RESEARCH METHODS NOTES

LESSON I

Objectives:

 What is research?
 Importance of research/Objectives of research
 Scientific Research and it’s characteristics
 Types of research

Research Meaning

Dictionary definition of research is a careful investigation or inquiry

specifically through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge. In
simple words, research is an art of scientific investigation.

Research is defined as human activity based on intellectual application in the

investigation of matter.

Research refers to the systematic method consisting of pronouncing the

problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analysing the
facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solution(s)
towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation. (Kothari and Garg).

According to Fred Kerlinger, research is an organized enquiry designed and

carried out to provide information for solving problem.

Creswell says that, Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze
information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue.

Therefore, research is an original contribution to the existing stock of

knowledge making for its advancement. It is pursuit of truth with the help of
study, observation, comparison and experiment. Research is the search for
knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to a
problem.

Business research may be defined as research activities carried out relating

to the different functionaries in the business and corporate world.

Business research is a process of acquiring detailed information of all the

areas of business and using such information in maximizing the sales and
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profit of the business. Such a study helps companies determine which
product/service is most profitable or in demand.

The definition of business research involves acquiring information and

knowledge for professional or commercial purposes such as determining
opportunities and goals for a business. An example of business research is
gathering sales information and writing a detailed report on marketing and
sales.

Business research is a systematic inquiry that provides information to guide

managerial decisions. In other words, it is a process of planning, acquiring,
analyzing, and disseminating relevant data, information, and insights to
decision makers in ways that mobilize the organization to take appropriate
actions that, in turn, maximize performance.

This entire process by which we attempt to solve problems is called

research. Thus, research involves a series of well-thought-out and carefully
executed activities that will enable the manager to know how organizational
problems can be solved, or at least considerably minimized.

Business research is an organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective,

scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem, undertaken with the
purpose of finding answers or solutions to it.

The Purpose of Research/ Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to systematically investigate and gather

information on a particular topic or issue, with the aim of answering
questions, solving problems, or advancing knowledge. In general, the
objectives of research may vary depending on the field of study and the
specific research question being investigated. However, some common
objectives of research include:

 To explore and describe a phenomenon: Research can be

conducted to describe and understand a phenomenon or situation in
greater detail.
 To test a hypothesis or theory: Research can be used to test a
specific hypothesis or theory by collecting and analyzing data.

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  To identify patterns or trends: Research can be conducted to
identify patterns or trends in data, which can provide insights into the
behavior of a system or population.
 To evaluate a program or intervention: Research can be used to
evaluate the effectiveness of a program or intervention, such as a new
drug or educational intervention.
 To develop new knowledge or technology: Research can be
conducted to develop new knowledge or technologies that can be
applied to solve practical problems.
 To inform policy decisions: Research can provide evidence to
inform policy decisions and improve public policy.
 To improve existing knowledge: Research can be conducted to
improve existing knowledge and fill gaps in the current understanding
of a topic.
 Develop new products.
 Identify new opportunities or areas for further study.

When to use Research

Research should be used in situations where there is a need to gather new

information, test existing theories, or solve problems. Some common
scenarios where research is often used include:

Scientific inquiry: Research is essential for advancing scientific knowledge

and understanding, and for exploring new concepts, theories, and
phenomena.

Business and market analysis: Research is critical for businesses to

gather data and insights about the market, customer preferences, and
competition, to inform decision-making and strategy development.

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Social policy and public administration: Research is often used in social
policy and public administration to evaluate the effectiveness of programs
and policies, and to identify areas where improvements are needed.

Healthcare: Research is essential in healthcare to develop new treatments,

improve existing ones, and to understand the causes and mechanisms of
diseases.

Education: Research is critical in education to evaluate the effectiveness of

teaching methods and programs, and to develop new approaches to
learning.

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Scientific research is the process of finding facts or solutions to problems

systematically, experimentally, and logically. Its process always remains
purposive and comprehensive.

Generally, scientific research is conducted to solve problems. It analyzes all

the dimensions of the problem systematically and finds out the natural
causes of the problem, collects, and interprets the data, and finds out the
solutions to the problems.

It is not undertaken based on someone’s intuition, experience, and

estimation, instead, it is always comprehensive and objective in nature.

According to F.N. Kerlinger – Scientific research is a systematic, empirical,

and critical investigation of propositions about the presumed relationship
among the variables.

Characteristics of Scientific Research

Scientific research is systematic and empirical research that is conducted
based on evidence and logic. The following eight are its main features.

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Rigorous: Rigorous research is defined as using a strong theoretical
foundation and methodological framework. It refers to the carefulness and
degree of exactness in research investigation.

Purposive: With a clear goal in mind, research should begin. Research is

meaningless if it is undertaken without any goals. The process of choosing a
sample, gathering data, and interpreting that data are all governed by the
goal of the research. Therefore, one can prevent mistakes and reach a true
conclusion if they are able to create a clear and practical target.

Replicability: The result gained is considered reproducible if the same

result is discovered when the investigation is done once more. Such
excellence is needed for scientific research. The conclusions or findings are
deemed untrustworthy if observations cannot be replicated. The study
should be repeatable as a result.

Objective: It should make it possible to impartially and accurately

categorize facts. The conclusions drawn from the data should not be based
on subjective or emotional values but rather on the facts established by
actual data. Non-data-based decisions lead the organization astray and
encourage performance decline.

Testability: Researchers develop hypotheses logically in scientific research.

A hypothesis is an estimation of the relationship between variables. Such a
relationship is established logically. Relationships are tested using various
statistical and mathematical tools. Thus, testability is one of the important
qualities of scientific research.

Precision: Precision reflects the degree of exactness of the results. The

conclusion drawn from the research must be nearer to the actual result as it
is based on evidence and objectivity.

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Operational Definitions: The variables should be defined in such a way
that they can be measured. This eliminates confusion in meaning and
communication.

Generalizability: It speaks to the extent to which the research’s

conclusions can be applied to other organizations as well. The greater the
scope of applicability of the research’s answers, the more beneficial the
research is to users. For instance, there is a good probability that a
researcher’s findings can be applied to a wide range of businesses if they
show that stress hinders performance.

Why People do Research

This is a fundamentally important question. No person would like to do research unless there are
some motivating factors. Some of the motivations are the following:

 To get a research degree along with its benefits like better employment, promotion,
increment in salary, etc.
 To get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college or university or
become a scientist in a research institution
 To solve the unsolved and challenging problems to get joy of doing some creative work
 To acquire respectability and to get recognition
 Curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event and curiosity to find new things
 To serve the society by solving social problems.

RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a researcher.
The design allows researchers to perfect in on research methods that are suitable for the subject
matter and set up their studies up for success.

The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables one to
effectively address the research problem as unambiguously as possible.

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In social sciences research, obtaining evidence relevant to the research problem generally entails
specifying the type of evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately
describe a phenomenon. However, researchers can often begin their investigations far too early,
before they have thought critically about what information is required to answer the study's
research questions.

Given this, the length and complexity of research designs can vary considerably, but any sound
design will do the following things:

1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,

2. Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,

3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem
selected,

4. Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the
hypotheses and explain how such data will be obtained, and

5. Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in determining
whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.

An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases trust in the
accuracy of collected data. A design that produces the least margin of error in experimental
research is generally considered the desired outcome. The essential elements of the research
design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research data

3. The method applied for analyzing collected details

4. Type of research methodology

5. Probable objections for research

6. Settings for the research study

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 7. Timeline

8. Measurement of analysis

Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies provide
insights that are accurate and unbiased. One will need to create a survey that meets all of the
main characteristics of a design.

There are four key characteristics of research design:

Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the data you
expect to collect. The results projected in the research design should be free from bias and
neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and conclusion from multiple
individuals and consider those who agree with the derived results.

Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar results
every time. Your design should indicate how to form research questions to ensure the standard of
results. You’ll only be able to reach the expected results if your design is reliable.

Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct measuring
tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the objective of the
research. The questionnaire developed from this design will then be valid.

Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample. A generalized design implies that your survey can be conducted on any part of
a population with similar accuracy.

The above factors affect the way respondents answer the research questions and so all the above
characteristics should be balanced in a good design.

A researcher must have a clear understanding of the various types of research design to select
which model to implement for a study. Like research itself, the design of your study can be
broadly classified into quantitative and qualitative.

Qualitative research design: Qualitative research determines relationships between collected

data and observations based on mathematical calculations. Theories related to a naturally

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existing phenomenon can be proved or disproved using statistical methods. Researchers rely on
qualitative research design methods that conclude “why” a particular theory exists along with
“what” respondents have to say about it.

Quantitative research design: Quantitative research is for cases where statistical conclusions
to collect actionable insights are essential. Numbers provide a better perspective to make critical
business decisions. Quantitative research design methods are necessary for the growth of any
organization. Insights drawn from hard numerical data and analysis prove to be highly effective
when making decisions related to the future of the business.

Outline the major differences between qualitative and quantitative

Qualitative Vs. Quantitative Research

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

i. Qualitative research aims to gain insights

i. Quantitative research provides precise
into phenomena, groups, or experiences
causal explanations that can be
that cannot be objectively measured or
measured and communicated
quantified using mathematics.
mathematically.
ii. It helps understand human behavior to
ii. It aims to compute numbers and
find the way people think and analyze
perform statistical analysis.
their experiences.
iii. Quantitative research is usually
iii. Qualitative researchers visit subjects in
conducted in a controlled environment.
their homes or in the field.

iv. These research methods are ideal when iv. It helps generate numerical data and
there is no fixed set of questions, and the hard facts using statistical, logical, and
discussion is useful to explore issues. mathematical techniques.
v. Involves gaining insight or
understanding into a subjective, context-
dependent issue.
v. The goal is to obtain objective
vi. The researcher must evaluate and make information.
sense of the data in its context, looking
for trends or patterns from which new vi. In quantitative analysis, the researcher

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 theories, concepts, narratives, or sets out to test a hypothesis.
hypotheses can be generated.

vii. The time consumed for planning is less vii. The time consumed for planning is more
as compared to the analysis phase. as compared to the analysis phase.

Assignment I

Differentiate between Research methods and Research methodology. 10marks

Differentiate between research method and research design. 10maks

Differentiate between quantitative and qualitative research designs. 10 mks

The types of research design can further be broken down into various categories:

1. Descriptive Research Design: In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested in

describing the situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design method
which is created by gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher
to provide insights into the why and how of research.

Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where,
and how associated with a particular research problem; a descriptive study cannot conclusively
ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is used to obtain information concerning the
current status of the phenomena and to describe "what exists" with respect to variables or
conditions in a situation.

Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research. If the problem
statement is not clear, one can conduct exploratory research.

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2. Experimental Research Design: blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to
maintain control over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the
researcher attempts to determine or predict what may occur.

Experimental Research is often used where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause
precedes effect), there is consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the
same effect), and the magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design
specifies an experimental group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to
the experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on the same
dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups and more
measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control, randomization, and
manipulation.

Experimental research design establishes a relationship between the cause and effect of a
situation. It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by the independent variable
on the dependent variable.

For example, one monitors the influence of an independent variable such as a price on a
dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand loyalty. It is a highly practical research
design method as it contributes to solving a problem at hand. The independent variables are
manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It is often used in social
sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups. Researchers can have participants
change their actions and study how the people around them react to gain a better understanding
of social psychology.

3. Correlational Research Design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research design

technique that helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely connected variables.
This type of research requires two different groups. There is no assumption while evaluating a
relationship between two different variables, and statistical analysis techniques calculate the
relationship between them.

A correlation coefficient determines the relationship between two variables, whose value ranges
between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship
between the variables and -1 means a negative relationship between the two variables.

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4. Diagnostic research design: In diagnostic design, the researcher is looking to evaluate the
underlying cause of a specific topic or phenomenon. This method helps one learn more about the
factors that create troublesome situations.

This design has three parts of the research:

· Inception of the issue

· Diagnosis of the issue

· Solution for the issue

5.Explanatory research design: Explanatory design uses a researcher’s ideas and thoughts on a
subject to further explore their theories. The research explains unexplored aspects of a subject
and details about what, how, and why of research questions.

6.Exploratory Research Design: An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem

when there are few or no earlier studies to refer to. The focus is on gaining insights and
familiarity for later investigation or undertaken when problems are in a preliminary stage of
investigation.

The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:

 Familiarity with basic details, settings and concerns.

 Well grounded picture of the situation being developed.

 Generation of new ideas and assumption, development of tentative theories or

hypotheses.

 Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.

 Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research
questions.

 Direction for future research and techniques get developed.

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7.Action Research Design: The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic
cycle whereby initially an exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is
developed and plans are made for some form of inter-ventionary strategy. Then the intervention
is carried out (the action in Action Research) during which time, relevant observations are
collected in various forms. The new interventional strategies are carried out, and the cyclic
process repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of (or implement able solution for)
the problem is achieved. The protocol is cyclical in nature and is intended to foster deeper
understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing the problem
and moving through several interventions and evaluations.

8. Case Study Design: A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather
than a sweeping statistical survey. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research
into one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful for
testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real world. It is
a useful design when not much is known about a phenomenon.

9. Causal Design: Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms

of conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of research is used to measure
what impact a specific change will have on existing norms and assumptions. Most social
scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal effect occurs when
variation in one phenomenon, an independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in
variation in another phenomenon, the dependent variable.

Conditions necessary for determining causality:

i. Empirical association--a valid conclusion is based on finding an association

between the independent variable and the dependent variable.

ii. Appropriate time order--to conclude that causation was involved one must see
that cases were exposed to variation in the independent variable before variation
in the dependent variable.

iii. Non-spuriousness--a relationship between two variables that is not due to

variation in a third variable.

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10.Cohort Design: Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social
sciences, a cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time involving
members of a population which the subject or representative member comes from, and who are
united by some commonality or similarity. Using a quantitative framework, a cohort study makes
note of statistical occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united by same or similar
characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being investigated, rather than studying
statistical occurrence within the general population. Using a qualitative framework, cohort
studies generally gather data using methods of observation. Cohorts can be either "open" or
"closed."

i. Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of Los

Angeles] involve a population that is defined just by the state of being a part of
the study in question (and being monitored for the outcome). Date of entry and
exit from the study is individually defined, therefore, the size of the study
population is not constant. In open cohort studies, researchers can only calculate
rate based data, such as, incidence rates and variants thereof.

ii. Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into a clinical
trial] involve participants who enter into the study at one defining point in time
and where it is presumed that no new participants can enter the cohort. Given this,
the number of study participants remains constant (or can only decrease).

11. Cross Sectional Research Design: Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive
features: no time dimension, a reliance on existing differences rather than change following
intervention; and, groups are selected based on existing differences rather than random
allocation.

The cross-sectional design can only measure differences between or from among a variety of
people, subjects, or phenomena rather than change. As such, researchers using this design can
only employ a relative passive approach to making causal inferences based on findings.

12. Longitudinal Research Design: A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time
and makes repeated observations. With longitudinal surveys, for example, the same group of
people is interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time and to

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relate them to variables that might explain why the changes occur. Longitudinal research designs
describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and magnitude of causal
relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two or more distinct time periods.
This allows the researcher to measure change in variables over time. It is a type of observational
study and is sometimes referred to as a panel study.

13. Observational Research Design: This type of research design draws a conclusion by
comparing subjects against a control group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the
experiment. There are two general types of observational designs. i) In direct observations,
people know that you are watching them. ii) Unobtrusive measures involve any method for
studying behavior where individuals do not know they are being observed. An observational
study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical and practical difficulties
of setting up a large and burdensome research project

14. Philosophical Research Design: Understood more as a broad approach to examining a

research problem than a methodological design, philosophical analysis and argumentation is
intended to challenge deeply embedded, often intractable, assumptions underpinning an area of
study. This approach uses the tools of argumentation derived from philosophical traditions,
concepts, models, and theories to critically explore and challenge, for example, the relevance of
logic and evidence in academic debates, to analyze arguments about fundamental issues, or to
discuss the root of existing discourse about a research problem. These overarching tools of
analysis can be framed in three ways:

 Ontology: the study that describes the nature of reality; for example, what is real and
what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?

 Epistemology: the study that explores the nature of knowledge; for example, on what
does knowledge and understanding depend upon and how can we be certain of what we
know?

 Axiology: the study of values; for example, what values does an individual or group hold
and why? How are values related to interest, desire, will, experience, and means-to-end?
And, what is the difference between a matter of fact and a matter of value?

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 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

A research philosophy is a belief about the way in which data about a phenomenon should be
gathered, analysed and used. The term epistemology (what is known to be true) as opposed to
doxology (what is believed to be true) encompasses the various philosophies of research
approach.

The purpose of science, then, is the process of transforming things believed into things known:
doxa to episteme. Two major research philosophies have been identified in the Western tradition
of science, namely positivist (sometimes called scientific) and interpretivist (also known as
antipositivist).

Positivism: Positivists believe that reality is stable and can be observed and described from an
objective viewpoint, i.e. without interfering with the phenomena being studied. They contend
that phenomena should be isolated and that observations should be repeatable.

This often involves manipulation of reality with variations in only a single independent variable
so as to identify regularities in, and to form relationships between, some of the constituent
elements of the social world.

Predictions can be made on the basis of the previously observed and explained realities and their
inter-relationships. "Positivism has a long and rich historical tradition. It is so embedded in our
society that knowledge claims not grounded in positivist thought are simply dismissed as
unscientific and therefore invalid. All the empirical studies are positivist in approach. Positivism
has also had a particularly successful association with the physical and natural sciences.

Interpretivism: Interpretivists contend that only through the subjective interpretation of and
intervention in reality can that reality be fully understood. The study of phenomena in their
natural environment is key to the interpretivist philosophy, together with the acknowledgement
that scientists cannot avoid affecting those phenomena they study. They admit that there may be
many interpretations of reality, but maintain that these interpretations are in themselves a part of
the scientific knowledge they are pursuing.

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NB What is the difference between Research Design and Research Method?

 Research design is a plan to answer the research question. A research design is the plan
of a research study. The design of a study defines the study type.

 A research method is a strategy used to implement that plan. Research design and
methods are different but closely related, because good research design ensures that the
data obtained will help you answer your research question more effectively

 Research methodology is the path through which researchers need to conduct their
research. It shows the path through which these researchers formulate their problem and
objective and present their result from the data obtained during the study period.

 Research method is a component of Research Design. Research design covers the overall
research that is about to be carried out. Research method is basically involved with data
collection method to carryout overall research.

Lesson 2

RESEARCH PROCESS

The research process outlines the steps involved in conducting a research study.
The first step is to define the research problem and develop research questions that are clear,
concise, and relevant to the field of study.
After developing the research questions, the next step is to conduct a literature review to
identify any gaps in knowledge and provide a foundation for the study.
The next step is to formulate research hypotheses that predict the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables in the study.
Once the research hypotheses have been developed, the next step is to select an appropriate
research design that can test the hypotheses and provide a clear answer to the research
questions. The research design should be based on the research question and should be able to
provide a rigorous and effective study.

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The next steps are to collect and analyze data using appropriate statistical methods, interpret
the results, and draw conclusions. The results should be interpreted in light of the research
question and hypotheses, and any limitations and implications of the study should be discussed.
Finally, the findings should be communicated to the appropriate audience in a clear and concise
manner. By following this research process researchers can conduct a rigorous and effective
research study that contributes to the field of study and advances knowledge in their area of
interest.

Step 1: Identify the Problem: The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a
research question. The research problem may be something the organization identifies as a
problem, some knowledge or information that is needed by the firm, or the desire to identify a
recreation trend nationally.

To select a research problem:

Brainstorm general topics that genuinely interest you. One way to ensure you have a topic
that’s of interest to you to pick a subject to which you have a personal connection.

Do preliminary research to pick a topic. Select your top choices from the list you created to
pursue further. Take time to do some background reading on each in general reference texts and
to do keyword searches in a library database to see what textual and online sources are available

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in relation to each potential topic. Then, select one to focus on that you find the most interesting
and that has sufficient resources to investigate.

In summary to select a topic

• start with an idea in which you are interested. What do you want to know about?

• talk with your class instructor about an idea;

• ask a librarian for help;

• do some background reading in a general or specialized encyclopedia, or other reference to gain

a better understanding of your topic. This will provide you with an overview and the history of
the topic, identify subtopics and related topics, discuss important people and specialized
vocabulary in the field, and basic statistics. Browse journals and newspapers for idea;

• do some preliminary research to see what is available.

Narrow your topic: choose a specific aspect of the subject; consider view point(s); focus on a
time period, geographic location, culture, individual or groups

Make it a question or a thesis statement: restate your topic in question form as a focused
research question; search to find the answer(s) to the question or the solution(s) to the problem
The research question or thesis statement provides the focus for your research.

Ensure: your topic is Original, Inventive and intriguing, Recent and timely, Suits your specific
interests and Ignites your curiosity for research.

Research variables: A variable is anything that the study is measuring. Normally there are two
categories of variables in a study:

Dependent variables: Dependent variables depend on other variables. For example, if someone
was studying the effects of pollution on asthma, the incidence of asthma would be the dependent
variable.

• When searching for relationships between variables, one is trying to find what makes the
dependent variable change.

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• The dependent variable is sometimes called the “response,” the “symptoms”, or the
“outcome”.
• The dependent variable is often the focus of the research study.
Independent variables: Independent variables aren’t affected by any other variables that the
study measures. For example, if someone was studying the effects of tooth-brushing on the
incidence of cavities, the tooth-brushing would be the independent variable.
• When searching for relationships between variables, one is trying to see if the independent
variable causes some kind of change in the dependent variable.
• The independent variable can be a “treatment”, a “risk factor”, an intervention, or a predictor.
• The independent variable could be a natural difference (such as gender), or it could be varied
by the researcher intentionally.

An independent variable affects a dependent variable, but a dependent variable can't affect
an independent variable.

Research Aims, Objectives and Research questions

The research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread) define the focus and
scope (the delimitations) of the research project. In other words, they help ring-fence the project
or thesis to a relatively narrow domain, so that one can “go deep” and really dig into a specific
problem or opportunity. They also help keep one on track, as they act as a litmus test for
relevance.

Research Aims: the research aim(s) is a statement that reflects the broad overarching goal(s)
of the research project. Research aims are fairly high-level (low resolution) as they outline
the general direction of the research and what it’s trying to achieve. These is also known as the
general objective of research.
Research Aims: Examples
Research aims usually start with the wording “this research aims to…”, “this research seeks
to…”, and so on. For example:
 “This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail
HR.”

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  “This study sets out to assess the interaction between student support and self-care on
well-being in engineering graduate students”
As you can see, these research aims provide a high-level description of what the study is about
and what it seeks to achieve. They’re not hyper-specific or action-oriented, but they’re clear
about what the study’s focus is and what is being investigated.

Research Objectives: The research objectives take the research aims and make them
more practical and actionable. In other words, the research objectives give us the steps that the
researcher will take to achieve the research aims.
The research objectives need to be far more specific (higher resolution) and actionable than the
research aims. In fact, it’s always a good idea to craft your research objectives using the
“SMART” criteria. In other words, they should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and
time-bound”.
Research Objectives Examples
 To assess employee perceptions of digital transformation in retail HR.
 To identify the barriers of digital transformation in retail HR.
 To determine the facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR.
Research Questions: The research questions are the key questions that the study will seek to
answer. Simply put, they are the core purpose of your dissertation, thesis, or research project.
You’ll present them at the beginning of your document (either in the introduction chapter) and
you’ll answer them at the end of your document (typically in the discussion and conclusion
chapters).
The research questions will be the driving force throughout the research process. For example,
in the literature review chapter, they’ll assess the relevance of any given resource based on
whether it helps one move towards answering the research questions.
Similarly, the research methodology and research design will be heavily influenced by the
nature of the research questions.
For instance, research questions that are exploratory in nature will usually make use of a
qualitative approach, whereas questions that relate to measurement or relationship testing will
make use of a quantitative approach.

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Research Questions Examples
Always stick with the research aims and research objectives. From the above the research
questions would be;
 How do employees perceive digital transformation in retail HR?
 What are the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR?
Assignment
1. Pick a topic of research in your area of study.
2. Develop three research objectives for this topic.
3. Develop three research questions for this topic.
4. Give the aim of your research.
5. Identify the independent and dependent variables in the research topic.
Research Hypothesis: A research hypothesis (or scientific hypothesis) is a statement about an
expected relationship between variables, or explanation of an occurrence, that is clear, specific
and testable.

A research hypothesis (also called a scientific hypothesis) is a statement about the expected
outcome of a study (for example, a dissertation or thesis). To constitute a quality hypothesis, the
statement needs to have three attributes – specificity, clarity and testability.

Specificity & Clarity: A good research hypothesis needs to be extremely clear and
articulate about both what’s being assessed (who or what variables are involved) and
the expected outcome (for example, a difference between groups, a relationship between
variables, etc.).

Alternative Hypothesis/ H1: Students who sleep at least 8 hours per night will, on average,
achieve higher grades in standardised tests than students who sleep less than 8 hours a night. The
statement is very specific as it identifies the variables involved (sleep hours and test grades),
the parties involved (two groups of students), as well as the predicted relationship type (a
positive relationship). There’s no ambiguity or uncertainty about who or what is involved in the
statement, and the expected outcome.

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Testability (Provability): A statement must be testable to qualify as a research hypothesis. In
other words, there needs to be a way to prove (or disprove) the statement. If it’s not testable, it’s
not a hypothesis.

For example, consider the hypothesis mentioned earlier: We could test this statement by
undertaking a quantitative study involving two groups of students, one that gets 8 or more
hours of sleep per night for a fixed period, and one that gets less. We could then compare the
standardised test results for both groups to see if there’s a statistically significant difference.

The null hypothesis/H0: At a simple level, the null hypothesis is the counter-proposal to the
original hypothesis.

For example, if the hypothesis predicts that there is a relationship between two variables (for
example, sleep and academic performance), the null hypothesis would predict that there is no
relationship between those variables.

At a more technical level, the null hypothesis proposes that no statistical significance exists in a
set of given observations and that any differences are due to chance alone.

During hypothesis testing two types of error are likely to occur:

Type I error: this will occur when a researcher rejects a null hypothesis that is actually true in
the population.
Type II error: occurs when the researcher fails to reject a null hypothesis that is actually false in
the population.

Formulation of the Selected Problem

The problem selected for research may initially be a vague topic. The question to be studied or
the problem to be solved may not be known. Why the answer/solution is wanted also may not be
known. Hence the selected problem should be defined and formulated. It requires intensive
reading of a few selected articles or chapters in books in order to understand the nature of the
selected problem. The researcher should read selected literatures, digest, think and reflect upon
what is read and digested. The researcher should also discuss with learned persons. Then only
can they gain insight into the selected problem and be able to define and formulate it.

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Sources of Research Problem

1. Reading: When a researcher critically studies books and articles relating to subject of
interest, pertinent questions may arise in our mind. Similarly, areas of research may strike
the mind when one reads research reports.
2. Academic Experience: Classroom lectures, class discussions, seminar discussions and
out-of-class exchanges of ideas with fellow students and professors will suggest many
stimulating problems to be studied.
3. Daily Experience: Life is dynamic. We learn new things and undergo new experiences
every day. If we are alert, inquisitive and sensitive to life situations, we may hit upon
questions worth of investigation. “It is a mark of scientific genius to be sensitive to
difficulties where less gifted people pass untroubled by doubt”.
4. Exposure to field situations: Field visits; internship training and extension work provide
exposure to practical problems that call for study.
5. Consultations: Discussions with experts, researchers, administrators and business
executives will help a researcher to identify meaningful problems for research.
6. Brain storming: Intensified discussion within a group of interested persons may often be
a means of identifying pertinent questions, and of developing new ideas about a problem.
7. Research: Research on one problem may suggest problems for further research.
8. Intuition: Sometimes new ideas may strike to one's mind like a flash. Reflective mind is
a spring of knowledge.

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