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OCR A Level Biology Your notes

2.1 Cell Structure

Contents
2.1.1 Studying Cells
2.1.2 Using a Microscope
2.1.3 Drawing Cells
2.1.4 Magnification & Resolution
2.1.5 Eukaryotic Cells
2.1.6 Eukaryotic Cells Under the Microscope
2.1.7 Organelles & the Production of Proteins
2.1.8 The Cytoskeleton
2.1.9 Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

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2.1.1 Studying Cells

Your notes
Use of microscopy
Microscopes can be used to observe and investigate cell structure
Different types of microscope can be used to study cells at different levels of detail, e.g.
light microscopes
electron microscopes
The images generated by the different types of microscope differ significantly

Light microscopes
Light, or optical, microscopes use light to form an image
The maximum resolution of a light microscope is around 0.2 micrometres (µm), meaning that the
maximum useful magnification of optical microscopes is about ×1500
Light microscopes can only be used to observe larger structures, e.g.:
entire cells
nuclei
mitochondria and chloroplasts
While light microscopes have limited resolution, they do have advantages, such as:
they are small and relatively cheap
specimen preparation can be straightforward enough to perform in a school laboratory
they can be used to produce colour images
they allow the observation of living specimens
Light microscope image

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Light microscope images allow the observation of cell shape, as well as larger internal structures, e.g,
here chloroplasts can be seen within a series of plant cells
Your notes
Kelvinsong, via Wikimedia Commons
Electron microscopes
Electron microscopes use electrons to form an image
Electron microscopes have a maximum resolution of around 0.0002 µm, or 0.2 nm, and a maximum
magnification that range from around ×1,000,000 up to many millions
Electron microscopes can be used to observe small structures inside cells, such as:
cell membranes
ribosomes
the endoplasmic reticulum
lysosomes
While electron microscopes are essential tools in the study of cell biology, they do have some
limitations
They are very large and expensive
Specimens must be prepared using a highly complex process
Specimens must be viewed in a vacuum, meaning that live specimens cannot be observed
Images are always black and white, though they can be artificially coloured during processing
There are two types of electron microscope:
transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)
scanning electron microscopes (SEMs)
Transmission electron microscopes
TEMs use electromagnets to transmit a beam of electrons through a specimen; denser parts of the
specimen absorb more electrons, meaning that denser parts appear darker on the final image
TEMs produce images that:
are high-resolution
allow the internal structures within cells, and within organelles to be seen
are two-dimensional
TEM image

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Your notes

TEM images allow the internal structures within cells and organelles to be studied
Klingm01, via Wikimedia Commons
Scanning electron microscopes
SEMs pass a beam of electrons across the surface of a specimen and then detect the rate at which the
electrons bounce back
This means that SEMs produce images that:
are three-dimensional
show the surface of specimens
SEMs have a lower maximum resolution than TEMs
SEM image

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Your notes

SEM images are three-dimensional and show the surface of objects, e.g. here E. coli bacteria can be
seen
NIAID, via Flickr

Examiner Tip
In an exam you could be shown an image and asked to identify the microscope used to produce it, so
make sure that you understand the differences between the images produced by the different types
of microscope.

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2.1.2 Using a Microscope

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Preparation of Microscope Slides
Many biological structures are too small to be seen by the naked eye
Optical microscopes are an invaluable tool for scientists as they allow for tissues, cells and organelles
to be seen and studied
For example, the movement of chromosomes during mitosis can be observed using a microscope
How optical microscopes work
Light is directed through the thin layer of biological material that is supported on a glass slide
This light is focused through several lenses so that an image is visible through the eyepiece
The magnifying power of the microscope can be increased by rotating the higher power objective lens
into place
Apparatus
The key components of an optical microscope are:
The eyepiece lens
The objective lenses
The stage
The light source
The coarse and fine focus
Other tools used:
Forceps
Scissors
Scalpel
Coverslip
Slides
Pipette
Staining solution

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Your notes

Image showing all the components of an optical microscope

Method
Preparing a slide using a liquid specimen:
Add a few drops of the sample to the slide using a pipette
Cover the liquid/smear with a coverslip and gently press down to remove air bubbles
Wear gloves to ensure there is no cross-contamination of foreign cells
Methods of preparing a microscope slide using a solid specimen:
Take care when using sharp objects and wear gloves to prevent the stain from dying your skin
Use scissors to cut a small sample of the tissue
Peel away or cut a very thin layer of cells from the tissue sample to be placed on the slide (using a
scalpel or forceps)
The tissue needs to be thin so that the light from the microscope can pass through
Apply a stain
Gently place a coverslip on top and press down to remove any air bubbles
Or
Some tissue samples need to be treated with chemicals to kill/make the tissue rigid

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This involves fixing the specimen using formaldehyde (preservative), dehydrating it using a series
of ethanol solutions, impregnating it in paraffin/resin for support then cutting thin slices from the
specimen using a microtome Your notes
The paraffin is removed from the slices/specimen, a stain is applied and the specimen is mounted
using a resin and a coverslip is applied
Or
Freeze the specimen in carbon dioxide or liquid nitrogen
Cut the specimen into thin slices using a cryostat
Place the specimen on the slide and add a stain
Gently place a coverslip on top and press down to remove any air bubbles
When using an optical microscope always start with the low power objective lens:
It is easier to find what you are looking for in the field of view
This helps to prevent damage to the lens or coverslip in case the stage has been raised too high
Preventing the dehydration of tissue:
The thin layers of material placed on slides can dry up rapidly
Adding a drop of water to the specimen (beneath the coverslip) can prevent the cells from being
damaged by dehydration
Unclear or blurry images:
Switch to the lower power objective lens and try using the coarse focus to get a clearer image
Consider whether the specimen sample is thin enough for light to pass through to see the
structures clearly
There could be cross-contamination with foreign cells or bodies
Using a graticule to take measurements of cells:
A graticule is a small disc that has an engraved ruler
It can be placed into the eyepiece of a microscope to act as a ruler in the field of view
As a graticule has no fixed units it must be calibrated for the objective lens that is in use. This is
done by using a scale engraved on a microscope slide (a stage micrometer)
By using the two scales together the number of micrometers each graticule unit is worth can be
worked out
After this is known the graticule can be used as a ruler in the field of view

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Your notes

The stage micrometer scale is used to find out how many micrometers each graticule unit represents
Limitations
The size of cells or structures of tissues may appear inconsistent in different specimen slides
Cell structures are 3D and the different tissue samples will have been cut at different planes
resulting in this inconsistencies when viewed on a 2D slide
Optical microscopes do not have the same magnification power as other types of microscopes and so
there are some structures that can not be seen
The treatment of specimens when preparing slides could alter the structure of cells

Examiner Tip
Remember the importance of calibration when using a graticule. If it is not calibrated then the
measurements taken will be completely arbitrary!

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Staining in Light Microscopy

Many tissues that are used in microscopy are naturally transparent, they let both light and electrons Your notes
pass through them
This makes it very difficult to see any detail in the tissue when using a microscope
Stains are often used to make the tissue coloured/visible
Staining for light microscopy
Coloured dyes are used when staining specimens
The dyes used absorb specific colours of light while reflecting others; this makes the structures
within the specimen that have absorbed the dye visible
Certain tissues absorb certain dyes, which dye they absorb depends on their chemical nature
Specimens or sections are sometimes stained with multiple dyes to ensure the different tissues within
the specimen show up - this is known as differential staining
It is important to remember that most of the colours seen in photomicrographs (image taken using a
light microscope) are not natural
Chloroplasts don't need stains as they show up green, which is their natural colour
Toluidine blue and phloroglucinol are common stains used
Toluidine blue turns cells blue
Phloroglucinol turns cells red/pink

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Your notes

Toluidine blue and phloroglucinol have been used to stain this tissue specimen taken from a leaf
Staining for electron microscopy
When using Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs) the specimen must be stained in order to
absorb the electrons
Unlike light, electrons have no colour
The dyes used for staining cause the tissues to show up black or different shades of grey
Heavy-metal compounds are commonly used as dyes because they absorb electrons well
Osmium tetroxide and ruthenium tetroxide are examples
Any of the colour present in electron micrographs is not natural and it is also not a result of the staining
Colours are added to the image using an image-processing software

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Your notes

The internal structure of the mitochondrion can be seen using a TEM and staining

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A spiracle found on the exoskeleton of an insect. No colours have been added to this image using
image-processing software.
Your notes

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2.1.3 Drawing Cells

Your notes
Drawing Cells
To record the observations seen under the microscope (or from photomicrographs taken) a labelled
biological drawing is often made
Biological drawings are line pictures which show specific features that have been observed when the
specimen was viewed
There are a number of rules/conventions that are followed when making a biological drawing
Guidelines for microscope drawings
The conventions are:
The drawing must have a title
The magnification under which the observations shown by the drawing are made must be
recorded
A sharp HB pencil should be used (and a good eraser!)
Drawings should be on plain white paper
Lines should be clear, single lines (no thick shading)
No shading
The drawing should take up as much of the space on the page as possible
Well-defined structures should be drawn
The drawing should be made with proper proportions
Label lines should not cross or have arrowheads and should connect directly to the part of the
drawing being labelled
Label lines should be kept to one side of the drawing (in parallel to the top of the page) and drawn
with a ruler
Drawings of cells are typically made when visualizing cells at a higher magnification power, whereas
plan drawings are typically made of tissues viewed under lower magnifications (individual cells are
never drawn in a plan diagram)

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Your notes

An example of a tissue plan drawn from a low-power image of a transverse section of a root. There is no
cell detail present.

An example of a cellular drawing taken from a high-power image of phloem tissue.

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Examiner Tip
Your notes
When producing a biological drawing, it is vital that you only ever draw what you see and not what you
think you see.To accurately reflect the size and proportions of structures you see under the
microscope, you should get used to using the eyepiece graticule.You should be able to describe and
interpret photomicrographs, electron micrographs and drawings of typical animal cells.

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2.1.4 Magnification & Resolution

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Magnification formula
The magnification of an object can be calculated using the formula:
magnification = size of image ÷ size of real object
The magnification formula can be rearranged to allow the calculation of:
magnification (m)
size of image (i)
size of real object, often referred to as actual size (a)
Magnification equation triangle

An equation triangle allows the magnification formula to be rearranged easily

Converting units during magnification calculations
Different units of measurement are used to measure different objects:
The actual size of cells is typically measured using the micrometre (μm) scale
Internal cellular structures are sometimes measured in nanometers (nm)
The size of images is usually measured in centimetres (cm) or millimetres (mm)
Units of measurement relate to each other as follows:
1000 nm = 1 µm
1000 µm = 1 mm
1000 mm = 1 m
10 mm = 1 cm
When carrying out magnification calculations it is essential that all measurements have the same units,
so unit conversions are often required
Units can be converted by multiplying or dividing by the relevant factor
Converting larger units to smaller units = multiply
Converting smaller units to larger units = divide
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Note that magnification does not have units

Converting units diagram Your notes

Units of measurement can be converted by multiplying or dividing by the relevant factor

Worked example
An image of an animal cell is 30 mm in size and it has been magnified by a factor of ×3000.
What is the actual size of the cell?

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Worked example
Your notes

Step 1: Convert all units to µm

1 mm = 1000 µm, so converting mm to µm involves multiplying by 1000
50 × 1000 = 50 000
The actual thickness of the leaf is 2000 µm and the image size is 50 000 µm
Step 2: Calculate magnification using the formula
magnification = image size ÷ actual size
= 50 000 / 2000
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= 25
So the magnification is ×25 Your notes

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Magnification & Resolution

Magnification Your notes
Magnification can be defined as:
The number of times larger an image is than the actual object
The ability of a microscope to magnify an object depends on the type of microscope, and on the
features of the microscope itself
E.g. for a light microscope the magnification can be calculated by multiplying together the
magnification of the eyepiece lens and the objective lens

Resolution
Resolution can be defined as:
The ability to distinguish separate points on an image as two separate objects
The higher the resolution, the shorter the distance at which the two objects can be clearly
distinguished
The ability of a microscope to resolve two objects as separate points is dependent on the method of
image generation:
Light microscopes: the resolution is limited by the wavelength of light
As light passes close to physical structures it is diffracted, meaning that light waves spread
out
The closer the structures are to each other, the more the light waves overlap each other as
they are diffracted
Points that are closer together than half the wavelength of visible light cannot be clearly
distinguished from each other
Electron microscopes: the resolution is much higher because electrons have a smaller
wavelength than visible light
The objects past which the electrons travel can therefore be much closer together before the
diffracted beams overlap
Resolution diagram

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Your notes

The resolving power of an electron microscope is much greater than that of a light microscope; this is
because electrons have a smaller wavelength than visible light
Comparing light and electron microscopes
Light microscopes:
have a maximum resolution of 200 nm
have a maximum useful magnification of around ×1500-2000
can be used for viewing living or dead specimens
are useful for looking at whole cells, small organisms and tissues within organs such as in leaves or
skin
Electron microscopes:
have a maximum resolution of 0.5 nm (TEM) or 3-10 nm (SEM)
are capable of generating images with a magnification of more than ×500 000
TEMs are capable of higher magnification than SEMs due to their higher resolution
can only be used for viewing dead specimens
are useful for looking at organelles and viruses, as well as looking at whole cells in more detail
Light and electron microscopes comparison table

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Your notes

Examiner Tip
You do not need to be able to recall the exact numbers for resolution and magnification in different
types of microscope, but you must have an appreciation of how the values differ between light
microscopes, TEMs and SEMs.

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2.1.5 Eukaryotic Cells

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Eukaryotic Cell Structure
Cell surface membrane

The structure of the cell surface membrane – although the structure looks static the phospholipids and
proteins forming the bilayer are constantly in motion
All cells are surrounded by a cell surface membrane which controls the exchange of materials between
the internal cell environment and the external environment
The membrane is described as being ‘partially permeable’
The cell membrane is formed from a phospholipid bilayer of phospholipids spanning a diameter of
around 10 nm
Cell wall

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Your notes

The cell wall is freely permeable to most substances (unlike the plasma membrane)
Found in plant cells but not in animal cells
Cell walls are formed outside of the cell membrane and offer structural support to cell
Structural support is provided by the polysaccharide cellulose in plants, and peptidoglycan in most
bacterial cells
Narrow threads of cytoplasm (surrounded by a cell membrane) called plasmodesmata connect the
cytoplasm of neighbouring plant cells
Nucleus

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Your notes

The nucleus of a cell contains chromatin (a complex of DNA and histone proteins) which is the genetic
material of the cell
Present in all eukaryotic cells (except red blood cells), the nucleus is relatively large and separated
from the cytoplasm by a double membrane (the nuclear envelope) which has many pores
Nuclear pores are important channels for allowing mRNA and ribosomes to travel out of the nucleus, as
well as allowing enzymes (eg. DNA polymerases) and signalling molecules to travel in
The nucleus contains chromatin (the material from which chromosomes are made)
Chromosomes are made of sections of linear DNA tightly wound around proteins called histones
Usually, at least one or more darkly stained regions can be observed – these regions are individually
termed ‘nucleolus’ (plural: nucleoli) and are the sites of ribosome production
Mitochondria

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Your notes

A single mitochondrion is shown – the inner membrane has protein complexes vital for the later stages
of aerobic respiration embedded within it
The site of aerobic respiration within all eukaryotic cells, mitochondria are just visible with a light
microscope
Surrounded by double-membrane with the inner membrane folded to form cristae
The matrix formed by the cristae contains enzymes needed for aerobic respiration, producing ATP
Small circular pieces of DNA (mitochondrial DNA) and ribosomes are also found in the matrix (needed
for replication)
Chloroplasts

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Your notes

Chloroplasts are found in the green parts of a plant – the green colour a result of the photosynthetic
pigment chlorophyll
Found in plant cells
Larger than mitochondria, also surrounded by a double-membrane
Membrane-bound compartments called thylakoids containing chlorophyll stack to form structures
called grana
Grana are joined together by lamellae (thin and flat thylakoid membranes)
Chloroplasts are the site of photosynthesis:
The light-dependent stage takes place in the thylakoids
The light-independent stage (Calvin Cycle) takes place in the stroma
Also contain small circular pieces of DNA and ribosomes used to synthesise proteins needed in
chloroplast replication and photosynthesis
Ribosomes

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Your notes

Ribosomes are formed in the nucleolus and are composed of almost equal amounts of RNA and protein
Found in all cells
Found freely in the cytoplasm of all cells or as part of the rough endoplasmic reticulum in eukaryotic
cells
Each ribosome is a complex of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and proteins
80S ribosomes (composed of 60S and 40S subunits) are found in eukaryotic cells
70S ribosomes (composed of 50S and 30S subunits) in prokaryotes, mitochondria and chloroplasts
Site of translation (protein synthesis)
Endoplasmic reticulum

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Your notes

The RER and ER are visible under the electron microscope - the presence or absence of ribosomes helps
to distinguish between them
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
Found in plant and animal cells
Surface covered in ribosomes
Formed from continuous folds of membrane continuous with the nuclear envelope
Processes proteins made by the ribosomes
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Found in plant and animal cells
Does not have ribosomes on the surface, its function is distinct to the RER
Involved in the production, processing and storage of lipids, carbohydrates and steroids
Golgi apparatus (golgi complex)

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Your notes

The structure of the Golgi apparatus

Found in plant and animal cells
Flattened sacs of membrane similar to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Modifies proteins and lipids before packaging them into Golgi vesicles
The vesicles then transport the proteins and lipids to their required destination
Proteins that go through the Golgi apparatus are usually exported (e.g. hormones such as insulin),
put into lysosomes (such as hydrolytic enzymes) or delivered to membrane-bound organelles
Large permanent vacuoles

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Your notes

The structure of the vacuole

A sac in plant cells surrounded by the tonoplast, selectively permeable membrane
Vacuoles in animal cells are not permanent and small
Vesicles

The structure of the vesicle

Found in plant and animal cells
A membrane-bound sac for transport and storage
Lysosomes

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Your notes

The structure of the lysosome

Specialist forms of vesicles which contain hydrolytic enzymes (enzymes that break biological
molecules down)
Break down waste materials such as worn-out organelles
Used extensively by cells of the immune system and in apoptosis (programmed cell death)
Centrioles

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Your notes

The structure of the centriole

Hollow fibres made of microtubules
Two centrioles at right angles to each other form a centrosome, which organises the spindle fibres
during cell division
Not found in flowering plants and fungi
Microtubules

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Your notes

The structure of the microtubule

Found in all eukaryotic cells
Makes up the cytoskeleton of the cell about 25 nm in diameter
Made of α and β tubulin combined to form dimers, the dimers are then joined into protofilaments
Thirteen protofilaments in a cylinder make a microtubule
The cytoskeleton is used to provide support and movement of the cell
Microvilli

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Your notes

The structure of the microvilli

Found in specialised animal cells
Cell membrane projections
Used to increase the surface area of the cell surface membrane in order to increase the rate of
exchange of substances
Cilia

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Your notes

The structure of the cilia

Hair-like projections made from microtubules
Allows the movement of substances over the cell surface
Flagella

The structure of the flagella

Found in specialised cells
Similar in structure to cilia, made of longer microtubules
Contract to provide cell movement for example in sperm cells

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2.1.6 Eukaryotic Cells Under the Microscope

Your notes
Photomicrographs of Eukaryotic Cells
There are some features or structures that can help to identify whether a cell shown in an image is a
plant cell or animal cell
Structures found only in animal cells: centrioles and microvilli
Structures found only in plant cells: the cellulose cell wall, large permanent vacuoles and
chloroplasts

The ultrastructure of an animal cell shows a densely packed cell – the ER and RER and ribosomes form
extensive networks throughout the cell in reality.

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Your notes

Plant cells have a larger, more regular structure in comparison to animal cells.
Describing and interpreting photomicrographs, electron micrographs and drawings of typical
animal/plant cells is an important skill
The organelles and structures within cells have a characteristic shape and size which can be helpful
when having to identify and label them in an exam

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Your notes

TEM electron micrograph of an animal cell showing key features. Notice the lack of a cell wall.

TEM electron micrograph of a plant cell showing key features. Notice the presence of a cell wall and
vacuole.

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More detailed structures can be seen and identified in electron micrographs compared to
photomicrographs
This is because electron microscopes have greater maximum magnification and resolution than light Your notes
(optical) microscopes

Mucus producing goblet cells (found in the lining of trachea, bronchi and larger bronchioles) are shown
in a photomicrograph

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Your notes

Details of the structures inside the goblet cell can be seen in an electron micrograph

Examiner Tip
Make sure to learn the key identifying features of animal cells vs plant cells! It might also help to
familiarise yourself with the shapes and sizes of important structures and organelles found in cells by
finding some more photomicrographs and electron micrographs.

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2.1.7 Organelles & the Production of Proteins

Your notes
Organelles & the production of proteins
Inside cells multiple organelles are involved in the production and secretion of proteins
Organelles involved in protein production, and their roles, include:
nucleus
DNA is stored
The nucleolus manufactures ribosomes
Transcription occurs, during which an mRNA copy of DNA is produced
ribosomes
mRNA leaves the nucleus and attaches to a ribosome
Translation occurs, during which a chain of amino acids is produced; this chain is known as a
polypeptide
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Many ribosomes are attached to the surface of this organelle
After translation the polypeptides are folded and processed to produce proteins
Golgi apparatus
Proteins are modified and prepared for secretion
vesicles
Proteins are transported from the RER to the Golgi apparatus, and from the Golgi apparatus
to the cell surface membrane inside vesicles
Vesicles fuse with the cell surface membrane to secrete proteins, e.g. hormones, from the cell
by exocytosis
Cells that produce many proteins, e.g. within hormone-producing glands, or in the enzyme-producing
cells of the digestive system, will have many of the organelles that are involved with protein production
Organelles in protein production diagram

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Multiple cellular structures are involved in the production and secretion of proteins

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2.1.8 The Cytoskeleton

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The Cytoskeleton
Within the cytoplasm of cells, there is an extensive network of protein fibres
This is known as the cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is made up of two main types of protein fibres: microfilaments and microtubules
Microfilaments are solid strands that are mostly made of the protein actin. These fibres can cause
some cell movement and the movement of some organelles within cells by moving against each
other
Microtubules are tubular (hollow) strands that are mostly made of the protein tubulin. Organelles
and other cell contents are moved along these fibres using ATP to drive this movement
Intermediate filaments (a third type of fibre) are also found within the cytoskeleton
The importance of the cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is important as it has several different functions, including:
Strengthening and support:
The cytoskeleton provides the cell with mechanical strength, forming a kind of 'scaffolding' that
helps to maintain the shape of the cell
It also supports the organelles, keeping them in position
Intracellular (within cell) movement:
The cytoskeleton aids transport within cells by forming 'tracks' along which organelles can move
Examples of this include the movement of vesicles and the movement of chromosomes to
opposite ends of a cell during cell division
Cellular movement:
The cytoskeleton enables cell movement via cilia and flagella
These structures are both hair-like extensions that protrude from the cell surface and contain
microtubules that are responsible for moving them

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The cytoskeleton provides mechanical strength to cells, aids transport within cells and enables cell
movement

Examiner Tip
For the exam, you only need to be aware of the two main types of protein fibres within the
cytoskeleton: microfilaments and microtubules. The third type (intermediate filaments) are shown here
to give extra detail on the composition of the cytoskeleton.

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2.1.9 Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells

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Comparison of Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells
Animal and plant cells are types of eukaryotic cells, whereas bacteria are a type of prokaryote
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells (between 100 - 1000 times smaller)
Prokaryotic cells also differ from eukaryotic cells in having:
A cytoplasm that lacks membrane-bound organelles
Their ribosomes are structurally smaller (70 S) in comparison to those found in eukaryotic cells (80
S)
No nucleus (instead they have a single circular DNA molecule that is free in the cytoplasm and is
not associated with proteins)
A cell wall that contains murein (a glycoprotein)
In addition, many prokaryotic cells have a few other structures that differentiate them from others and
act as a selective advantage, examples of these are:
Plasmids
Capsules
Flagellum
Plasmids are small loops of DNA that are separate from the main circular DNA molecule
Plasmids contain genes that can be passed between prokaryotes (e.g. genes for antibiotic
resistance)
Some prokaryotes (e.g. bacteria) are surrounded by a final outer layer known as a capsule. This is
sometimes called the slime capsule
It helps to protect bacteria from drying out and from attack by cells of the immune system of the
host organism
Flagellum (plural = flagella) are long, tail-like structure that rotate, enabling the prokaryote to move (a
bit like a propeller)
Some prokaryotes have more than one
Structures unique to prokaryotic cells

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Prokaryotic cells are often described as being ‘simpler’ than eukaryotic cells, and they are believed to
have emerged as the first living organisms on Earth.
There are a number of important structural and physiological differences between prokaryotic and
eukaryotic cells
These differences affect their metabolic processes and how they reproduce
Prokaryotic & Eukaryotic Cells Comparison Table

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Examiner Tip
You will need to know all the differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Remember - the
features in the table above are not present in all prokaryotes so keep this in mind when answering exam
questions. Also, size is not a structural feature so if you are asked for a structural difference between a
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell don't include size in your answer.

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