ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS –

Fundamentals of Sound and

Room Acoustics
Lecture by Ar. Edwin YL Chan

ARCHITECTURE and the ENVIRONMENT – ARC 60504

 LECTURE CONTENTS
1. Nature of Sound
What is Sound, Wave motion, Sound wave motion, Compression and
Rarefaction, the Human Ear

2. Properties of Sound
Velocity of sound, Frequency , Wavelength, Quality of Sound, Resonance,
Sound power, Sound Intensity, Sound Pressure, Threshold levels, Decibels,
Measurements and Calculations, Sound Level Meter

3. Propagation of Sound
Geometric spreading, Sound Reflection, Sound Refraction, Sound
Defraction, Sound Diffraction, Sound Attenuation,

4. Room Acoustics
General Principles, Theory of Sound Path in a room, Reverberation Time ,
Types of Auditoria and their usage, Shapes and Volume
 NATURE OF SOUND
What is Sound Sound can be described as :

• A vibrational energy or fluctuation in pressure or mechanical wave

motion, causing particle displacement in an elastic medium such as
solid, liquid or gas spreading outwards from the source of the sound
(objective sound); or

• Auditory Sensation produced by rapid fluctuations of air pressure

affecting the ear mechanism (subjective sound).

Sound - the propagation of longitudinal waves through

an elastic medium or matter (solid, liquid, or gas)
 NATURE OF SOUND
Wave Motion
There are two types of waves – Transverse waves and
Longitudinal waves
• In a transverse wave Particles vibrate at a right angle to the
direction of travel of the wave - eg ripple in pond, EM waves

• In a longitudinal wave Particles vibrate parallel to the

direction of travel of the wave – eg sound waves
Q1. What is the difference between longitudinal and
transverse waves?

The difference between transverse and

longitudinal waves is the direction the
medium of the wave moves in relation to
the direction of wave propagation.

In transverse waves, the medium is

displaced perpendicular to the direction
of the wave whilst in longitudinal waves,
the medium is displaced parallel to the
direction of the wave.
 CONCEPT OF SOUND
How does sound energy travel?
Sound energy travels in the form of waves.
Sound waves are longitudinal waves

• sound waves need particles ( matter) in order to be

transmitted; they involve the motion of matter and
are a form of mechanical waves.

• Sound waves can travel in various elastic medium

– solid, liquid or gas.
Q2. Can Sound travel in a vacuum ??
clue -Sound is generated whenever there is a disturbance of an elastic medium
 SCIENCE - TRANSMISSION OF SOUND
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 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
The distance a sound wave travels during each complete cycle of vibration
( i.e. distance between the layers of compression)is called wavelength.
Wavelength (λ), unit: metre (m)

The fluctuation in the atmospheric pressure caused by the vibration of air

particles due to a sound wave is called amplitude or sound power .
Amplitude / Sound Power (γ), unit: Watt (W)

The number of cycles (complete vibrations) of vibration in 1 sec

is called frequency.
Frequency (f), unit:cycles per sec (cycles/s) or Hertz (Hz)

The amount of time it takes to complete a cycle of vibration is called period.

Period (T), unit: seconds per cycle (s/cycle) or Hertz (HZ)

The speed of sound refers to how fast the disturbance of a particle is passed
from particle to particle; or the distance the disturbance travels per unit time
Velocity of Sound (c), unit: metre per sec (m/s)
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
PERIOD
The amount of time it takes to complete a cycle of vibration
is called period i.e time taken to complete one cycle of
compression and rarefaction. Unit : seconds /cycle
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
FREQUENCY
The number of times that a cycle of compression and
rarefaction occurs in a given unit of time is described as
the frequency (f) of a sound

Unit : cycles/sec
Hertz (HZ)
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
FREQUENCY (PITCH)
. frequency is sometimes referred to using a term borrowed
from music - pitch. The higher a sound’s frequency, the higher
its pitch, and vice versa.

Frequency ≡ Pitch
(high Hz ≡ high pitch)
(low Hz ≡ low pitch)

Wavelength

- Higher frequency sound have shorter wavelength

- Lower frequency sound have longer wavelength
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
WAVELENGTH

The wavelength (λ) of sound is defined as the distance

between similar points(peaks or troughs) on successive waves,
which is the distance sound travels in one cycle.

The wavelengths of audible sound in air ranges from about

17.2 metres to 17.2mm
1 Wavelength

1 Wavelength
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
AMPLITUDE/
SOUND POWER

Amplitude is the Wavelength

maximum
displacement of a Low Soft
Amplitude = Sound
particle to either
side of its normal
position during
vibration.

It signifies the High = Loud

Amplitude Sound
power level of
sound.
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
QUALITY OF SOUND
Sound in its simplest form can be generated by striking a tuning fork.
A tuning fork generates a pure tone or sound at just a single frequency eg.
a vibrating tuning fork of sound middle C has a frequency of 261.6 Hz.

Few sounds are truly pure. Musical sounds (tones) are composed of a
fundamental frequency and integral multiples of the fundamental frequency
(harmonics or overtones).

Most common sounds - speech, music and noise - are complex

combinations of frequencies
PROPERTIES OF SOUND
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
• The sound spectrum
can be divided into three
frequency regions:
– Infrasonic, f < 20 Hz
– Audible, 20 Hz < f < 20,000 Hz
– Ultrasonic, f > 20,000 Hz
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
AUDIBLE RANGE OF HEARING

A healthy young adult is able to hear sound over a considerable wide range
of the human-audible spectrum of 20-20,000 Hz.
The ear’s sensitivity is highest in the speech frequency of between 100Hz
to 600hz range and the normal energy range of 30dBA to 65dBA.

The human ear discriminates against low-frequency sounds such that a

given sound level will appear to be louder in the mid- and high-
frequency ranges than the same level at lower frequencies.
Hearing : frequency of 20 – 20,000 Hz

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 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
5

1 2 3 4
1. Sound enters through the auditory canal and vibrates the eardrum. 2. The vibrating eardrum causes
the bones in the middle ear to move back and forth. 3. The footplate of the stirrup moves in and out of
the oval window in tandum with the vibrating eardrum. 4. The movement of the footplate sets in
motion fluid in the cochlea. 5. Tiny hairs immersed in the fluid move triggering cells at the base to send
electrical impluses to the auditory nerve. 6, In the brain the impluse is translated into sound sensation.
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
For measurement purposes, the audible frequency range are divided into
convenient subdivisions such as octave bands or 1/3 octave bands.

Octave bands are a series of eight notes occupying the interval

between (and including) two notes, one having twice or half the
frequency of vibration of the other.

1/3 octave bands are used in some laboratory measurements such as in

measuring sound transmission loss characteristics of walls or construction
types.
PROPERTIES OF SOUND

Octave Band frequencies used

in the measurement of product
characteristics

1/3 Octave Band frequencies

used in Sound Transmission
Loss (STC) measurement
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
ACOUSTICAL RESONANCE
Acoustic resonance is a phenomenon in which an acoustic system amplifies
sound waves whose frequency matches one of its own natural frequencies
of vibration.

An acoustically resonant object usually has more than one resonance

frequency, especially at harmonics of the strongest resonance. It will easily
vibrate at those frequencies, and vibrate less strongly at other frequencies.

The result of resonance is always an increase in the vibrations ( increase in

amplitude of oscillations ) of the resonating object.
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
RESONATING CAVITIES
The best examples of acoustical resonance
can be observed in various musical
instruments. Whenever any person hits,
strikes, strums, drums or tweaks any
musical instrument, the instrument is set
into oscillation or vibration at the natural
frequency of vibration of the instrument.
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
Velocity of Sound
Sound waves travel at velocity of about 344 metre per sec
(1130 feet per sec / 767 miles per hour) in air at normal
temperature and at sea-level atmospheric pressure.

This velocity is extremely slow when compared with the

velocity of light , which is approx. 300,000,000 metre per sec
(186,000 miles per sec). That is why the flash of a lightning
strike is seen first followed by the sound of thunder later.

Velocity = distance / time

 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
The relationship between the velocity of sound, wavelength
and frequency is expressed as

Cs = λ f Units : m/sec

where λ = wavelength, ft (m)

Cs = velocity of sound, fps (m/s)
f = frequency of sound, Hz

velocity = distance /time

velocity of sound = wavelength / period
1
velocity of sound = wavelength / 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
velocity of sound = wavelength x frequency
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
Sound level measurements are carried out using the
following unit measurements .

1) SOUND POWER (P) unit : watt (W)

- is the basic quantity of acoustical energy that is
produced at the source (rate of energy produced)

2) SOUND INTENSITY ( I ) unit : watt per sq. m (W/m2)

- is sound power per unit area

3) SOUND INTENSITY LEVEL (SIL) unit : dB

- this is a standard scale used to measure sound pressure
4) SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL (p) unit : Pa
- is the local pressure deviation from the ambient pressure caused
by a sound wave
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
INDICATOR FOR SOUND LEVEL MEASUREMENT
In the measurement of sound levels, the decibel ratios is always
made with reference to the standard value for the threshold of
hearing:

Threshold of hearing - the weakest sound the

average human ear can detect
I = 1 x 10-12 W/m2 or p = 2 x 10-5 N/m2
P = 20 x 10-6 Pa
Threshold of pain - the strongest sound that
the human ear can tolerate
I = 10 W/m2 or p = 200 Pa
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND

At the threshold of hearing (approx. 0 dB), the displacement of air molecules impinging on the
eardrum is of approx. one angstrom unit (1 Å = 10−8 cm), which is approx. the diameter of an atom.
At the other end of the magnitude spectrum, the threshold of pain corresponds to a sound pressure
level of 130 dB and to an eardrum motion of approximately 0.25 mm—truly an astonishing range.
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
Threshold of
pain

Threshold
of hearing
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
SOUND INTENSITY (I)
The sound power distributed over unit area.
UNIT : watts per square metre (W/m2)

𝑃
I=
𝐴

where P = sound power of the source (W)

A = area (m2)
I = sound intensity (W/m2)

The unit used in calculating the sound level when measured

as intensity (based on threshold of hearing) is : I0 = 1 x 10-12 W/m2
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
SOUND MEASUREMENT
For practical measurements of sound strength, it is
convenient to use a decibel scale based on constant ratios, a
scale which is also used in some electrical measurements.

Unit: Decibel (dB), logarithmic ratio of two quantities*

𝑙2
N = 10 log10
𝑙1

N = number of decibels
I1 and I2 are the two intensities* being compared
PROPERTIES OF SOUND
CALCULATION OF SOUND LEVEL

(1) Sound Intensity Level (SIL) / Sound Power Level (SPL) dB

If the sound strength is considered in terms of intensity (I)
then a sound intensity level (SIL) is given by the formula:

SIL = 10 log10 𝑙
𝑙0

Where,
I = the intensity of the sound being measured (W/m2)
I0 = the intensity of the threshold of hearing (1 x 10-12 W/m2 )
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
COMBINATION OF SOUND LEVELS
• If two different sounds arrive at the same time then the ear is
subject to two pressure waves .

• Decibel scale is logarithmic in origin so the simple addition of

sound levels in decibels does not give the sound level of the
combined sounds ( decibel scale cannot be added to find the
resultant intensity levels)

BUT
• Intensities (sound power) can be added

I = I1 + I2 (when measured as intensity)

 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Calculate the change in sound intensity level (dB)
when the intensity of a sound is doubled.
Let I = initial intensity, so 2 I = final intensity.
Let SIL1 = initial sound intensity level and
SIL2 = final sound intensity level.
2𝐼 𝐼
SIL2 –SIL1 = 10 log10 𝐼0 - 10 log10 𝐼0

= 10 log10 2𝐼 𝑥 𝐼0 (by the rules of logarithms)

𝐼0 𝐼
2𝐼
= 10 log10 = 10 log 2 = 10 x 0.3010 = 3.010
𝐼

When two sound sources of the same intensity are combined,

the sound intensity level (SIL) is increased by 3 dB , or
For every increase of 3dB, the sound heard will be twice as
loud
PROPERTIES OF SOUND

***The Four Basic Properties of Logs

1.logb(xy) = logbx + logby.

2.logb(x/y) = logbx - logby.

3.logb(xn) = n logbx.

4.logbx = logax / logab.

 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
SOUND INTENSITY (I) and the Inverse Square law
Consider a point sound source of constant power radiating in
free space.
The sound intensity at any (defined) distance from the source
can be expressed as

𝑃 where P = sound power of the source (W)

I= A = area (m2)
𝐴 I = sound intensity (W/m2)
r = radius of the imaginary sphere

𝑃
I=
4𝜋𝑟 2
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
Sound power
Sound Intensity =
total spherical area
𝑃
Therefore I = for sound in free field
4𝜋𝑑 2
where
I = sound intensity , watts/𝑚2
P = sound power , watts
d = distance from sound source, m

At position 1 : P = 𝐼1 4𝜋𝑑12
At position 2 : P = 𝐼2 4𝜋𝑑22

Since P is the same at both positions

𝐼1 4𝜋𝑑12 = 𝐼2 4𝜋𝑑22

𝐼1 𝑑2 2 Inverse Square Law

= Sound Intensity is inversely proportional to
𝐼2 𝑑1
the Distance squared from the Sound Source
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
A microphone measures sound at a position in a free field 5m from a
point source. Calculate the change in SPL if the microphone is moved
to a position 10m from the source.
Let L1 = SPL at distance d1 = 5m, and L2 = SPL atdistance d2 = 10m
𝐼1 𝐼1 d22
Using L1 – L2 = 10 log , and =
𝐼2 𝐼2 d12
d22 10 2
L1 – L2 = 10 log d 2 = 10 log 5 2
1

= 10 log 100/25
= 10 log 4
= 10 x 0.6021 = 6.021

For every doubing of distance from a point source, the Sound Power
Level (SPL) / Sound Intensity Level (SIL) is decreased by 6 dB
PROPERTIES OF SOUND
A Sound Level Meter consist of a microphone which
transforms the sound Pressure variation in the air into
corresponding electrical signal. This signal is then
amplified internally and measured by the appropriate
weighting scales. The standard scales in Decibel are:
- dB(A)
- dB(B)
- dB(C)

The A – weighting scale is

suitable for Architectural
work as its response
closely resembles that
of the human ear
 PROPAGATION OF SOUND
Sound propagates outwards from a Point Source
in a spherical wavefront

During their propagation, waves can be

reflected, refracted, diffracted or attenuated
by the medium.
PROPAGATION OF SOUND
SOUND REFLECTION
Reflection occurs when sound strikes a surface.
Reflection of sound will lead to echoes or reverberation.
Sound Source

Surfaces eg. wall, floor

____________________________________________

Convex surfaces => dispersed reflections

Concave surfaces => concentrated reflections
PROPAGATION OF SOUND

Sound waves are concentrated

when reflected off Concave
surface

Sound waves are dispersed

when reflected off Convex
surface
 PROPAGATION OF SOUND
SOUND REFRACTION
Refraction of sound occurs when
waves undergo a change in
direction as they pass from one
medium to another.
Refraction, or bending of the path of the
waves, is accompanied by a change in
speed and wavelength of the waves.

Sound waves travel at different

speeds in media of different
densities.
PROPAGATION OF SOUND
 PROPAGATION OF SOUND
SOUND DIFFRACTION
Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as they
pass through an opening or around a barrier in their path

Sound Obstruction
Source
 PROPAGATION OF SOUND
Diffraction of sound waves commonly occurs; we notice
sound diffracting around corners or through door
openings, allowing us to hear others who are speaking
to us from adjacent rooms.
 PROPAGATION OF SOUND
SOUND ATTENUATION
Sound attenuation is a measure of the energy loss of
sound propagation in media. i.e loss in intensity .
Most media have viscosity, and are therefore not ideal media.
When sound propagates in such media, there is always
thermal consumption of energy caused by viscosity.
PROPOGATION OF SOUND

Inverse-square law. In a free field, the intensity

Of sound at any point is inversely proportional
to the square of the distance from the source
to that point. For instance, when the distance
D is tripled, the intensity of sound intensity will
be decreased by a factor of 9; it will be I/9.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
INTRODUCTION
Sound in the outdoors, travelling from their source in a
continuously extending spherical wavefront rapidly attenuate
as the distance form their source increases.

In designing rooms for various purposes, the architect will

encounter acoustical problems associated with enclosed spaces.

The propagation and behaviour of sound in enclosed spaces

however are more complex than in the open air.

Room acoustics is the study of how

sound behaves in an enclosed space.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
General Principles
When designing an enclosed space, the architect
will be concerned with the control of sound in that
space to provide the best conditions for the
production and the reception of desirable sound
and to exclude unwanted sound (noise).

• Create best conditions for the production of desirable sound

• Create best conditions for hearing desirable sound
• Eliminate unwanted sounds within and outside the enclose
space
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Theory of Sound Path
The study of sound in enclosed spaces can be simplified by
imaginary sound “rays” , perpendicular to the advancing
wavefront, travelling in straight lines in every direction within
the space.

This approach in architectural acoustics , which likens the

behaviour of sound waves to that of light rays , is called
geometric acoustics.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
BEHAVIOUR OF SOUND IN ENCLOSED SPACES

1. Incident or Direct sound

2. Reflected Sound
3. Sound absorbed by
surface treatment
4. Diffused or Dispersed sound
5. Diffracted or bent sound
6. Transmitted sound
7. Sound Dissipated within the
structure
8. Sound conducted by the
structure
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Sound Reflection
• Hard surfaces will reflect almost all incident sound
energy striking them
• Convex reflecting surfaces will disperse sound
• Concave reflecting surfaces will concentrate the
reflected sound
• Reflections may be used in room acoustics to distribute and
reinforce sounds

NOTE: Because the wavelengths of sound are much larger than light rays
the law of sound reflection is valid only if the wavelengths are small
compared to the dimensions of the reflecting surfaces
(critical for low frequency sounds).
In medium and large size auditoriums, hearing conditions can be
improved with large sound reflectors suitably located.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces

Sound Reflection

1. Uniform reflection on flat surfaces

2. Sound dispersion - convex surfaces
3. Sound concentration - concave surfaces
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Sound Reflection
reflected & return
from corner

Source Focusing by
concave surface

Dispersion by
convex surface
PLAN
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Sound Reflection
– Tilted Ceiling

A. Horizontal ceiling provides limited amount of short delayed reflections.

B. Properly tilted ceilings can contribute more useful sound reflections.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Sound Diffusion

• Sound is said to be homogeneous when sound pressure is

equal in all part of an auditorium; in other words ,
sound diffusion or sound dispersion prevails in the room.

• Adequate sound diffusion is essential in many types of rooms

because it promotes uniform distribution of sound,
accentuates the natural qualities of music and speech and
prevents the occurrence of undesirable acoustical defects.

• Sound diffusion may be achieve with the aid of surface

irregularities and scattering elements, alternate application of
sound reflective and sound absorptive treatments.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Sound Diffraction

• Sound diffraction is the acoustical phenomena which causes

sound waves to bend or scatter around objects such as
corners, columns , walls and beams.

• Low frequency sounds (longer wavelengths) will not respect

the laws of geometric acoustics if they encounter architectural
elements of small dimensions – they will not diffract or be
scattered by beams, coffers, pilasters and cornices.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Direct and Indirect
Sound Path
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Direct and Indirect Sound Path
Reflected sound beneficially
reinforces the Direct sound if
the time delay between them
Is relatively short, that is a
maximum of 30msec.

𝑅1+𝑅2 −𝐷
Time Delay = 0.34
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Echo

• Echoes are probably the most

serious of room acoustical defects.

• A time delay of 40msec for speech

and 100msec for music perceived
as a sound distinct from that
travelling directly from source to
listener is deemed as an echo.

• Echoes should not be confused

with reverberation. Echoes are
distinct repetition of the original
sound
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Flutter Echo
• A flutter echo consists of a rapid
succession of noticeable small
echoes .
• It is observed when a short burst of
sound is produced between parallel
sound-reflective surfaces.
• Elimination of parallel surfaces
is one way to avoid flutter echoes.

• Flutter echoes may still occur between

non-parallel surfaces or between
absorbent non- parallel surfaces.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Acoustical Defects in Auditorium 1) Echo
2) Long delayed reflections
3) Sound Shadow
4) Sound Concentration
5) Flutter Echo (not shown)
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Acoustical Defects in Auditorium
– Sound Shadow
To achieve uniform quality
of sound over the entire
seating area balconies
should not protrude too
deeply into the air-space of
the room .
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Sound Absorption
• Sound absorption is the change in sound energy into some
other form, usually heat when it passes through a material
or strikes a surface.
• Soft, porous materials and fabrics , and people absorb a
considerable amount of sound energy when it impinges on
them.
• In Room Acoustics, the following elements contribute to
sound absorption - surfaces of walls, floors and ceilings
- room contents including people
- the air of the space

NOTE : Sound absorption is a major factor in producing good room acoustics,

especially when controlling reverberation.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Sound Absorption Coefficient (α)

 Absorption coefficient (α) is a measure of the amount of

sound absorption provided by a particular type of surface.
 It is defined as the ratio of energy absorbed by a material to
the energy incident upon its surface.
𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝑨𝒃𝒔𝒐𝒓𝒃𝒆𝒅
 Absorption coefficient , α=
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒊𝒅𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑺𝒐𝒖𝒏𝒅 𝑬𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚

 UNIT : none – its value is expressed as a ratio

 The open window is taken as the standard absorber with

a coefficient of 1.00, or 100 per cent absorption.
NOTE :Different surface materials/construction types have different
absorption coefficients.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Quantifying Sound Absorption
 The effective absorption of a particular surface depends on the
area as well as on the absorption coefficient (α) of the material.
 A measure of this absorption is obtained by multiplying the two
factors together i.e

Absorption of a surface = Surface Area (m2) x

Absorption coefficient of surface

𝐴𝑆 = S x 𝛼𝑠

UNIT : m2 sabins
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Quantifying Total Room Absorption
The Total Room Absorption (𝐴 𝑇 ) is obtained by the addition
of the absorptions provided by each surface in the room.

It is the sum of the products of all areas and their respective

absorption coefficients.

Total Absorption = Σ(Area x Absorption coefficient)

𝐴 𝑇 = S1 𝛼1 + S2 𝛼2 + S3 𝛼3 ………+ S𝑛 𝛼𝑛
COMMON BUILDING MATERIALS ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT
125 Hz 500 Hz 2000 Hz
Brickwork Plain 0.02 0.03 0.04
Clinker blocks Plain 0.02 0.06 0.05
Concrete Plain 0.02 0.02 0.05
Cork Tiles 19mm, solid backing 0.02 0.05 0.10
Carpet Thick pile 0.10 0.50 0.60
Curtains Medium weight, folded 0.10 0.40 0.50
Medium weight, straight 0.05 0.10 0.20
Fibreboard 13mm, solid backing 0.05 0.15 0.30
13mm, 25mm airspace 0.30 0.35 0.30
Glass 4mm, in window 0.30 0.10 0.07
Tiles, solid backing 0.01 0.01 0.02
Glass fibre 25mm slab 0.10 0.50 0.70
Hardboard On battens, 25mm airspace 0.20 0.15 0.10
Plaster Lime or plaster, solid backing 0.02 0.02 0.04
on laths/studs, airspace 0.30 0.10 0.04
Plaster tiles Unperforated, airspace 0.45 0.80 0.65
Polystyrene tiles Unperforated, airspace 0.05 0.40 0.20
Water Swimming pool 0.01 0.01 0.01
Wood blocks Solid floor 0.02 0.05 0.10
Wood boards On joists/battens 0.15 0.10 0.10
Wood wool 25mm slab, solid backing 0.10 0.40 0.60
25mm slab, airspace 0.10 0.60 0.60
Special items
Air Per m3 0.007
Audience Per person 0.21 0.46 0.51
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Sound Absorption
More….Sound absorption coefficient of common materials

Q. Are there any materials with sound absorption coefficient of more than 1? A. YES
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Types of Sound Absorbers
Porous Absorbers

• Porous absorbers consists of cellular materials

such as fibreglass and mineral wool.The air in
the cells provide resistance to the sound
waves which then loses energy in the form of
heat.
• Porous materials for sound absorption include
acoustic tiles, acoustic blankets and special
coating such as acoustic plaster.
• The absorption of porous material is most
effective at frequencies above 1khz.
ROOM ACOUSTICS
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Types of Sound Absorbers
Panel Absorbers
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Types of Sound Absorbers
Cavity Absorbers ( Helmholtz Resonators)
• They consist of enclosed body of air contained
within rigid walls and connected by a narrow
opening to the surrounding.
• A cavity resonator can absorb maximum sound
energy in a narrow region of a low frequency band
• Cavity resonators can be applied as individual units,
as perforated panel resonators and as slit resonators.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Reverberation
Definition: Continuing presence of an audible sound after
the source of the sound has been stopped
Caused: Rapid multiple reflections of Sound Energy
between the surfaces of a room causes
Reverberation.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces

Reverberation Time
Sound waves that cause reverberation loses energy as they
are absorbed at each successive reflection.

If the source of sound stops, then the reverberant sound

level decays (loses sound pressure level over some time)

The time it takes for sound pressure level to decay will

affect the acoustical quality of an enclosure.
 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Reverberation Time (RT)
Definition: the time for the sound pressure level in a room to
decrease by 60dB from its original level after the sound is
stopped. Sound stops
Sound levels (dB)

60 dB

Reverberation time

Time in seconds (s)

 ROOM ACOUSTICS
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Reverberation Time (RT) ……cont’d
It is dependent upon the following variables:
1. The volume of the enclosure (distance)
2. The total surface area
3. The absorption coefficients of the surfaces

Sabine Formula: RT =0.16V

where: A
RT = reverberation time (sec)
V = volume of the room (cu.m)
RT =0.16V
A = total absorption of room A + xV
surfaces (sq.m sabins)
x = absorption coefficient of air
Recommended Reverberation Times
(according to usage)

Use Small Rooms Medium Rooms Large Rooms

750m3 750-7500m3 >7500m3

Speech 0.75 0.75 - 1.00 1.00

Multi- 1.00 1.00 - 1.25 1.00 - 2.00

purpose
Music 1.50 1.50 - 2.00 2.00 or more

34
Typical Reverberation Times of Spaces
Acoustical Phenomena in Enclosed Spaces
Reverberation Time (RT) ……cont’d
Considerations for acceptable acoustical quality :
speech: less than 1 s (short RT)
music : longer than 1 s (long RT)
* Long RTs are not conducive for good speech intelligibility

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Q: Larger rooms = short or long RT ?

A: Larger rooms = long RT

WORKED EXAMPLE 3

A lecture hall with a volume of 1500m3 has the

following surfaces areas and finishes and absorption
coefficients (500 Hz).
 Walls, plaster on brick - 400m2 (0.02)
 Floors, vinyl tiles - 300m2 (0.05)
 Ceiling, plasterboard on battens - 300m2 (0.10)
 Occupants - 100 people (0.46)

Calculate the reverberation time at 500 Hz of this hall.

Step 1: Tabulate information & calculate
absorption units (Area x Absorption coefficient)

500 Hz
Surface Area
Absorption Abs. units
coefficient (m2 sabins)

Walls 400 0.02 8

Ceiling 300 0.1 30
Floor 300 0.05 15
Occupants 100 0.46 46
Total absorption (𝑨𝑻 ) 99
Step 2: Calculate using Sabine’s formula

RT = 0.16V
A
= 0.16 (1500) / 99
= 2.42 sec

Answer

The reverberation time for the lecture hall is 2.42 sec

WORKED EXAMPLE 4
If a new reverberation time required for the hall in
Worked Example 1 is 0.8 sec. ,
Calculate the area of acoustic tiling needed on the
walls to achieve this reverberation time
(absorption coefficient of acoustic tiles = 0.8
at 500 Hz).
Step 1: Tabulate information & calculate
absorption units (Area x Absorption coefficient)
500 Hz
Surface Area Absorption Abs. units
coefficient (m2 sabins)
Tiles Y 0.80 0.8Y

Walls 400 - Y 0.02 0.02(400 – Y)

= 8 – 0.02Y
Ceiling 300 0.10 30
Floor 300 0.05 15
Occupants 100 people 0.46 each 46
30+15+46+8-
0.02Y+0.8Y
Total A
=99+0.78Y
Step 2: Calculate using Sabine’s formula
RT = 0.16V
A
0.8 = 0.16 x 1500
99 + 0.78Y
0.78Y = 0.16 x 1500 - 99
0.8
0.78Y = 300 – 99 Answer:
Y = 201 Area of acoustic tiles
0.78 needed for RT of 0.8s
Y = 257.69 m2 is 258 m2
 General Acoustical Requirements in
Auditorium (Room) design
The following are the general requirements for hearing conditions in
an auditorium:
1. There should be adequate loudness in every part of the
auditorium, particularly the remote seats.
2. Sound energy should be uniformly distributed in the room.
3. Optimum reverberation characteristics should be provided to
allow the most favourable reception of the program material by
the listeners.
4. Noises and vibrations which would interfere with listening or
performing should be excluded or reasonably reduced in every
part of the room.
5. The room should be free of acoustical defects such as echoes, long-
delayed reflections, flutter echoes, sound concentration, sound
shadow and room resonance.
 There are basically 3 Usage Functions in the
Acoustical design of Rooms.

• For Speech
- Auditoriums, Theaters, Lecture Halls, Classrooms,
Assembly Halls, Conference Halls, Courtrooms, Mosques etc

• For Music
- Musical Auditoriums, Concert Halls, Opera Houses,
Rehearsal Rooms, Band Rooms, Practice Booths

• For Mixed Acoustical Use

- Churches, Synagogues, Multi purpose Auditoriums,
Community Halls, Motion –picture Theaters,
Concert Platforms
Acoustical Design Considerations of Rooms
for Speech
• When rooms are used primarily for speech, intelligibility must be given top
priority.
• Speech intelligibility (SI) is the measure of how comprehensible speech is in
given conditions.
• SI is affected by the quality of the speech signal, level of background noise,
reverberation and quality of the sound reinforcement system, if used.
• The paths of direct sound waves to the listener should be as short as
possible to reduce sound energy loss.
• Unamplified speech from source to listener has a range of about 9 to 15m
beyond which SI is poor.
• Short delayed sound reflections from reflective surfaces that arrive at a
listener’s position should have a path difference of not more than about 9
to 10.5m to direct sound . (time delay gap of about 30msec.)
Acoustical Design Considerations of Rooms
for Speech
• Seat positions should fall within 140° from the position of the speaker
to preserve high frequency sounds.

• RT values should be as close as possible to the ideal value throughout

the entire audio- frequency range.

• The control of noise is crucial.

• In larger rooms such as Assembly Halls and large lecture Theaters, high
quality speech reinforcement systems must be installed to provide
uniform coverage over the entire seating area.
Acoustical Design Considerations of Rooms
for Music
• Music consists of a wide range of sound levels and frequencies all of which
must beheard for a full appreciation and enjoyment of the performance.

• Some desirable qualities of music dependon the listener’s judgement and

taste but the shape and volume , audience capacity and surface acoustical
treatment all contribute to the sound quality of the music .

• These qualities are difficult to define; terms that are used in music include -
fullness of tone , clarity of sounds, blend of sounds and balance.

• An auditorium may be considered lively or dry depending on its RT; long RT

at lower frequencies exude qualities of warmth.

• Establishing a carefully controlled RT will increase fullness of tone and will

help loudness, definition ,and diffusion.

• Definition will be satisfactory if the initial time-delay gap does not exceed
20msec.
Acoustical Design Considerations of Rooms
for Music
• Balconies should not be too deep in order to achieve uniform quality
sound over the entire seating area

• Echoes will be noticeable if the RT is short and diffusion is

inadequate.

• Musical instruments have a much wider frequency range ( 30Hzz to

about 12,000Hz) compared to speech (85Hz to 1000Hz)

• The shape of the floor in an auditorium used for music will affect the
sound source - transmission path – receiver sequence
Acoustical Design Considerations for
Rooms with Mixed Acoustical Use
• There are some conflicts between the ideal acoustic conditions for music
and for speech.

• Compromises have to be made in the design of auditoria for more than

one purpose and the relative importance of each activity decidedupon.

• However in most modern day places of assembly, equally favourable

conditions (not ideal) must be secured for both speech and music.

• If the main floor is unrake, the stage area should be elevated as high as
sight lines will allow.

• Sound reflective panels should be placed near the sound source

including suspended from the ceiling, to provide short delayed,
reflective sound energy.
Acoustical Design Considerations for
Rooms with Mixed Acoustical Use
• The stage floor should protrude as far as possible into the audience
area.

• Optimum RT should be secured for at least one half of audience capacity

to cater for fluctuation in attendance.

• Attempt should be made to accommodate a rake or raised portion of

the audience floor.

• In an auditorium with a flat floor, the loudspeaker, if used, should be

positioned higher than it would be in an auditorium with a raked floor.
Acoustical Design Considerations for
Rooms - Shapes & Volumes
Shapes of rooms will affect the propagation of sound waves
and its distribution attributes.
Volumes will play a significant role in RT and affect the
acoustical qualities
Royal Albert Hall London
Completed 1871
Shape – Curvilinear
Volume: 86,000 cu.m
Seat capacity: 6,080
Vol/audience: 14.2 cu.m
RT (500hz) : 2.3 sec
Grosser Musikvereinssaal,
Vienna
Completed 1870
Shape – Rectangular
Volume: 15,000 cu.m
Seat capacity: 1,680
Vol/audience: 8.9 cu.m
RT (500hz) : 2.1 sec
Carnegie Hall,
New York
Completed 1891
Shape – Horseshoe
Volume: 24,250 cu.m
Seat capacity: 2,760
Vol/audience: 8.8 cu.m
RT (500hz) : 1.7 sec
Philharmonie Berlin, Germany
Completed 1963
Shape – Irregular
Volume: 25,000 cu.m
Seat capacity: 2,218
Vol/audience: 11.3 cu.m
RT (500hz) : 2.0 sec
Suntory Concert Hall, Volume: 21,000 cu.m
Tokyo Japan Seat capacity: 2,006
Completed 1986 Vol/audience: 10.4 cu.m
Shape – Irregular shape RT (500hz) : 2.1 sec
Sydney Opera House, Sydney
Putrajaya International Convention Center
Cortesia de Associated Architects
Cortesia de Associated Architects
Cortesia de Associated Architects
Paul Rivera
Paul Rivera
Petronas Philharmonic Hall, Kuala Lumpur
End of Lecture
Thank you
References

1. Szokolay, S.V., (2004), Introduction to Architectural Science,

Architectural Press, Burlington.
2. Mehta, M, (1999), Architectural Acoustics, Prentice Hall, New
Jersey
3. Cavanaugh, W.J. & Wilkes, J.A.(1999). Architectural Acoustics–
principles and Practice. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
4. Ballast, D.K.(1998). Interior Construction & Detailing for designers
and architects. Professional Publications, Inc. USA.
5. Mitchell’s Environment and Services (8th edn)
TUTORIAL
Question 1.
If a particle of air undergoes 1000 longitudinal cycles of
vibrations in 2 seconds, what would be its frequency ?

Answer f = 1000 cycles/2 sec

= 500 cycles/sec or 500 Hz

Question 2.
If the period (T) of a pendulum is 4.5 secs. , determine the
Frequency (f) of this pendulum.

Answer T = 4.5 = 1/f

f = 1/4.5 = 0.22 Hz
TUTORIAL
Question 3.
What is the Period (T) of this wave? Answer: 4 secs

Question 4.
If this wave was a sound wave, what would be the frequency
of this sound?
Answer: frequency (f) = 0.25 Hz
low frequency = low pitch
TUTORIAL
Question 5. The graph below compares the Transmission
Loss curves of 4 wall construction types. What
is the frequency range band used along x-axis?

Answer: 1/3 octave band

Frequency (Hz)
TUTORIAL
Question 6. During a ceremonial gun salute, the flash of the
cannon fire was seen and this was followed with
the sound “boom” sound 3 seconds later.
If the velocity of sound is 344 m/s, how far
away were the cannons from the observer?

a) Using Velocity of sound = 343 m/s

And the formula V = distance /time
Distance = V x time
= 344 x 3 = 1022 m
 PROPERTIES OF SOUND
TUTORIAL
1. Calculate the total sound intensity level caused by the
combination of sound levels of 95 dB and 90 dB.
Threshold of hearing intensity = 1 x 10-12 W/m2.
Let 𝑆𝐼𝐿1 = intensity level of 95dB,
𝑆𝐼𝐿2 = intensity level of 90dB,
and 𝑆𝐼𝐿3 = intensity of combined sounds.
SIL = 10 log10 I
I0

I3 = I1 + I2 (combined sound level when measured as intensity)

2. Calculate the total sound intensity level caused by the combination of

two sounds levels both of 80 db.
Threshold of hearing pressure = 1 x 10-12 W/m2