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Class Notes Transcription and Translation (Gene Expression.txt

Gene expression is the process by which DNA information is used to produce proteins through two main stages: transcription and translation. Transcription synthesizes mRNA from DNA, while translation uses mRNA to create proteins in the ribosome. Regulation of gene expression occurs at various levels, ensuring proteins are produced as needed for cellular functions.

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18 views3 pages

Class Notes Transcription and Translation (Gene Expression.txt

Gene expression is the process by which DNA information is used to produce proteins through two main stages: transcription and translation. Transcription synthesizes mRNA from DNA, while translation uses mRNA to create proteins in the ribosome. Regulation of gene expression occurs at various levels, ensuring proteins are produced as needed for cellular functions.

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krunal.upadhyay
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Class Notes: Transcription and Translation (Gene Expression)

Date: February 20, 2025


Topic: Transcription and Translation: The Process of Gene Expression

I. Overview of Gene Expression


Gene expression refers to the process by which the information encoded in DNA is
used to produce functional proteins. This process involves two main stages:

Transcription – The synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) from a DNA template.


Translation – The synthesis of proteins using the mRNA as a template.
Together, transcription and translation enable cells to produce the vast variety of
proteins needed for life processes.

II. Transcription: From DNA to mRNA


Transcription is the process by which an RNA molecule is synthesized from a DNA
template. The main steps involved are:

Initiation:

The enzyme RNA polymerase binds to a specific region of the DNA called the
promoter.
The DNA strands are unwound, and RNA polymerase begins synthesizing the RNA strand
using one of the DNA strands as a template.
Elongation:

RNA polymerase adds RNA nucleotides complementary to the DNA template strand. RNA
is synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction.
The base pairing follows the rules: Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (U) (not thymine
in RNA), and Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).
Termination:

The RNA polymerase reaches a specific sequence called the terminator, which signals
the end of transcription.
The newly synthesized mRNA is released from the DNA template.
Post-transcriptional Modifications (in eukaryotes):

In eukaryotic cells, the mRNA undergoes several modifications before leaving the
nucleus:
5' capping: A modified guanine nucleotide is added to the 5' end of the mRNA,
protecting it from degradation.
Poly-A tail: A series of adenine nucleotides is added to the 3' end of the mRNA to
stabilize the molecule and facilitate its export from the nucleus.
Splicing: The non-coding regions of mRNA (called introns) are removed, and the
coding regions (called exons) are joined together to form the mature mRNA.
III. Translation: From mRNA to Protein
Translation is the process by which the information carried by mRNA is used to
synthesize proteins. It occurs in the ribosome, which is located in the cytoplasm
or on the rough endoplasmic reticulum. The process involves three main stages:

Initiation:

The mRNA binds to the ribosome at the start codon, which is usually AUG, signaling
the beginning of translation.
The ribosome also recruits the first transfer RNA (tRNA) molecule, which carries
the amino acid methionine (the first amino acid in protein synthesis).
Elongation:

The ribosome moves along the mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction, reading each codon (a
sequence of three nucleotides) on the mRNA.
Each codon specifies a particular amino acid. The corresponding tRNA molecules
bring the appropriate amino acids to the ribosome.
The ribosome catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids,
elongating the polypeptide chain.
Termination:

The process continues until the ribosome reaches a stop codon on the mRNA (e.g.,
UAA, UAG, or UGA).
When a stop codon is encountered, the ribosome releases the completed polypeptide
chain, and the translation process ends.
Post-translational Modifications:

After translation, the polypeptide may undergo modifications such as


phosphorylation, glycosylation, or cleavage, which are necessary for the protein to
become fully functional.
The protein may then fold into its three-dimensional shape, which is essential for
its function.
IV. The Genetic Code: Codons and tRNA
The genetic code is the set of rules that determines how sequences of nucleotides
in mRNA are translated into sequences of amino acids in a protein. Each three-
nucleotide sequence in mRNA, known as a codon, corresponds to one specific amino
acid. There are 64 possible codons, but only 20 amino acids, so some amino acids
are encoded by multiple codons (this is called degeneracy).

For example, the codon AUG codes for methionine, which is the first amino acid in
nearly all proteins.
tRNA molecules are responsible for matching the codons on mRNA with the correct
amino acid. Each tRNA has an anticodon region that is complementary to a specific
mRNA codon.
V. The Role of the Ribosome in Translation
The ribosome is composed of rRNA (ribosomal RNA) and proteins. It has two subunits:

The large subunit: This is where peptide bond formation occurs between amino acids.
The small subunit: This binds to the mRNA and facilitates its movement through the
ribosome during translation.
The ribosome has three binding sites for tRNA:

A site (aminoacyl site): Where the incoming tRNA binds.


P site (peptidyl site): Where the growing polypeptide chain is held.
E site (exit site): Where tRNA exits the ribosome after delivering its amino acid.
VI. Regulation of Gene Expression
Gene expression can be regulated at various levels, ensuring that proteins are
produced only when needed:

Transcriptional Regulation: Proteins called transcription factors can enhance or


inhibit the binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter region of a gene, thus
controlling the rate of transcription.

Post-transcriptional Regulation: The stability of mRNA, its export from the


nucleus, and the processing of introns and exons can influence the amount of mRNA
available for translation.

Translational Regulation: The availability of tRNAs and ribosomal proteins, as well


as the presence of certain molecules that can block or enhance translation, can
regulate how much protein is synthesized.

Post-translational Regulation: Proteins can be modified after translation,


affecting their activity, stability, or localization within the cell.
VII. Conclusion
Gene expression is a tightly regulated process that converts the genetic code in
DNA into functional proteins. Transcription and translation work together to ensure
the accurate production of proteins, which are essential for maintaining the
structure and function of cells. Understanding these processes is fundamental to
molecular biology and has broad implications for fields such as genetics, medicine,
and biotechnology.

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