large number of effects.

Processes have been developed over the years and a few units constructed
and tested in different countries. They are classified according to the cycle
configuration.

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H-DH technologies: Introduction

Classification of Humidification-Dehumidification systems

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 H-DH technologies: Typology
Closed Air Open Water
Water heated

2 2

1 1

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 H-DH technologies: Typology
Closed Air Open Water
Water heated
Multi-effect
Continuous T stratification minimizes
the required T gap to keep process
running 2 2

→ higher heat recovery from DH 3

1 1

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 H-DH technologies: Typology
Closed Water Open Air
Water heated

H must cool the water sufficiently to

provide cooling water at DH. 2

If Twater drops below ambient T, can

more productive than open water.

1 3

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 H-DH technologies: Typology
Closed Air Open Water Closed Water Open Air

Water heated

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 H-DH technologies: Typology

Gräf invented the AQUASOLAR

system in 1989.

Based on CWOA cycle.

Incoming cold air provides a

cooling source for the
circulating water before it re-
enters the condenser.

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 H-DH technologies: Typology

Aquasolar system

Pushing the concept of heat recovery, it

is a system with multiple condensation
evaporation cycles.

A collector efficiency of 58% and water

temperature of 65-75°C can produce 6 l/m2d
of condensate, based on 1 m2 collector and
3 m2 condenser surface areas (GOR: 7.24).

Tests in Tunisia with collector efficiency of 46%

produced 12 l/m2d (theoretical 14.3 l/m2d).

Work is being done in Ecole Nationale

d’Ingenieurs de Sfax (Tunisia) since 1990

from Gräf (91)

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 H-DH technologies: Typology
Closed Air Open Water
Air heated

Absolute humidity that can be achieved is

very low (< 6% by weight), which reduces
productivity → multi-stage 3

2 1

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 H-DH technologies: Typology
Closed Air Open Water 7
Air heated
Multi-stage 6

Higher humidity (15%) at lower T (higher

water production but also more energy). 5

2 1

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 H-DH technologies: Typology
Closed Air Open Water Air heated Multi-stage

Chafik (Ruhr Univ. Bochum) developed a stepwise heating/humidifying technique

→ SOLDES Project

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 H-DH technologies: Typology
Closed Air Open Water Air heated Multi-stage

8-stage pilot plant

simulated.
After eighth heating-
humidifying stage,
air humidity approx.
140 g/kg.

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 H-DH technologies: Typology
Closed Air Open Water Air heated Multi-stage

Results (for Tunisia: 590 W/m2 annual solar radiation):

• most efficient water to air mass-flow ratio: R = 45%
• best air mass flow rate: Mair = 790 kg/h
• optimum number of heating-humidifying stages: 5.

Pilot plant in construction at the Institut National de Recherche Scientifique et Technique, Tunisia.

(from Houcine et al., 06)

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 H-DH technologies: Typology

Air-heated systems have higher energy consumption than water-heated systems,

because energy can be recovered from water in the humidifier but not from the air.

Air heated Water heated

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 H-DH technologies: Typology
Closed Air Open Water
Air heated (after humidification)

Condensation occurs at higher

temperature than evaporation (better
2 3
heat recovery)

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 Research in H-DH

Almost all investigators state that the effect of water flowrate on the performance of the unit is
important. The effect of air flowrate on productivity is termed insignificant by almost all authors.

All researchers express a preference for natural convection since air flowrate has an
insignificant effect on unit productivity. However, forced circulation could be feasible with
another cost-effective source of energy such as wind energy. The effect of air flowrate is only
noticeable at temperatures around 50ºC, as reported by Al-Hallaj et al. (98).

Another variable tested was the packing material in the humidifier. Packing material should
generally be of such a size and shape as to provide a high contact surface and a low pressure
drop. The choice of packing material tends to have an effect on the thermal efficiency and
productivity of the unit. Examples include Raschig rings, Berl saddles, Pall rings, Lessing
rings, Prym rings, meshed curtains, wooden slats, wooden shavings, and fleece made of
polypropylene or honey-comb paper as used by some researchers.

Thermal storage and a 24-h operation of the units is required to improve productivity.

An increase in evaporator and condenser surface areas significantly improves productivity.

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Commercial technologies of H-DH

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 Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)

The term “multiple effect” not used in

reference to number of constructed Heat Source ( 75...85°C)
stages but to ratio of heat input to heat
used for distillate production (GOR>1)

Evaporator
Preheated

Condenser
Systems based on MEH (ZAE-Bayern) Hot Sea
Water Sea Water
consist of a compact unit, containing
two heat exchangers, for evaporation
and condensation respectively.

The humid air flows in a circuit driven by

natural convection between condenser and
evaporator (clockwise in Figure). Cold Sea
Evaporator and condenser are located in Water
the same thermally insulated box.

Required energy: low temperature heat at 80°C Brine Disposal Distillate

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 Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)

In the evaporator the hot seawater slowly trickles downwards (vertically hanging
fleeces made of polypropylene).
The air moves in a countercurrent flow and becomes saturated with humidity.
Partial evaporation cools the brine which leaves the evaporation unit concentrated
with higher salt content and a temperature of approximately 45°C.

s hr
vlie lro
Humid, hot air ile
r
H
ül

Hot Sea water r te

Ve

- n
r- m ge
ile ö
r n
Brine r t e ohr sst f nu
f le
Ve r Au ö So

ff
sto
s
ie
Vl
le
So
Dry, cold air
Fleece
Evaporator
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 Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)

The condenser unit is located opposite to the evaporator. Here the saturated air
condenses (on a flat plate heat exchanger made of polypropylene double-webbed
slabs) and the distillate runs down the plates to the collecting basin.

Brine

Air

Distillate

Condenser
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 Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)
One Effect
The heat of condensation is mainly Heat Source ( 75...85°C)
transferred to the cold seawater flowing
upwards inside the flat plate HE.

Evaporator
Preheated

Condenser
Thus temperature of seawater in the Hot Sea
Water Sea Water
condenser rises to about 75°C.

In the next step the seawater is heated to

the evaporator inlet temperature, which is
between 80-90°C.
The implementation of a high temperature
thermal storage tank makes it possible to Cold Sea
Water
keep the temperature range and the volume
flow at the evaporator inlet over 24h at a
certain level. Brine Disposal Distillate

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 Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)

Enthalpie vs Temperature dependency of humid, saturated air

Specific Enthalpy of humid air in kJ/kg

Temperature of humid air in °C

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 Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)
One Effect Supplied Heat

3 2
3
2
Condenser
Evaporator

1 4

1
Temperature of humid air in °C
4
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Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)
Two Effects Supplied Heat

Temperature of humid air in °C

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Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)
Multiple Effects Supplied Heat

Temperature of humid air in °C

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 Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)
Multiple Effects
Closed Air Open Water
Continuous T stratification
minimizes the required T gap to
2 2
keep process running
3
→ higher heat recovery from DH
4
Most energy needed for H 5
regained from DH:
Demand decreased to
1 1
~ 120 kWh/m3

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 Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)

Based on this concept, a pilot plant with direct flow through the collectors
has been working almost without any maintenance or repair for a period of more
than 7 years on the Canary island of Fuerteventura (Müller-Holst et al., 98).
Results for a distillation unit without thermal storage showed that the daily
averaged heat recovery factor (GOR = ratio of heat of evaporation for produced
distillate amount over supplied thermal energy) was between 3 and 4.5.
A similar distillation unit in the laboratory at ZAE Bayern yielded a GOR of more
than 8 at steady-state conditions (the distillation unit comes up very slowly to an
optimum state after standstill periods because of its large heat capacity).
It was shown that a much better performance was possible when the unit was
operated continuously for 24 h.
Based on a collector area of 38 m2, the daily productivity of the optimized
module works out to be about 26 l/m2 of collector area for a 24-h run and with
thermal storage under optimized laboratory conditions.

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Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)

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Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)

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 Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)

Wastewater sent to heat up in a heat exchanger before pumped into the top of a direct-
contact humidifier column. Ambient air enters the bottom of the humidifier. As air rises
through the humidifier, air and water interact resulting in evaporation.
Vapor-air mixture is then sent to the bottom of a multi-stage bubble column dehumidifier
while a closed loop of fresh water is introduced to the top of the chamber. In each stage of the
column, micro-bubbles are created in shallow pools of fresh water and from the surface of
these bubbles condensation occurs producing fresh water.
Heat released in the condensation process is recycled back into the recovery heat exchanger to
minimize energy consumption.
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Multi-effect Humidification (MEH)
• Bubble column (BC) heat exchangers invented at
MIT have extremely high heat and mass transfer
rates as they employ direct contact condensation
of the vapor-gas mixture in a column of shallow
liquid unlike traditional techniques which
condense on a cold surface.
• low pressure-drop designs.
• Multi-staging the uniform temperature column in
several temperature steps leads to high
effectiveness designs (about 90%).

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 Dewvaporation

Heat needed for evaporation is supplied by

the heat released from dew fall condensation
on the opposite side of a common heat
transfer wall at a small temperature
difference, allowing recycling of latent heat in
a highly efficient manner.

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 Dewvaporation

87.9ºC

@ 87ºC 0.26 l/m2.h;

GOR=5.6
@ 68ºC 0.12 l/m2.h;
GOR=10

56.4ºC

Hamieh et al. Desalination 195 (2006) 14-25

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 Advanced systems of H-DH

There are several other forms of the humidification-dehumidification

desalination process where the process is enhanced, adding:
 vapor compression of the humidified air
 humidification combined with desiccant absorption

Also, subatmospheric operation

is an opportunity to improve
performance as humidity ratio
of air is much higher at
pressure lower than
atmospheric

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 H-DH technologies: conclusions

La tecnología H-DH mejora la eficiencia de los sistemas de desalación

descentralizada a pequeña escala.

Ventajas:
• operación y mantenimiento simples (no pre-tratamiento)
Desventajas:
• hay que trabajar con grandes volúmenes de aire

El ciclo Multi-effect Closed-Air Open-Water water-heated cycle es el más

eficiente energéticamente → costes del agua destilada 3-7 $/m3.

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