UNIT 6: RADIOACTIVITY

Radioactivity
1. Alpha (ɑ) particles
This is the process where an unstable nuclide breaks up These are particles which are positively charged helium
to yield another nuclide of different composition with nuclide, He+2. They are represented as 42𝐻𝑒+2 in a
emission of particles and energy. A particular nucleus of nuclear equation. Alpha particles have an electrical of
an atom characterized by its protons and neutrons is 2+. They are the heaviest of all the three radiations.
known as nuclide. A nuclide is represented by its atomic Below are some of other properties of alpha particles
number mass number for example 35 37 -slightly penetrating power
17𝐶𝑙 and 17𝐶𝑙 .
Radioactivity is a nuclear process but not a chemical - They are highly ionizing
reaction. - They are blocked by a thin sheet of
paper.
Radioactive 2. Beta (ᵝ) particles
This is the substance that undergo radioactivity
These are negatively charged radiations. They are
Radioisotopes: these are isotopes which are radio active
represented by −10𝑒. They are therefore electrons which
originate from within the nucleus and not from the
Radioactive decay outer energy levels. They are formed when a neutron
changes to proton within the nucleus. The -1 is not an
This is the spontaneous disintegration of radioactive atomic number but a charge on the particles.
nuclides Therefore, beta particles have an electrical charge of -1.
Half-life: this is the time required for any amount of a Below are some other properties of beta particles
radioactive element to decay to half the original - They have a moderate penetrating
amount. These periods of time are equal but the power
amount decaying in each period keeps decreasing. - They are slightly ionizing
- They are blocked by a thin sheet of
Types of radioactivity aluminum foil.

There are two types of radioactivity namely natural and 3. Gamma rays (ɣ) particles
artificial radioactivity
Natural radioactive occurs when radioactive nuclide These are high energy rays. They do not have an
split spontaneously yielding a new nuclide with the electrical charge. They are not emitted on their own but
emission of radiation and energy. For example uranium normally accompany the emission of alpha and beta
-238 undergoes natural radioactive decay to form particles. Below are other properties of gamma rays
thorium -234 and some energy and particles. - They have a high penetrating power
Artificial radioactivity occurs when large stable nuclides - They are only blocked by thick lead
are bombarded with fast moving high energy particles. block
In this process, the nuclides split into relatively smaller
nuclei with emission of radiation and energy. Applications of half-life (t ½)

Types of radiations The periods of time are equal but the amounts decaying
in each period keeps decreasing. For example, if the
half-life of a radioactive element is 10 days, the same
When radioactive nuclide disintegrates, it emits
period is required for 1 g to decay to 0.5g, 0.5g to 0.25g
radiations namely alpha (ɑ) particles, beta (ᵝ) particles
and so on, since half-life is a time taken by a
and gamma (ɣ) rays
nuclide/radioactive nuclide to decay to half the original
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amount. Therefore half-life is constant. It is i) During beta emission, a neutron spontaneously
independent of the initial concentration or the amount changes into proton and emits electrons
of the reactants. 1 1 0
0𝑛 → 1𝑃 + −1𝑒

Examples The positive charge increases in the process.

01 A radioactive substance gave a corrected count of ii) The mass of the particles emitted is negligible for
240. After 6 hours, it gave a corrected count of 30. examples
Calculate its half- life 14 14 0
6𝐶 → 7𝑁 + −1𝑒
Solution
Let the half-life be x Generally, during th emission of beta particles. The
240 120 60 30 equation below valids
X X X
𝐴 𝐴 0
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 + −1𝑒
X + X + X = 6 hours
3X =6hours c) Gamma rays
X= 2hours
Therefore, half- life= 2 hours. Gamma rays do not change the atomic or the mass
number of the element decaying. Ganerally , when an
element ndergoes decay with the emission of gamma
Nuclear equations rays, the equation below follows
Gamma rays
𝐴 𝐴
When a radioactive element emits radiations, a new 𝑍 𝑋 → 𝑍𝑌
element is formed, just as we have chemical equations
in chemical reactions, we can also have equations Gamma rays are produced when the remaining particles
involving nuclear reaction, this equations involving reorganises themselves into more stable arrangements.
nuclear reaction is called nuclear equation. Let us Because of having no effects on the atomic number and
consider the following examples mass number of the decaying nuclide, gamma rays are
not always shown in the nuclear equation. For example.
a) Alpha particles.
235 235
In the alpha particles, the mass number changes by 4 92𝑈 → 92𝑈 + ɣ- Rays (energy)
and the atomic number changes by 2. This is possible
during decay as we say that the alpha particles are Gamma rays are emitted in form of energy and usually a
represented as 42𝐻𝑒 +2 e.g. Polonium – undergoes decay company other radioactive emissions e.g
to emit alpha particles forming lead-203 as shown in the
equation
236
92𝑈 → 141
56𝐵𝑎 +
92
36𝐾𝑟 + 3 10𝑛 + energy

207 203 4 +2
84𝑃𝑜 → 82𝑃𝑏 + 2𝐻𝑒
Radioactive decay series.
Generally, when a substance undergoes decay and
emits alpha particles, the equation below applies As a radioactive nuclide decays, a new nuclide is
formed. If the product is radioactive it also decays to
𝐴 𝐴−4 4 +2
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝐻𝑒 give another product. This continues until a stable
nuclide is formed. This process consistutes a radioactive
The element X undergoes decay forming element Y with decays series. For a particular radioactive nuclide.
emission of alpha particles. Therefore, radioactive decay series is the sequential and
continuoua disintegration of unstable nuclide until a
b) Beta particles stable nuclide is formed. For example, starting with
when a beta particle is emitted during decay, the Thorium- 232, the following series is obtained.
atomic number increases by 1 and the mass number
remains constant. This is because :

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 The sum of the mass numbers and atomic numbers of
the products equal the sum of mass numbers and
atomic numbers of the reactants.

Similarity of nuclear fusion and nuclear fission

01. In both cases, a large quantity of energy is released.
02. Both process result in chain reaction.
03. In both cases, the sub-atomic particles such as
neutrons a company the process
04. The energy released can be harnessed and
converted into other forms of useful energy such as
electrical energy.
05. The large amount of energy produced in both
Nuclear fission reactions can be very destructive when missile such as
nuclear warfare.
The radioactivity studied so for covers radioactive
nuclide that split naturally. However, radioactivity can
Difference between nuclear reaction and chemical
be initiated by bombarding a heavy nuclide with the fast
reaction
moving particles such as neutron.
Nuclear fission is the splitting process a heavy nuclide
01. Chemical reactions involve valency (outer energy
undergoes when bombarded by fast moving neutrons.
level) electrons in an atom which nuclear reactions
The large unstable nuclide absorbs a neutron and
involve the nucleus (protons and neutrons) of an atom
immediately splits up into two approximately equal
02. Rate of reaction is dependent on the external
fragments together with a number of smaller particles
factors such as pressure, concentration, temperature
as neutron. During this process, much energy is
and purity of the substance in chemical reactions which
liberated.
in nuclear reactions, rate of reaction is independent of
external factors or purity of the substance.
235
92𝑈 + 1
0𝑛 →141
56𝐵𝑎 +
92
36𝐾𝑟 + 1
0𝑛 + energy 03. In chemical reactions, no new elements are formed
while in nuclear reactions, new elements are formed.
The mass of the products added together equal the 04. During chemical reactions, little amount of energy
mass of the original nuclide plus the mass of the are either released or consumed. While in nuclear
neutron. The three neutrons produce further bombard reactions large amounts of energy are released.
more nuclides and more neutrons are formed. This 05. In chemical reactions, there is no change in mass of
results in a chain reaction. reacting substances while in nuclear reactions there is
change in mass of reacting substances.
Nuclear fusion 06. In chemical reactions, some changes are reversible
while in nuclear reactions, changes are irreversible.
This is a process in which two light atomic nuclei join
(fuse) together to form a heavy nucleus, this occurs Uses of radioisotope
when the nuclei are made to collide at high velocity.
The process is a companied by the liberation of large 01. Carbon dating
quantity of energy. Some sub-atomic particles like
neutron are also released during nuclear fusion. The When an organism decays, the decay of carbon-14
energy released after fusion causes other nuclide to decrease at a steady rate. The age of the objects made
collide and a chain reaction occurs. For example of wood or other carbon containing materials or fossils
can be estimated by measuring the activity of
𝟑 𝟐
𝟏𝑯 + 𝟏𝑯 → 𝟒𝟐𝑯𝒆 + 𝟏
𝟎𝒏 + energy radioactive carbon-14 in them. The half-life of carbon-
14 is 5600 years based on rate of radioactivity
measured, the backwards based on this half-life.

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Uranium-238 is also used by geologists to determine the skin into the germinal layer when new skin cells are
age of rocks. usually produced. This interferes with the process of
production of new skin cells. They are harmful if
02. Medicines inhaled, swallowed or absorbed through the open
wounds.
Cobalt-60 is used in the treatment of cancer. Gamma
rays from cobalt-60 are used to destroy malignant cells 03. Gamma rays
in cancer patients. Iodine-131 is used to treat cancer of
the thyroid glands. Gamma radiations are able to penetrate into human
tissues. They readily penetrate most materials and are
03. Industry sometimes called penetrating radiation. When they do
this, they cause damage to body tissues and organs and
Surgical instruments and bandages can be sterilized can also lead to mutations which can cause permanent
after packing by exposing them briefly to radiations e.g. change of the body structure of both plants and
ɣ - rays. Alpha particles are used during the animals.
manufacture of plastics and paper to check the
thickness of the material by measuring the amounts of Protection against radiations
radiations which penetrate them.
1. Do not handle any radioactive material
unnecessarily
2. Use the correct handling equipment e.g. Tongs
04. Agriculture. 3. If you work with radioactive substances, do not
go near them unnecessarily
Radioisotopes can be used in studying the uptake of 4. Work for a short period of time if you are near
plant nutrients from the soil and fertilizers used e.g. the radioactive
phosphoras-32. Agricultural products and food stuffs 5. Use shields to protect you when working with
can be preserved by exposing them to radiations. radioactive substance.
Microorganisms that can spoil them are killed by
gamma rays.

05. Determining reaction mechanisms.

Radioisotopes are used in chemistry to determine the

mechanism of a reaction by determining the bonds that
are broken.

Dangers of radioactivity

01. Dangers from alpha particles radiations.

Alpha radiation is not able to penetrate human skin.

However, materials emitting alpha particles can be
harmful to humans if the materials are inhaled,
swallowed or absorbed through open wounds. They
cause damage to cells and body organs.

02. Dangers from Beta particles radiation

They cause skin injury if high levels of Beta emitting

contaminants are allowed to remain on the skin for a
prolonged period of time. They penetrate the human
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By: Gai Samuel Pandak Deng, Tel: 0925599881/0916974881.