Higher National School of Renewable Energies, Environment & Sustainable Development

1st year preparatory class Physics 2

CH 0_VECTOR ANALYSIS
I. Field:
1) Definition:

In physics, a field is a physical quantity, represented by a scalar 𝑓 𝑥; 𝑦; 𝑧; 𝑡 or vector 𝑉⃗ 𝑥; 𝑦; 𝑧; 𝑡 that has a

value for each point in space and time. For example, on a weather map, the surface temperature is described by
assigning a number to each point on the map; the temperature can be considered at a certain point in time or over
some interval of time, to study the dynamics of temperature change. A surface wind map, assigning an arrow to each
point on a map that describes the wind speed and direction at that point, is an example of a vector field.

2) Classification:

A field can be classified as a scalar field or a vector field according to whether the represented physical quantity
is a scalar or a vector, respectively. For example, the Newtonian gravitational field is a vector field: specifying its
value at a point in spacetime requires three numbers, the components of the gravitational field vector at that point.

a) Scalar Fields:
Described by a single value at each point in space: Temperature distribution in a room, gravitational potential,
electric potential…
b) Vector Fields:
Described by vectors at each point in space: Electric field, magnetic field, velocity field in fluid dynamics…
3) Static and uniform fields:
a) Static Fields:
A field is said to be static if it doesn’t depend on time 𝑓 𝑥; 𝑦; 𝑧 .
b) Uniform Fields:
A field is said to be uniform if it doesn’t depend on space 𝑓 𝑡

II. Elementary calculus:

1) Cartesian coordinates:

𝑑𝑆⃗
𝑧

𝑀
𝑑𝑆 ⃗
𝑑𝑆 ⃗
𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑆 ⃗

𝑑𝑆 ⃗
𝑦
𝑂
𝑥
𝑀′
𝑑𝑆 ⃗

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a) Description:
This is the most common coordinate system, consisting of perpendicular axes (usually 𝑥, 𝑦, and 𝑧 in 3D)
with a point of origin (the intersection of the axes).
b) Importance:
It's widely used in mathematics, physics, engineering, and computer graphics for its simplicity and ease of
representing positions and distances.
c) Basis: 𝑂, 𝚤⃗, 𝚥⃗, 𝑘⃗ .
d) Coordinates:
∞ 𝑥 ∞
∞ 𝑦 ∞
∞ 𝑧 ∞
e) Position vector:
𝑟⃗ 𝑂𝑀⃗ 𝑥𝚤⃗ 𝑦𝚥⃗ 𝑧𝑘⃗
f) Displacement vector:
𝑑𝑙⃗ 𝑑𝑥𝚤⃗ 𝑑𝑦𝚥⃗ 𝑑𝑧𝑘⃗
g) Surface elements:
𝑑𝑆⃗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘⃗; 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝚥⃗; 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝚤⃗;
𝑑𝑆 ⃗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑘⃗; 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧𝚥⃗; 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ 𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧𝚤⃗;
h) Volume element: 𝑀

𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑧

2) Polar coordinates:
𝑂
a) Description:
It uses a radial distance and an angle to represent a point's location in a plane relative to a fixed origin.
b) Importance:
Useful for describing circular or radial patterns, as well as in engineering and navigation.
c) Basis: 𝑀, 𝑢 ⃗, 𝑢 ⃗ .
d) Position vector:
𝑟⃗ 𝑂𝑀⃗ 𝑟𝑢 ⃗
𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗
e) Polar coordinates:

𝑥 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑟 𝑥 𝑦 𝑀
⟺ 𝑦
𝑦 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜃 atan
𝑥 𝚥⃗ 𝜃
where 𝑂
0 𝑟 ∞
𝚤⃗
0 𝜃 2𝜋

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f) Unit vectors:
𝑢⃗ cos 𝜃 𝚤⃗ sin 𝜃 𝚥⃗ 𝚤⃗ cos 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗ sin 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗
⟺
𝑢⃗ sin 𝜃 𝚤⃗ cos 𝜃 𝚥⃗ 𝚥⃗ sin 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗ cos 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗
g) Displacement vector:
𝑑𝑙⃗ 𝑑𝑟𝑈⃗ 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑈 ⃗

h) Surface element:
𝑑𝑆⃗ 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑘⃗

𝑟𝑑𝜃

𝑟 𝑑𝜃

𝑂 𝜃

3) Cylindrical coordinates:
a) Description:
A variation of the polar system that adds a height or vertical coordinate, typically used to represent points in
3D space.
b) Importance:
Valuable in physics and engineering, especially when dealing with cylindrical objects or systems.
c) Basis: 𝑀, 𝑢 ⃗, 𝑢 ⃗, 𝑘⃗ .
d) Position vector:
𝑟⃗ 𝑂𝑀⃗ 𝑟𝑢 ⃗ 𝑧𝑘⃗
e) Cylindrical coordinates:
𝑘⃗ 𝑢⃗
𝑥 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝑟 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑟⃗
𝑦 𝑟 sin 𝜃 ⟺ 𝜃 𝑦
atan
𝑧 𝑧 𝑥
𝑧 𝑧
𝑂
where 𝑀 𝑢⃗
0 𝑟 ∞
0 𝜃 2𝜋
𝑟
∞ 𝑧 ∞ 𝜃
f) Unit vectors: 𝑀′

𝑢 ⃗ cos 𝜃 𝚤⃗ sin 𝜃 𝚥⃗ 𝚤⃗ cos 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗ sin 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗

𝑢⃗ sin 𝜃 𝚤⃗ cos 𝜃 𝚥⃗ ⟺ 𝚥⃗ sin 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗ cos 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗
𝑘⃗ 𝑘⃗ 𝑘⃗ 𝑘⃗

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g) Displacement vector:
𝑑𝑙⃗ 𝑑𝑟𝑈⃗ 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑈 ⃗ 𝑑𝑧𝑘⃗
h) Surface elements:
𝑑𝑆⃗ 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑧𝑈⃗; 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑘⃗; 𝑑𝑆 ⃗ 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑘⃗
i) Volume element:

𝑑𝑉 𝑟𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝑧

𝑑𝑆 ⃗

𝑑𝑆⃗
𝑑𝑆 ⃗

4) Spherical coordinates:

𝑑𝑆⃗

𝑀′

a) Description:
Uses radial distance 𝑟, polar (zenith) angle 𝜃, and azimuthal angle 𝜑 to specify 3D positions relative to a
fixed point.
b) Importance:
Ideal for spherical objects or celestial coordinates in astronomy.

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c) Basis: 𝑀, 𝑢 ⃗, 𝑢 ⃗, 𝑢 ⃗ .
d) Position vector:
𝑟⃗ 𝑂𝑀⃗ 𝑟𝑢 ⃗
e) Spherical coordinates:

⎧𝑟 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
𝑥 𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑 ⎪ 𝑧
𝑦 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑 ⟺ 𝜃 acos
𝑟
𝑧 𝑟 cos 𝜃 ⎨ 𝑦
⎪
⎩𝜑 atan
𝑥
where
0 𝑟 ∞
0 𝜃 𝜋
0 𝜑 2𝜋
f) Unit vectors:
𝑢⃗ sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑 𝚤⃗ cos 𝜃 𝑘⃗
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑 𝚥⃗ 𝚤⃗ sin 𝜃 cos 𝜑 𝑢 ⃗ cos 𝜃 cos 𝜑 𝑢 ⃗ sin 𝜑 𝑢 ⃗
𝑢⃗ cos 𝜃 cos 𝜑 𝚤⃗ cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑 𝚥⃗ sin 𝜃 𝑘⃗ ⟺ 𝚥⃗ sin 𝜃 sin 𝜑 𝑢 ⃗ cos 𝜃 sin 𝜑 𝑢 ⃗ cos 𝜑 𝑢 ⃗
𝑢⃗ sin 𝜑 𝚤⃗ cos 𝜑 𝚥⃗ 𝑘⃗ cos 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗ sin 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗
g) Displacement vector:
𝑑𝑙⃗ 𝑑𝑟𝑈⃗ 𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑈 ⃗ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜑𝑈 ⃗
h) Surface element:
𝑑𝑆⃗ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑𝑈⃗
i) Volume element:

𝑑𝑉 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑑𝑟𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜑

III. Circulation of a vector:

1) Definition:

𝑉⃗

𝑑𝑙⃗
𝐴

The circulation of a vector field commonly represented as

𝑑𝒞 𝑉⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗
or
𝒞 𝑉⃗ . 𝑑𝑙⃗

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measures the total "circulation" or "rotation" of a vector field around a given curve. It quantifies the net flow or
rotation of the vector field around the curve.
2) Properties:
- Circulation is a line integral, meaning it's evaluated along a closed path or curve.

- It can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on the direction and strength of the field within the curve.

- Circulation is a scalar quantity.

3) Interpretation:
Circulation helps understand the rotational behavior of vector fields, like fluid flow or magnetic fields, around
a closed loop. It's used in fluid dynamics, electromagnetism, and aerodynamics to analyze the circulation of forces
and fluxes.

4) Use:
- In mechanics, it’s used to calculate the work of a force.

- In fluid dynamics, it's used to determine the circulation of air around an airfoil.

- In electromagnetism, it's used to calculate magnetic circulation around closed loops.

IV. Flux of a vector:

1) Definition:
The flux of a vector field commonly represented as
𝑑Φ 𝑉⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗

or

Φ 𝑉⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗

measures the flow or distribution of a vector field through a surface. It quantifies how much of the vector
field penetrates the surface.

𝑉⃗

𝑑𝑆

2) Properties:
- Flux can be positive, negative, or zero, depending on the relative orientation of the vector field and the surface.

- It is a surface integral, computed over an open or closed surface.

3) Interpretation:
Flux is used to understand the flow of vector fields, like electric or magnetic fields, through surfaces. It's a
fundamental concept in electromagnetism, fluid dynamics, and heat transfer.
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4) Use:
- In Gauss's law for electricity and magnetism, flux is used to determine the electric and magnetic field through
a closed surface, which relates to the enclosed charge or current.

- In fluid dynamics, it's used to calculate the flow of fluid through a surface, relevant in applications like fluid
transport or hydrodynamics.

V. Solid angle:
1) Definition:
The solid angle (commonly denoted as Ω) is a measure of the size of a three-dimensional angle formed
by extending rays from a point 𝑂 to various points on the
limits of a 3D object. The elementary solid angle is given
𝑑Ω
by
𝑈⃗
𝑑𝑆⃗. 𝑈⃗
𝑑Ω
𝑟
2) Properties:
- The unit of solid angle is steradians (sr).

- The entire sphere subtends a solid angle of 4π steradians.

3) Interpretation:
Solid angles are used in geometry and physics to describe how much of the surrounding space an object covers
as observed from a particular point. It's particularly important in optics when discussing how much light or radiant
energy is emitted or received by a detector.

4) Use:
- In optics, solid angles are used to describe the angular extent of a light source or the angular acceptance of a
lens or sensor.

- In radiation physics, solid angles are used to quantify the radiation intensity of a source.

VI. Differential operators:

1) Total differential:
Let us consider the function 𝑓 𝑥; 𝑦; 𝑧 (scalar field that represents a physical quantity). The differential of
the function 𝑓 𝑥; 𝑦; 𝑧 in the cartesian coordinates is given by
𝜕𝑓 𝜕
⎛𝜕𝑥 ⎞ 𝑑𝑥 ⎛𝜕𝑥 ⎞
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 ⎜𝜕𝑓 ⎟ . 𝑑𝑦 ⎜ 𝜕 ⎟ 𝑓. 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝑑𝑓 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥; 𝑦 𝑑𝑦; 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 𝑓 𝑥; 𝑦; 𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 ⎜𝜕𝑦⎟ ⎜𝜕𝑦⎟
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 ⎜ ⎟ 𝑑𝑧 ⎜ ⎟
𝜕𝑓 𝜕
⎝ 𝜕𝑧 ⎠ ⎝ 𝜕𝑧 ⎠
∇⃗𝑓. 𝑑𝑙⃗
Where we have introduced the operator Nabla
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𝜕
⎛𝜕𝑥 ⎞
∇⃗ ⎜𝜕⎟
⎜𝜕𝑦⎟
⎜ ⎟
𝜕
⎝ 𝜕𝑧 ⎠
2) Nabla operator:
a) Definition:
Nabla, often represented as ∇⃗, is a vector operator in vector calculus. It is used to denote various differential
operators that operate on scalar or vector fields. In Cartesian coordinates, ∇⃗ is defined as:

𝜕
⎛𝜕𝑥 ⎞
⎜𝜕⎟ 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇⃗ ⎜𝜕𝑦⎟ 𝚤⃗ 𝚥⃗ 𝑘⃗ 𝚤⃗ 𝚥⃗ 𝑘⃗
⎜ ⎟ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕
⎝ 𝜕𝑧 ⎠

b) Properties:
- Nabla is a vector operator.

- It can operate on scalar fields to give the gradient, and on vector fields to give other important derivatives like
divergence and curl.

- In different coordinate systems, the expression of ∇⃗ changes, but the basic idea remains the same.

In cylindrical coordinates

𝜕
⎛ 𝜕𝑟 ⎞
𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕𝑢 ⃗ 𝜕 𝜕 1 1 𝜕 𝜕
∇⃗ ⎜1 𝜕 ⎟ 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑘⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑘⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑘⃗
⎜𝑟 𝜕𝜃 ⎟ 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧
𝜕
⎝ 𝜕𝑧 ⎠

In spherical coordinates

𝜕
⎛ 𝜕𝑟 ⎞
⎜ 1 𝜕 ⎟ 𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕 1 𝜕𝑢 ⃗ 1 𝜕 1 𝜕𝑢 ⃗
∇⃗ ⎜ 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 ⎟ 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗
⎜ ⎟ 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑
1 𝜕
⎝𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑⎠
𝜕 2 1 𝜕 1 𝜕
𝑢⃗ tan 𝜃 𝑢 ⃗ 𝑢⃗
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑

3) Gradient operator:
a) Definition:

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The gradient, represented by 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑⃗ , is an operator used in vector calculus. It is applied to scalar fields
to produce a vector field. In Cartesian coordinates, it is defined as:
𝜕𝑓
⎛𝜕𝑥 ⎞
⎜𝜕𝑓 ⎟ 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑⃗ 𝑓 ∇⃗𝑓 ⎜𝜕𝑦⎟ 𝚤⃗ 𝚥⃗ 𝑘⃗
⎜ ⎟ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑓
⎝ 𝜕𝑧 ⎠

In cylindrical coordinates

𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑⃗ 𝑓 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑘⃗
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

In spherical coordinates

𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕𝑓 1 𝜕𝑓
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑⃗ 𝑓 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑

b) Properties:
- The gradient is a vector operator.

- It provides the direction of steepest ascent of a scalar field.

- Its magnitude represents the rate of change of the scalar field in that direction.

c) Interpretation:
The gradient measures how a scalar field changes with respect to space. It points in the direction of the
maximum increase of the scalar field, and its magnitude quantifies the steepness of the slope.

d) Use:
The gradient is fundamental in various applications, including physics, engineering, optimization, and solving
differential equations. It helps find the direction of maximum increase for scalar fields like temperature, pressure, or
concentration

4) Divergence operator:
a) Definition:
Divergence, represented by 𝑑𝑖𝑣, is an operator that takes a dot product of the Nabla operator with a vector
field. It produces a scalar field. In Cartesian coordinates, it is defined as:

𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐴⃗ ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

In cylindrical coordinates

𝜕𝐴 𝐴 1 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴⃗ ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧

In spherical coordinates
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𝜕𝐴 2𝐴 tan 𝜃 𝐴 1 𝜕𝐴 1 𝜕𝐴
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴⃗ ∇⃗. 𝐴⃗
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑

b) Properties:
- The divergence is a scalar operator.

- It quantifies how a vector field's magnitude spreads or diverges at a specific point.

- Positive divergence indicates a source, while negative divergence indicates a sink (target).

c) Interpretation:
Divergence measures the flux of a vector field out of or into a point in space. It characterizes the local
expansion or compression of the field.

d) Use:
Divergence is widely used in fluid dynamics to describe fluid flow, in electromagnetism to understand electric
and magnetic fields, and in heat transfer to study conduction.

5) Curl operator:
a) Definition:
Curl, represented by 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑙⃗ or 𝑟𝑜𝑡⃗, is an operator applied to a vector field, producing another vector field. In
Cartesian coordinates, it is defined as:

𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
⎛ 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 ⎞
𝑟𝑜𝑡⃗𝐴⃗ ∇⃗ ∧ 𝐴⃗ ⎜ 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 ⎟
⎜ 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴
⎝ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 ⎠

In cylindrical coordinates

1 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝐴 1 𝜕𝐴
𝑟𝑜𝑡⃗ 𝐴⃗ ∇⃗ ∧ 𝐴⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗ 𝑘⃗
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

In spherical coordinates

1 𝜕𝐴 1 𝜕𝐴 𝜕𝐴 𝐴 1 𝜕𝐴
𝑟𝑜𝑡⃗ 𝐴⃗ ∇⃗ ∧ 𝐴⃗ tan 𝜃 𝐴 𝑢⃗ 𝑢⃗
𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝜕𝜑
𝜕𝐴 𝐴 1 𝜕𝐴
𝑢⃗
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

b) Properties:
- The curl is a vector operator.

- It measures the local rotation or circulation of a vector field.

- The curl points in the direction of rotation and has a magnitude representing the strength of rotation.

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 Higher National School of Renewable Energies, Environment & Sustainable Development
1st year preparatory class Physics 2
c) Interpretation:
Curl describes the circulation of a vector field at a specific point. It helps identify vortices, eddies, or rotational
patterns.

d) Use:
Curl is essential in electromagnetism to understand electromagnetic induction, Maxwell's equations, and the
behavior of electric and magnetic fields. It is also used in fluid dynamics to study the rotation of fluids, like in
tornadoes or whirlpools.

6) Laplacian operator:
a) Definition:
The Laplacian, represented as ∇⃗ or ∆, is an operator that takes the divergence of the gradient of a scalar field.
In Cartesian coordinates, it's given by:

𝜕 𝜕
⎛𝜕𝑥 ⎞ ⎛𝜕𝑥 ⎞
⎜ 𝜕 ⎟.⎜ 𝜕 ⎟ 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∆ ∇⃗. ∇⃗ ⎜𝜕𝑦⎟ ⎜𝜕𝑦⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕
⎝ 𝜕𝑧 ⎠ ⎝ 𝜕𝑧 ⎠
b) Properties:
- The Laplacian is a scalar operator that acts on both scalar and vector fiels.

- It measures the local curvature or variation in a scalar field.

c) Interpretation:
It quantifies how the value of a scalar field or a vector field changes at a specific point.

d) Use:
Laplacian operators are used to solve Laplace's equation, Poisson's equation, and the heat equation in physics,
engineering, and mathematics.

7) D'Alembertian operator:
a) Definition:
The D'Alembertian operator, represented as , combines the Laplacian with the second partial derivative with
respect to time. In Cartesian coordinates, it's given by:

1 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 1 𝜕
∆
𝑣 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝑣 𝜕𝑡
b) Properties:
- It combines spatial and temporal derivatives.

- It is used to describe wave-like phenomena, such as the wave equation.

c) Interpretation:
The D'Alembertian operator characterizes the behavior of scalar fields as functions of both space and time.
Dr. Yahia SAADI 11 2024/2025
 Higher National School of Renewable Energies, Environment & Sustainable Development
1st year preparatory class Physics 2
d) Use:
It is used in the wave equation to describe the propagation of waves, such as electromagnetic waves and sound
waves.
8) General proprieties:

Let us consider two vector fields 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ , two scalar fields 𝑓 and 𝑔 and a constant 𝜆, we can easily show the
following proprieties:
⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯ ⎯⎯⎯
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓. 𝑔 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 . 𝑔 𝑓 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑔

⎯⎯⎯
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 Δ𝑓

𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝜆𝐴⃗ 𝜆𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴⃗

⎯⎯⎯
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑓. 𝐴⃗ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 . 𝐴⃗ 𝑓. 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴⃗

⎯ ⎯
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴⃗ ∧ 𝐵⃗ 𝐵⃗. 𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝐴⃗ 𝐴⃗. 𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝐵⃗

⎯
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝐴⃗ 0

⎯ ⎯⎯⎯
𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 0⃗

⎯ ⎯ ⎯⎯⎯
𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝐴⃗ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐴⃗ Δ𝐴⃗

VII. Integral transformations:

1) Stokes theorem:

⎯
𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑙⃗ 𝑟𝑜𝑡 𝐴⃗ . 𝑑𝑆⃗

2) Green-Ostrogradsky theorem

𝐴⃗. 𝑑𝑆⃗ 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑉

3) The gradient formula:

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑⃗ 𝑓 𝑑𝑉 𝑓. 𝑑𝑆⃗

4) The curl formula:

𝑟𝑜𝑡⃗𝐴⃗ 𝑑𝑉 𝑑𝑆⃗ ∧ 𝐴⃗

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