College of Information and Communication Technologies

Department of Computer Science and Engineering

AC Bridges

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 1

 AC Bridge Introduction (1/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

In general, AC bridge has a similar circuit design as DC bridge, except that

the bridge arms are impedances as shown in Figure 9.

 The impedances can be either pure

resistances or complex impedances
(resistance + inductance or resistance
+ capacitance). Therefore, AC bridges
are used to measure inductance and
capacitance are based on the
Wheatstone bridge.

 Some impedance bridge circuits are

frequency-sensitive while others are
Fig 9: General AC bridge circuit
not. The frequency-sensitive types may
be used as frequency measurement
devices if all component values are
accurately known.
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 2
 AC Bridge Introduction (2/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Inductance Capacitance

A simple AC bridge circuits are shown above

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 3

 AC Bridge Introduction (3/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

 The usefulness of AC bridge circuit

is not restricted to the measurement
of an unknown impedance. These
circuits find other application in
many communication systems and
complex electronic circuits, such as
for:
shifting phase, providing
feedback paths for oscillators or
amplifiers;
Fig 9: General AC bridge circuit
filtering out undesired signals;
measuring the frequency of audio
signals.
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 4
 AC Bridge Introduction (4/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

 AC bridge is excited by an AC
source and its galvanometer is
replaced by a detector. The
detector can be a sensitive
electromechanical meter
movements, oscilloscopes,
headphones, or any other device
capable of registering very small
AC voltage levels.
 AC bridge circuits work on the
same basic principle as DC
bridge circuits: that a balanced
Fig 9: General AC bridge circuit
ratio of impedances (rather
than resistances) will result in a
“balanced” condition as
indicated by the null-detector.
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 5
 AC Bridge Introduction (5/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

The operation of the bridge depends on the fact that

when certain specific circuit conditions apply, the
detector current becomes zero. This is known as the
null or balanced condition. Since zero current
means that there is no voltage difference across
detector, the bridge circuit may be redrawn as in Fig.
10. The voltages at point a and b and from point a to
c must be equal.

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 6

 AC Bridge Introduction (6/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Fig. 9: General AC bridge circuit

Fig. 10: Equivalent of balanced

AC bridge circuit

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 7

 AC Bridge Introduction (7/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Definition of electrical impedance

 The impedance of a circuit element is defined as the ratio of the

phasor voltage across the element to the phasor current through
the element:
Vr
ZR 
Ir
 It should be noted that although Z is the ratio of two phasors, Z is
not itself a phasor. That is, Z is associated with some sinusoidal
function of time.
 For DC circuits, the resistance is defined by Ohm's law to be the
ratio of the DC voltage across the resistor to the DC current
through the resistor:
VR
R
IR
where the VR and IR above are DC (constant real) values.

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 8

 AC Bridge Introduction (8/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Definition of Reactance, X
 Reactance is the imaginary part of impedance,
and is caused by the presence of inductors or
capacitors in the circuit. Reactance is denoted by
the symbol X and is measured in ohms.
 A resistor's impedance is R (its resistance)
and its reactance, XR is 0.
 A capacitance impedance: XC = -1/C
= -1/(2fC)

 An inductive impedance: XL = L = 2fL

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 9
 AC Bridge Introduction (9/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Z and Y passive elements

Element Impedance Admittance

R Z= R Y= 1/R

L Z= jωL Y=1/j ωL

C Z=-j(1/ωc) Y=j ωc

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 10

 AC Bridge Introduction (10/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

 The dash line in the figure indicates

that there is no potential difference
and no current between points b and
c. The voltages from point a to point b
and from point a to point c must be
equal, which allows us to obtain:

I1Z1  I 2 Z 2
 Similarly, the voltages from point d to
point b and point d to point c must
also be equal, leading to:

I1Z3  I 2 Z 4 Fig. 10: Equivalent of balanced

(nulled) AC bridge circuit

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 11

 AC Bridge Introduction (11/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Dividing the two equations, we obtain:

Z 1 Z2

Z3 Z 4
which can also be written as;

Z1Z 4  Z 2 Z3
Fig. 10: Equivalent of balanced
(nulled) AC bridge circuit

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 AC Bridge Introduction (12/12)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

 If impedance is written in the form Z  Z

where Z represents magnitude and  the phase angle
of complex impedance, its can be written as,

( Z11 )( Z 4 1 )  ( Z 2  2 )( Z 3 3 )

where
Z1Z 4 (1   4 )  Z 2 Z 3( 2   3 )

Equations above show two conditions when AC bridge is

balanced:
First condition shows that the products of the
magnitudes of the opposite arms must be equal: Z1Z4 = Z2Z3
Second condition shows that the sum of the phase angles
of the opposite arms is equal: ∟θ1+ ∟θ4 = ∟θ2+ ∟θ3
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 13
 Example
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

The impedances of the AC bridge in Figure below are

given as follows:

Z1  20030  0

Z 2  1500  0

Z 3  250  40 
0

Z x  Z 4  unknown

Determine the constants of the unknown arm.

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 14

 Solution (1/2)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

 The first condition for bridge balance requires that

Z1Zx =Z2Z3
Zx = (Z2Z3/Z1) =[(150x250)/200]
= 187.5
 The second condition for balance requires that the
sums of the phase angles of opposite arms be equal

1+ x = 2 + 3
x = 2 + 3 - 1
= 0 + (-40) – 30
= -70o
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 15
 Solution (2/2)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Hence, the unknown impedance Zx, can be

written as

Zx = 187.5 -700 = (64.13 – j176.19) 

where Zx  = Zx cos  + j Zx sin 

Indicating that we are dealing with a

capacitive element, possibly consisting of a
series resistor and a capacitor

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 16

 Question
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Figure: AC bridge in balance

Given the AC bridge of Figure above is in balance, find

the components of the unknown arms Zx.
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 17
 Introduction (2/2)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Types of bridge circuits are used in measurement:

1) DC bridge:
a) Wheatstone Bridge
b) Kelvin Bridge

2) AC bridge:
a) Similar Angle Bridge
b) Opposite Angle Bridge/Hay Bridge
c) Maxwell Bridge
d) Wein Bridge
e) Radio Frequency Bridge
f) Schering Bridge
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 18
 a) Similar Angle Bridge
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

The similar angle bridge (refer figure below) is used to

measure the impedance of a capacitive circuit. This bridge is
sometimes called the capacitance comparison bridge of the
series resistance capacitance bridge.
Z1 = R1
Z2 = R2
Z3 = R3 –jXc3
Zx = Rx –jXcx

R2
Rx  R3
R1
R1
Cx  C3
R2
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 19
 b) Opposite Angle Bridge
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

The Opposite Angle Bridge or Hay Bridge (see Figure

below) is used to measure the resistance and inductance of
coils in which the resistance is small fraction of the
reactance XL, that is a coil having a high Q, meaning a Q
greater than 10.

 2 R1 R2 R3C12
Rx 
1   2 R12 C12

R2 R3 C1
Lx 
1   2 R12 C12

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 20

 c) Maxwell Bridge
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Maxwell Bridge: To determine an unknown inductance

with capacitance standard
1
Z1 
1
 jC1
R1

Z 2  R2
Z 3  R3

Z x  Rx  jX Lx

R 2 R3
Rx  Lx  R2 R3C1 X - reactance
R1
Z = R + jX
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 21
 d) Wein Bridge (1/2)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

The Wein Bridge shown in Figure below has a series RC

combination in one arm and a parallel combination in the adjoining
arm. It is designed to measure frequency (extensively as a
feedback arrangement for a circuit). It can also be used for the
measurement of an unknown capacitor with great accuracy.

Z1  R1
Z 2  R2
1
Z3 
1 1

R3 jX c 3
Z 4  R4  jX c 4

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 22

 d) Wein Bridge (2/2)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Equivalent R1 
 R4  2
1 

R3  2 
parallel R2   R4C4 
component
R2 1
C3  ( )C4
R1 1   R4 C4
2 2 2

R1  1 
C4   C3  2 2 2 
R2   R3 C3 
Equivalent
series R2 
R4  
R3 

2 2 2 
component R1  1   R3 C3 

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 23

 e) Radio Frequency Bridge
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

The radio frequency bridge shown in figure below is often

used in laboratories to measure the impedance of both
capacitance and inductive circuits at higher frequencies.

R3 '
Rx  (C1  C1 )
C2
11 1
Xx  ( '  )
 C4 C4

C’1 & C’4 : new values of

C1 & C4 after rebalancing

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 24

 f) Schering Bridge
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Schering Bridge: Used for measuring capacitors and their

insulating properties for phase angle of nearly 90o.

Zx =Rx –j/Cx
Z2 = R2
Z3 = -j/C3
Z1 = 1/(R1 + jC1)

R2 C1 R1C 3
Rx  Cx 
C3 R2
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 25
 Summary
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

 The Wheatstone Bridge – most basic bridge

circuit. Widely used to measure instruments and
control circuits. Have high degree of accuracy.
 Kelvin Bridge – modification of Wheatstone
Bridge and widely used to measure very low
resistance.
 Thevenin’s theorem – analytical tool to analyzing
an unbalance Wheatstone bridge.
 AC bridge – more general form of Wheatstone
bridge.
 Different types of AC bridges differ in the types of
impedances in the arms
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 26
 Questions????
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UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 27

 College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Error Measurement

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 28

 1. DC Bridge (1/2)
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UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 29

 1. DC Bridge (2/2)
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UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 30

 2. AC Bridge (1/4)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

There are different sources of errors in AC bridges, which

are;

1. Stray Conductance Effects :

If there is no proper insulation between various components of a

bridge circuit, errors may arise because of leakage currents
from one arm to another. This mainly happens for a high
impedance bridge. To overcome this variable components and
other pieces of apparatus are mounted on an insulating stand.

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 31

 2. AC Bridge (2/4)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

2. Eddy Current Errors :

The induced eddy currents in the standard resistors and

inductors change the standard values of the bridge, causing
errors. To avoid such errors. The materials with large
conductivity masses should not be placed near the bridge.

3. Errors due to Electrostatic Coupling :

The Inter-capacitance effect arises if the adjacent branches

of a bridge network are at a different potential. In other
words, the electric field of the branches interacts thus
introducing errors. Effective shielding by means of covering
elements with earthed metallic shields can minimize this
error.
UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 32
 2. AC Bridge (3/4)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

4. Errors due to Electromagnetic Coupling :

If there is electromagnetic coupling between the source and

detector, an emf is induced in the detector directly from the
source. The zero indication of the detector is obtained only
when the bridge supplies the voltage which is equal in
magnitude and opposite in phase as that of induced emf.

5. Residual Errors :

Residues mean small inherent inductance or capacitance that

are used in bridge circuits and are assumed to be non-inductive
and non-capacitive but in practice, their inductance and
capacitance are never zero. So, it is necessary to evaluate
these components otherwise these errors will creep in.
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 2. AC Bridge (4/4)
College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

6. Frequency Errors :

The frequency of the supply system plays a vital role in

causing errors in the supply system i.e., the presence of
harmonics in supply causes variations in the sinusoidal
waveform due to which the appreciable crosses are
generated.

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 34

 College of Information and Communication Technologies
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

The end…

UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 35

 Questions????
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UDSM, 31.01.2022 CS211: AC and DC Bridges Page 36