Contents

Chapter no. Name of Chapter Page

Chapter 1 Introduction of Testing.……...………………… 5
Chapter 2 Moisture re Regain & Content ….…..…...……. 9
Chapter 3 Fibre Length Measurement ……...…..………... 26
Chapter 4 Yarn Count ………… ………………………… 31
Chapter 5 Yarn Twist ……………………….……………. 49
Chapter 6 Sampling .. …………………………………….. 58
Chapter 7 Maturity…....………………………………….. 67
Chapter 8 Fineness ... …………………………………….. 73
Chapter 9 Tensile Properties ….……………….…………. 82
Previous Year Questions …..………………….. 95

Chapter

1 Introduction of Testing
Objective of Testing:
1.Research: The results of testing in research will help the scientist to
decide which route to follow next. What appears to be sound theory
is often disproved by experiment and other lines of reasoning must
then be pursued.
2. Selection of Raw material: Raw material is a relative term. The
raw material of spinner is the fibre. The raw material of the weaver
is yarn and that of the finisher is cloth . There may be variation in
their quality.
Fibres may be vary in length, Colour, fineness, and strength etc.
Yarns may vary in count, strength, twist (TPI)
Fabrics may vary in threads per inch. EPI, PPI, and shrinkage
The testing of fibers is generally not so important when
dealing with MMF because they are supplied to customer’s
requirements and their properties including length, colour and
fineness are determined and controlled during their manufacture.
3. Process Control :
Spinning Weaving Dyeing Finishing.
Yarn process:
Input M/c Out put
Fibre Blow Room Lap
Lap Carding Carded sliver
Carded sliver Draw frame Drawn sliver
Drawn sliver Speed frame Roving
Roving Ring frame Yarn.
End breakage should be controlled by controlling weight per lap
length, sliver length, roving length or yarn length. Weaving process
should be controlled the excessive breakage of warp and weft yarn,
EPI, design.

2
 Dyeing process should be controlled by M: L, pH, temp, pressure.
Finishing process controlled by softness.
4. Product Control: The end product of a process should full fill the
desired quality.
Spinning process Yarn: Count, Twist.
Weaving process Fabrics: EPI, PPI, Shrinkage.
Dyeing process Colour matching, fastness properties.
Finishing process Finished fabrics: Softness.
5. Process Development: To avoid unnecessary waste of time and
money and improve the end product (quality) may change the
machine design and setting. May add or discharge some process.
6. Product development: The testing of the product helps in the
continual search for new knowledge. To produce new item first
should develop a sample as like desired product. It may change as
demand customer.
7. Specification test: To re produce a product first should test the
specification to the material.
Specification of yarn Count, Strength.
Fabric EPI, PPI, Shrinkage.
Finished Fabric Fastness, softness etc.
Garments Measurement of garments
(length, chest, sleeve etc.)

Difference between Process and product control:

1. In process control , proper utilization of raw materials and
auxiliaries but in product control not proper utilization
2. Process control is producer /manufacturer oriented but product
control is consumer oriented,.

3
 3. Be process control we can analyze the time study, process study,
costing and way of cost minimization But product control don’t
give any information about production time, process line.
4. Process control is independent but product control is dependent
5. By process control it is possible to take necessary action for
correction in production process but after production it is not
positive to recovery the defected the defects /faults.

Input Processing Output

Desizing Finished mtls.
+ (dyed)
Grey fabric
Scouring i.e. matching
+
+ fastness, strength,
Auxiliaries → →
Bleaching residual chemical
Dyes,
+ Dyeing+ Printing+ and mechanical
Chemicals
Finishing properties,
thickener.

Quality control :
Quality is an attribute property special features.
The nature , kind or character of any material is known quality. Control
is to check or verify and hence to regulate. So quality control is the
checking verification and regulation of the degree of excellence of an
attribute or property of material.

Quality Controlled by 3΄Ms : Quality control is governed by three M΄s.

Men,
Machine and
Materials.

4
Men: Top management Activities of Coordination , administration,
Technical Supervision.
80% responsibility Top management.
Knowledge about demand of market, statistic, development of
technical.
Quality controller Control the testing laboratory, rum and maintain
the machine.

Machine: Machine should be selected on basis of skill ness of technical

or operator.
May select more refined and complex machine for highly trained
technicians or simpler and more easily maintainable m/c for poor
skilled technicians.

Materials: The selection of raw material is a key factor in success or

failure of the product.

Quality cycle (Dewing cycle):

Quality Failure Cost of Production Volume

Invest Return

Expansion

Employment

Service to Society

5
Quality of testing Man:
1. Should have knowledge about the demand of market.
2. Should have proper technical knowledge and skill ness to run
the testing instrument.
3. Should have idea about statistics for representation of testing
results.
4. Should have stillness about application of result.
5. Should have idea about development of technical.

Chapter

2
Moisture Regain and Moisture Content:
Moisture re Regain & Content
Moisture regain is defined as the weight of water in a material
expressed as a percentage of the over dry weight of the material
OR
The ratio of water in a material to the oven dry weight of this material
is called moisture regain. It is donated by R.
Let, oven dry weight of a material =D
Weight of water in this material =W

Moisture Regain, R=
Moisture Content: Moisture content is defined as the weight of water
in a material expressed as a percentage of the total weight of the
material OR
6
The ratio of water in a material to the total weight of the material is
called moisture content. It is denoted by C.
Let, Oven dry weight of a material =D
Weight of water in this material =W

Moisture Content,

Relation between Moisture Regain and Moisture Content:

Moisture regain is defined as the weight of water in a material as a
percentage of the oven dry weight.
Let, Oven dry weight of a material =D
Weight of water in this material =W

Moisture regain, (1)

Moisture Content: Moisture content is defined as the weight of water

in a material express as a percentage of the total weight of the material

Moisture Content, (2)

From equation (1) we get

Putting the value of D in equation (2) we get.

7
 =

(3)
Again from equation (3) we get.

R(1-C/100)=C

___________(4)
Equation (3) and (4) express the relation between Moisture regain and
Moisture content .
Standard Moisture Regain and Moisture Content:
Material M.R % M.C%
Cotton 8.5 7.34
Flax & Hemp 12 10.4
Viscose 11 9.91
Silk 11 9.91
Nylon 4 3.1
Polyester 0.4 0
Jute 13.75 12.1
Wool fabric 16
Wool fibre 16
Wool yarn 18.25

8
 Acetate 6
Acrylic 1.5
Standard Atmosphere: Standard atmosphere is defined as an
atmosphere at the prevailing barometric pressure with a relative
humidity of 65% and Temperature of 20˚C (68˚F).
For tropical and Sub tropical countries.
Standard temperature is 27˚C /81˚ F.
Testing Atmosphere: An atmosphere for testing is defined as the
atmosphere with a relative humidity of (65% 2%) and Temperature of
(20˚C 2˚C) or (68˚F 4˚F).
In tropical and sub tropical countries /regions the difficulties of
achieving a temp of 20˚C are understood and so a higher standard
temperature may be used 27˚C 2˚C (81˚F 4˚F)

Relative humidity: The ratio of the actual vapour pressure to the

saturated vapour pressure at the same temp express as a percentage is
defined as relative Humidity.

Relative humidity= x100%

Alternative definition for relative Humidity is the ratio of the absolute

of the air to that of air saturated with water vapour at the same temp
and pressure. The ratio be express as a percentage.

9
Absolute Humidity: Absolute humidity is the weight of water present
in a unit volume of moist air i.e. grains per cubic foot or grams per cubic
meter.
Humidity: Humidity is the term used to describe the moisture existing
in the atmosphere.
Advantage: Under ideal humidity conditions the following advantages
are realized in processing:
1. Reduced in generation of static electricity.
2. Materials are more easily workable due to pliability.
3. Reduced in amount of dust and fly.
4. Allows for the retention of moisture already within the
materials.
5. Permits greater bodily comfort for personnel in cold weather.
6. Breakage affinity reduced due to higher yarn strength.

Effect of Humidity:
1. Dimension: Fiber will be coarser due to absorption of water in
diameter. For this length reduced due to increased of width of
fibre. For this fabric will be shrinkage.
2. Mechanical properties:

Factors affecting the regain of textile material:

The factor which affect the moisture regain of textile material are as
follows:
1. Time
2. Temperature
3. Relative humidity.
4. Previous history of the material
5. Type of the material.
1. Time:
10
 ● Suppose two sample of the same material were taken into a
given atmosphere, one completely wet and the other dry and at
intervals of time the regain values of each were determined. By
plotting the regain against time for both samples, two curves
would be obtained.
● The regain change fairly quickly at first and then more slowly
as equilibrium condition are approached. The rate of
conditioning depends on several factors such as the size and
form of the sample the material external conditions etc.
● For example in testing yarn count, the yarn in hank is
conditioned for at least one hour in atmosphere before reeling
incase of other package at least 3 hours are required.

Fig: Regain time curves and hysteresis

2. Temperature:
● For practical purpose the effect of temperature on regain is not
so important because of the effect of temperature play a very
little role on regain.
● A change of 10˚C will give a change in the regain of cotton of
about 0.3 % which can be ignored.

11
3. Relative Humidity:
● The regain of a textile
material depends upon
the amount of moisture
present in the
surrounding air.
● The dampness of the
atmosphere can be
described in terms of
humidity either
absolute humidity or relative humidity.
● If relative humidity is more, the Moisture regain of fibre is also
more and when Relative humidity is less, the Moisture Regain
of fibre is lower. So relative humidity is proportional to the M.
R of textile materials.
● That means if R.H is high it indicates that there is more water
vapour in the atmosphere and hydrophilic textile material get
the chance to absorb more moisture from air.
● The less the R.H , the less will be the water absorbing from the
atmosphere by textile goods.

4. Previous history of the material:

● From hysteresis effect, it has been seen that the same material
will show different regain when they absorb moisture from wet
and dry condition.
● Processing can also change the regain.
● After chemical treatment, oil, wax, and other impurities are
removed and the regain may change.

12
 ● The physical and chemical history of a material must be taken
into consideration.
● For example the regain of scored wool is 16% and for oil combed
tops 19%.
5. Type of materials:
● Different fibres have different moisture regain.
● For example, silk has regain of 11% and nylon has only 4% . The
form of material is also important in case of regain.
● For example the regain of yarn (woolen and worsted) is 18.25
and that of cloth (woolen and worsted) is 16%.

● From the above curve we can say that wool and viscose rayon
show the similar absorption carves while nylon shows a low
absorption property.

Effects of Regain on fiber properties:

1. Dimension /Physical properties:

13
 ● Absorption of moisture affects the dimension of fibers in various
ways.
● Swelling is mostly transversal (Area swelling) because water
molecules penetrate between the more or less parallel molecular
chains and exert their forces out wards.
● The length of the fibre increases due to absorbed moisture but
in case of fabrics moisture absorbing causes fabric shrinkage.

Swelling% =
Dimension changes of some fibers due to absorption of moisture is
tabulated bellow

Fibre Transverse of area swelling Axial or Longitudinal

Cotton 21 1.1
Wool 25 1.2
Silk 19 1.3-1.7
Viscose 60 4-7
Acetate 8 0.3
Nylon 3.2 1.5
Advantage of swelling is to produce a water proof fabric. Swelling play
a great role to make more weave which prevents the penetration of
water.
2. Mechanical properties:
● The water molecules in the fiber reduce size of the holding forces
the molecular chains together is a result of which fibres become
weak.
● But the strength of vegetable fibres such as cotton and flax is
increased by swelling.

14
 ● Not only maximum strength is reduced but the stress – strain
curve assumes a different form.
● Other mechanical properties affected by regain include
extensibility, crease
recovery flexibility etc.
3. Ellectrical properties:
● M R affects the electrical
resistance of the fibre
greatly.
● The ratio of the resistance
at low regain and at high
regain can be of the order
of hundreds of thousands
to one.
● That’s why, the design of moisture meters in based on the
measurement of resistance values of textiles.
● High regain does not allow to form static electricity on fibre
surface.
● Other electrical properties affected by the amount of moisture
in the material are the dielectric characteristics and the
susceptibility of static troubles.
4. Thermal properties:
● When moisture is absorbed by textile material, heat is generated.
This heat is known as heat of absorption.
● When the dry sample is completely wetted, the heat evolved,
expressed in calories per gram of dry material is termed as heat
of wetting.
● Thermal effects play vital role in the field of clothing.

15
 ● If a wollen jacket of 1 kg weight is passed from 18˚C and 45%
R.H to an atmosphere of 5˚C and 95% R.H, it will produce
100,000 calories os heat.
Correct invoice Weight: The weight obtained after adding standard
moisture regain of the material with the oven dry weight is called
Correct Invoice Weight or conditioned weight.
That is ,
C.I.W= Oven dry weight +standard moisture regain.
Let, C= the oven dry wt of the consignment
S=the original wt of the sample.
d = the oven dry wt of the consignment.
W = the wt of the consignment at the time of sampling
Then,

For samples dried out without cleaning,

Correct invoice weight =

Where R1 is the official allowance for moisture regains.
For samples dried out after cleaning,

Correct Invoice Weight=

Where (R+A+B) is the total allowance for M.R. natural grease, wax, fatty
matter, added oil, dressing etc.
R= Standard M.R
A,B = Impurities removed at the time of cleaning.
For blended materials,

16
Let, the ratio of blending is

The M.R of material

Total allowance =

CIW (For blended material) =

Calculation CIW of 70/30 cotton /Nylon. if oven dry wt of
consignment is 150 grams.

Allowing, x=

CIW=

Importance of CIW : In commercial transactions where textile material

are paid for by wt it is clearly necessary to have agreement between
buyer and seller on the exact wt to be paid for. The buyer certainly does
not wish to pay for excess water at the price per lb of the textile material.
A correct Invoice Weight is therefore determined. When a consignment
is delivered and weighed a sample is taken and tests made to enable the
correct invoice wt to be calculated.
So the importance to CIW is very much in business.

Conditioned Count: The count determined on the basis of CIW in called

conditioned count.

17
 Conditioned Count=

Measurement of R.H: Atmosphere condition:

Wet and Dry bulb Hygrometer :

Construction:
● There are two thermometers, one of them is uncovered which
determines the room temperature, is dry bulb thermometer
and another bulb is surrounded by a wet sleeve of muslin
which determines the lowest /cooling temp, the muslin sleeve
dips into a reservoir of distilled water .
● A table of Relative Humidity is kept between the two
thermometers from which the percentage of R. H is
determined by the difference of temperature.

Principle:
● Since wet bulb thermometer is surrounded by a wet sleeve of
muslin in an atmosphere which is not saturated, Water
evaporates into the air at a rate which is proportional to the
difference between the actual humidity and 100% i.e.
saturation condition.

18
 ● Further since the evaporation is accompanied by cooling the
temperature indicated by the thermometer will be less then the
room temp.
● By mounting identical thermometer in a frame and arranging
one of them to have a wet muslin sleeve over its bulb, two
temps can be read directly the dry bulb and wet bulb.
● The difference is noted and tables consulted from which the
percentage R.H is derived.

Calculation:
Let,
Dry bulb reading =68˚F
Wet bulb reading=61˚F
Difference in reading=7˚F
For difference 7˚ F, R.H % from table =67%
Uses: It is generally used in mills and industries.
Advantage: The R. H can be determined quickly.

19
Disadvantage: The results are not sufficiently accurate for purpose of
testing because of radiation effect and lack of suitable environment
around the instrument.
The WIRA Electronic Hygrometer: /Electrolytic Hygrometer:
● The main component of this instrument is an element
consisting of a plastic frame carrying platinum clad electrodes.
● A skein of very fine impregnated with a chemical, such as
lithium chloride, which has the property of very rapidly
attaining equilibrium with the surrounding atmosphere.

Fig: The WIRA electrical hygrometer.

● Thermostor is a semiconductor whose electrical resistance
varies greatly with variation in temperature. It is very small
and therefore requires an air flow of much lower velocity for
obtaining the true wet bulb temperature.

20
 ● The probe containing a thermostat in the end is inserted in the
material. Theremistors A and B form one arm of a bridge of
which C forms an opposing arm.
● With the switch in position 1 the meter reads the difference
between wet and dry bulb temperature in the external
chamber and in position 3 the temperature in the interior of
the material.
From these three readings the regain of the material can be derived.
Advantage:
● It gives reading very quickly and in change of R. H %
● Electrical instruments are much easier to read accurately
because the reading is given on the dial.
● Low air currents are needed therefore forced air circulation is
unnecessary.
● The instrument can be modified to produce a permanent
record of the changes in the R.H %
Measurement of R.H :
The C.S.I.R.O Direct Reading Regain Tester:
Construction:
● The rapid drying device is a vertical free standing unit about
three feet.

21
 Fig: The C.S.I.R.O. Direct Reading Regain Tester.
● It consists of a heater, a thermostat control and an air blower.
● An aluminum sample can which fits in the pot of the dryer has
perforations both in the base and the lid to allow the passage of
air but small enough to prevent the loss or any of the sample.
Calculation:A proportional balance is used and this gives a pointer
deflection which depends upon the ratio of the undried wt to the dried
wt w1
So this is independent of the actual values.

Percentage Regain= 100 x

=
Procedure:
● To make a test the wool is packed firmly into the can so that
channeling of the hot air is minimized.
● The cold can and sample are placed on the balance and the
instrument is adjusted to read zero.
● The can is then clamped in the dryer and hot air blown through
for about six minutes.

22
 ● The hot can and dried sample are replaced on the balance and
the pointer indicates regain directly.
● The range of the apparatus is
form 1.5% to 30 % regain .
The accuracy of this instrument is
within 0.5 % and if further correction is
made for the moisture content of the air
the accuracy can be 1/3 percent.

Reynolds and Branson Rapid Regain

Tester:
Principle :
● The basic principle of this method is weighing the sample in its
original condition, driving off the moisture, re- weighing and
calculating the regain from the weightings.
● The samples are weighed in tare containers fitted with caps over
each end.
● When the weighing is carried out solid caps are used but when
the container pushed into the drying unit one cap is removed
and the other replaced by a perforated cap to prevent loss of
material and to allow the passage of air.
● A thermostatically controlled current of hot air is own through
the sample for about 15 min after which the solid caps are
replaced and the container weighed.
● The process is repeated ,this time drying for about 5 min.
● When Successive weightings indicate that a constant weight is
obtained , the regain is then calculated.
Calculation: Weight of container + Stopper = W1
Weight of container+ Stopper+ Sample (Wet) =W2
Weight of container+Stopper +Sample (Dry) =W3
23
So, Weight of Moisture=W2-W3
And Oven dry wt=W3-W1

Regain=

Hysteresis effect: Factor affecting :

Time : The two curve would not meet, but curiously enough the
equilibrium regain values differ. The sample which was originally wet,
has a lower regain values as in same temperature. This effect is known
Hysteresis effect.

24
 Chapter

3
Staple length: A quantity estimated by personal judgment by which a
Fibre Length
sample of fibrous raw mtl is characterized, as regards its technically
Measurement
most important fibre length.
In short, the average length of a spin able fibres is called staple length,
Staple length = 0.91×Effective length (American upland)
Staple length = Effective length (Egyptian cotton)
Effective length: It is the term defined as the length of the main bulk
of the longer fibres. It is obtained by a geometrical construction on the
comb sorter diagram.

Mean/ Average length: In comb sorter diagram, the sum of the base

line reading divided by base line length gives the mean length in

Modal length: It is the length of the group of fibres where the most
number of fibres have equal length.

Span length: It is the term by which we can determine the percentage

of fibers length in case of cotton, wool etc. that is more realistic than the
sorter technique.

25
Assume fibers are brought by a
clamp, after removing all fibers
from the right side of the clamp. Let
1200 fibers are caught by the clamp.

Now it the clamp is displaced to the

right side at a distance of ‘D’ Let
now 300 fibre i.e. 2.5% of 1200 fibers
caught by the clamp after
displacing the clamp to the distance
of ‘D’. so, it is said span length 2.5%

The Shirley comb sorter: The m/c consists of a bed of which controls
the fibres and enable the sample to be fractionalized into length groups.

Nine bottom combs and eight top combs are used. Each set spaced

apart except the first two both combs which are in apart. The

distance form a raw of bottom needles to a row of top needles is

The sample is carefully drawn and doubled several times until the
fibres are straightetend and parallelised:
The method of sorting as follows:
I) Placing the sample on the comb- The sorter should be placed
with the back towards the operator and top combs should be
lifted. The prepared sample should be slightly twisted and
placed in the lower combs, at the right hand side of the sorter
with a small tuft protruding.
II) Removal of loose fibres- The loose fibres are removed from the
projecting end, until a straight edge is formed as A
26
 III) Combing and transferring to the left hand side of the sorter- The
tuft is pulled from the sample, and combed several times and
transferred to the left hand side of the sorter and straight at
right angles of the comb.

IV) Repeating the process- The process is repeated until all the
samples of lint are transferred to the left hand side of the sorter.
V) Turning round the sorter- The sorter is now turned round so
that the front faces the operator and longest fibres projects
towards to the operator.
VI) Lowering the top comb: The top combs shall be lowered and
fitted in the rack so as to grip the tuft.
VII) Dropping the lower comb- The lower combs shall be dropped
successively until the tips of longest fibres are seen.
VIII) Arranging the fibres on the velvet pad- The fibres shall be
pulled out in tufts of successively shorter length by means of
the grip. The fibres shall be combed, straightened and laid
down on the velvet pad with the straight edge against the
marked line as fig(b)

27
Analysis of comb sorter: After the simple fibre are arranged form
longer to sorter ones,

a transparent paper is placed on velvet pad and a line diagram of the

fibre arrange is drawn on paper. The comb sorter diagram is below-

i) Q is the mid point of OA ie. OQ = OA

ii) From Q draw QP´ parallel to OB to cut at P´
iii) Drop the perpendicular P´P

iv) Mark off OK equal to OP and erect the perpendicular

K´K
v) S is the mid point of KK´
vi) From S draw SR΄ parallel to OB to cut the curvature R΄
vii) Drop the perpendicular R΄R

viii) Mark off OL equal to OR

ix) Erect the perpendicular L΄L

Result:
28
 i) Effective length: Effective length is the length of the main
bulk of longer fibre.

ii) Average length/ Mean length:

Sum of the base line reading divided by base line length
iii) Maxm Length = OA
iv) Modal length: LL΄
v) Percentage of short fibre: This the percentage of fibre less
than half the effective length.

vi) Dispersion: In fig L΄L is upper quartile and M΄M is the

lower quartile where

The difference between L΄L and M΄M, NL΄ is the inter quartile
range.

vii) Staple Length = 0.91×LL΄ (American Upland cotton)

= LL΄ (Egyptian cotton)

Chapter

4 Yarn Count
Yarn count: Count is the numerical expression which
expresses/indicates coarseness or fineness of yarn.
29
A definition of yarn count is given by the Textile Institute: “Count, a
number indicating the mass per unit length or the length per unit mass
of yarn.”
Basically, Two types of yarn counting system-
i) Direct system- Tex, denier, lb/spindle
ii) Indirect system- English, metric, worsted.

i) Indirect system: In this system, the count of yarn expresses the no

of length units in one weight unit. Higher the count, finer the yarn.
This system is generally used for cotton, worsted, linen(wet spun)
etc.
Let N = The yarn number or count.
W = The weight of the sample.
w = The unit of weight of the system.
L = The length of the sample.
= The unit of length of the system.

Then,
ii) Direct system: In this system, the count of yarn expresses the
no of weight units in one length unit. Higher the count, coarser the
yarn. This system is generally used for Man made fibre, jute, silk
etc.
Let N = The yarn number or count.
W = The weight of the sample.
L = The length of the sample.
= The unit of length of the system.

Then,

30
Count in different system:
i) Tex: Count in the Tex system is the weight in grams of 1000m or
1 km of yarn.

ii) Denier: The number or count in the denier system is the weight in
grams of 9000m or 9 km of yarn.

iii) Pounds per spindle(Jute system): The yarn number or count in the
pound per spindle system is the weight in pounds of 14400 yards
of yarns of yarn.

iv) English system: The yarn number or count is defined as the

number of hanks 840 yds per pound.
If one pound of yarn contain 20 hanks of 840 yds, then in English
system count will be 20 Ne. It denoted by Ne.

v) Metric: It is defined as the no of hanks (1000m) per kg eg. if one

kg of yarn contain 40 hanks of 1000m, then in metric system count
will be 40 Nm. It is denoted by Nm.

vi) Worsted: It is defined as the number of hanks(560 yds) per pound

eg. If one pound of yarn contain 20 hanks of 560 yds, then in
worsted system count will be 20 worsted.

vii) Millitex: Count in the Militex system is the weight in milligram

of 1 km of yarn.

31
 viii) Kilotex: Count in the kilotex system is the weight in kilogram
of 1 km of yarn.

ix) Wollen: Count in wollen system is the weight in grain of 20 yds

of yarn.

Conversion of count system:

There are 4 systems for conversion of yarn count from one system to
another system:
1. Indirect to Indirect.
2. Direct to Direct.
3. Indirect to Direct.
4. Direct to Indirect.
1. Indirect to Indirect:

Where, NR = Count of required system

Nk=Count of known system

= Unit length of known system

= Unit length of required system

= Unit weight of required system

= Unit weight of known system

Example: Cotton count

2. Direct to Direct:

32
Example: Denier
3. Indirect to Direct:

4. Direct to Indirect:

Calculation of conversion factor:

1. English(Cotton count) to Denier:
From count conversion system,
Indirect to Direct,

33
2. Denier to English:s
Direct to Indirect system,

3. Denier to Tex(Prove: denier = 9×Tex):

Direct to Direct system,
34
4. English to Metric system:
Indirect to Indirect system,

5. Tex to English:

Relation between yarn dia and and count:

35
Pierce approached the problem from a consideration of the apparent
specific volume of a yarn. By experiment an apparent specific volume
of 1.1 for cotton yarns was obtained.
So, specific volume of yarn = 1.1 cm3/gm
i.e. The weight of 1.1 cm3 yarn = 1 gm
let, yarn count = N tex
wt of 1000 m yarn is N gm
Length of N gm yarn is 1000 m

Length of 1.0 gm yarn is

So, length of 1.1cm3 (volume) yarn is cm

Since, The volume = Cross section × Length

Converting cm to inches and Tex to cotton count,

36
Count calculation of double yarn:
Indirect system:

N= Resultant count, N1, N2 are component thread.

Direct system:
N = N1 + N2

Problem 01:
A double yarn is produced from 40’s single. Find out the resultant
count of double yarn.
Soln:
In Indirect system,

Average count:
Produced yarn count Production of the yarn
20 Ne 5000
30 Ne 3000
40 Ne 2000

37
Soln:
Let total prodn of the yarn = y lbs = (5000+3000+2000)lb = 11000 lb
Hank of 1st yarn = 20×5000 = 10000
Hank of 2nd yarn = 30×3000 = 9000
Hand of 3rd yarn = 40×2000 = 8000
------------------------------------------------
Total hank = (say) = 117000

Average count =

Measurement of count:
1. Warp reel and balance method.
2. Quadrant balance method.
3. Knowles balance.
4. Beesleys balance.
5. Sliver, roving count by measuring drum.
6. Count data system.
7. Auto sorter by Uster.

1. Warp reel and balance method: By this standard method, of count

testing, the count of any type of a yarn can be calculated.
Principle: The count of yarn is numerical expression which indicates
coarseness or fineness of yarn. There are two system of determining
yarn count,

38
 i) Indirect system,

ii) Direct system,

Where, N = The yarn number or count.
W = The weight of the sample.
w = The unit of weight of weight of the system.
L = The length of weight of the sample.
= The unit of length of the system.
Apparatus: Warp reel, Balance, Weight box
Specimen: Cotton yarns in hank form.

Working principle:

● At first warp reel was adjusted accordingly and yarn was

passed from the cone through the guides.
● The length of the sample was measured by the warp reel
counter.
39
 ● In case of cotton, the circumference of warp reel is 1yd and
required yarn is 120 yards. Again in case of jute, warp reel
circumference is 2.5yds and required yarn is 300 yds.
● In case of cotton ,warp reel is driven by motor and in jute warp
reel is manually operated. In case of cotton warp stops
automatically when the specified amount of yarn is wound on
it.
● Then the sample is weighted by balance.
● The operation is repeated 12 to 16 times and taking their means,
count is calculated in direct system.

2. Quadrant balance method:

Quadrant balance is one type of typical balance. This is direct reading
instrument. The count can be directly measure from quadrant balance.
Scope: Count of small length of yarn up to 40 yds can be measured
directly form this device. The weight of the sample of fabric can also be
measure.
Principle: The count of yarn expression coarseness or fineness of yarn.

i) Indirect system,

ii) Direct system,

40
Appratus: Quardarnt balance,
Measuring scale, Blade.
Specimen: Cotton yarn in
Roving or Sliver form.
Working procedure:
● A given length of
sample (4yds of cotton)
was measured by
measuring scale.
● Adjusting the quadrant
balance the sample is
hung in its hook and from the respective scale, count is
directly measured.
● Three types of scales are present in Quadrant balance-
ii) 4 yds for Sliver(Hank)
iii) 20 yds for Roving(Hank)
iv) 840 yds for Yarn(Count)
● The operation is repeated 16 times and mean is calculated. The
mean will be the count.

3. Knowles balance:
Construction:
● By Knowles’s balance we can measure the count of yarn. This is
a type of beam balance.
● The beam of the balance has a hexagonal section rod.

41
 ●On this rod A, B, C, D and E are the 5 individual faces
calibrating in count scale up to a certain range. These faces can
be brought to the viewer by turning a screw placed one side of
the rod.
● Again for every face ‘A to E’ there is a separate wt calibrating
A, B, C, D and E.
● On the beam there is an moveable rider which can move on the
scale to make the beam balanced.
Procedure:
● To measure the count of yarn, 120 yds of sample yarn is placed
on the right hand pan of the balance and any of the 5 (A-E)
were placed on the left hand pan.
● Then the turning screw is turned and the corresponding is
kept on pan then the scale is brought in front.
● For example, if weight ‘B’ is kept of pan then the scale B will
brought in front.
● At this stage, the balance will be unbalanced.
● Now by sliding the rider on the scale the beam is balanced.
● Now the position of rider one scale will indicate the yarn count.
42
4. Beesleys balance:
Scope: When a cotton yarn is supplied in short length or removed from
fabric, the count of yarn can be measured by a special type of balance
is called Beeseley’s balance.
Principle:
● The instrument consists of simple beam with a small hook at
one end and a pointer at other end.
● The beam is initially leveled to bring the pointer opposite to
datum line.
● A standard weight is hanged in a notch on the beam arm on
the pointer side of the pivot.
● A template is used to cut short fibres of yarn. These short
length yarns are added on hook until the pointer is opposite to
the datum line.
● The yarn count is the number of fibres required to balance.

Working principle:

● Firstly the selection of template i.e. short(half) cotton, long(

) cotton. This selection depends upon available of the sample.
● The yarn is cut by using template and blade.
43
 ● The cut yarn is hung at the hook and counted their number.
● The whole, operation was repeated for 10 times and their mean
gives the result.
Use: To measure the count of yarn of a small piece of fabric this balance
can be used.

Mathematical Problems:
Direct system:
System Unit Mass Unit length
Tex gram 1 km or 1000m
Denier gram 9 km or 9000m
lb 14,400 yds

Woolen Grain 20 yds

Indirect system:
System Unit Mass Unit length
English(Ne) lb 840 yds
Metric(Nm) Kg 1 km
Worsted lb 560 yds(Hank)

Conversion:
✔ Denier = 9×Tex
✔ Ne×denier = 0.5315
✔ Metric×Tex = 1000
✔ Tex×Ne = 590.5
✔ Ne = Metric×0.5905
✔ Metric×Denier = 9000

44
 ✔

Problem 01: A lea (120yds) of cotton yarn weighs 25 grain. Calculate

its count in English system.
Soln:

Problem 02: If a skein of 100 m of Viscose Rayon weighs 1.67 gm.

Calculate denier.
Soln:

Problem 03: Weight of 1 lea is 1.6 grams. Find out the yarn count in
Nm system.
Soln:

45
Problem 04: Find the weight of yarn when Tex = 40 & length = 25,000
yds
Soln:

Problem 05: A yarn count is 40’s. find out the lea count of that yarn
without using conversion.
Soln:

46
Problem 06: A trading corporation provide you a 24.3 Ne yarn. Find
out the Tex and denier of that yarn.
Soln:

Problem 07: 2000m of nylon yarn 1.6g find denier,Tex, Ne, Nm and
worsted count of yarn.
Soln:

47
 Chapter

5
Yarn twist:
Yarn Twist
48
According to Skinkle, “Twist is the measure of the spiral turns given to
a yarn in order to held the constituent fibres or threads together.”
According to Morton, “When a strand is twisted the component fibres
tend to take on a spiral formation, the geometric perfection of which
depends on their original formation.”
According to WIRA, “Twist may be defined as the rotation about the
yarn axis of any line drawn on the yarn which was originally, i.e. before
twisting parallel to the yarn axis.”
According to Textile Institute, “Twist is the spiral disposition of the
components of a thread which is usually the result of relative rotation
of the two ends.”

Twist direction:
The direction of twist is indicated by the use of the letters ‘S’ and ‘Z’ in
accordance with the following convention:
I) S-twist: A single yarn has S twist if when
it is held in the vertical position, the fibres
inclined to the axis of the yarn conform in
direction of slope to the central portion of
the letter S.
II) Z-twist: The yarn has Z-twist if the fibres
inclined to the axis of the yarn conform in
direction of slope to the central portion of
the letter Z.

Amount of twist:
The amount of twist in a thread means the number of turns of twist per
unit length in the twisted condition.

49
If n be the number of turns of twist in l (inch)

length of yarn then the amount of twist =

Amount of twist expressed in-
I) Twist PerInch (TPI)
II) Twist Per Meter (TPM)
III) Twist Per Centemeter (T.P.Cm)

Relation betn Twist angle and Yarn count:

The figure represents an idealized element of a yarn, showing one fibre
on the yarn surface following a helical path and making one turn round
the yarn axis.
The twist angle  is the angle
betn a tangent to the helix
formed by the fibre and
yarn axis. By ‘unrolling’ the
surface layer it is seen that
the fibre becomes the
hypotenuse of a right-
angled triangle.
Let the yarn diameter be d
inches and let be the
length of yarn occupied by one complete turn of twist.

Then,

And

There fore,

50
In indirect system the yarn diameter is proportional to the reciprocal of
the square root of the count.

Thus,
From (iii) & (iv),

Here k = is termed the twist factor or twist multiplier which is directly

proportional to the tangent of the twist angle.
In direct system, the form of relationship betn per unit length, Twist
factor and count will be changed. The yarn dia will now be directly

proportional to the square root of the yarn number. i.e.

Twist factor or twist multiplier:

In indirect system, the yarn diameter(d) is proportional to the
reciprocal of the square root of the count.

Thus,
But we know,

51
Here k is known as twist factor or twist multiplier. This twist multiplier
is directly proportional to the tangent of twist angle.
But in case of direct system, Twist factor is the product of turns per
meter and square root of yarn count.

Function of Twist in yarn structure:

● Without twist a strand of fibres has very little strength and in
the first instance a yarn must have sufficient tensile strength to
withstand the stresses of preparation and fabric manufacture.
● The main function of twist is to give coherence to the yarn. In
order to develop strength in a twisted strand of discontinuous
fibres and so resist breakage, the individual fibres must grip
each other when the strand is stressed. This cohesion arises
mainly from the twist, which presses the fibres together as the
stretching force is applied and so developing friction between
adjacent fibres.
● If the twist is low, the fibres can be made to slide past one
another, buy if it is large they can not and the only effect
increasing the tension is, in the end, to rupture the strand by
breaking the component fibres.

Effect of twist on fabric properties:

By varying the amount and direction of twist the fabric designer can
achive a variety of fabric effects. Some of these are visual, some are
concerned with handle and drape and some are mechanical e.g. related
to strength or resistance to abrasion.

52
 I) Shadow stripe effect: In an woven cloth the warp threads
in alternate bands of S and Z twist. A subdued strip effect is
observed in the finished cloth due to the difference in the
way in the incident light is reflected from the two sets of
yarns.
II) Twill line effect: The twill line in fabrics based on the twill
weave can be subdued or brought into greater prominence
by choice of twist direction.
III) Crepe surface and curl formation: Highly twisted yarns
tend to twist upon themselves and produce snarls and crepe
yarns used to obtain the characteristics crepe surface. After
given a wet treatment of woven cloth, drying is done
without tension, then crepe yarn tends to curl up and relax,
shrinkage occurs and the well known crepe surface is
produced.
IV) Fancy fabric product: Twisted yarn always tends to be
untwisted. If highly twisted yarn is loosen, yarn itself
become untwist. This property is called snarls. By using this
property fancy fabric is prepared.
V) Other properties: Twisting in yarns help to form absorbent,
stiffs, handling, air permeability and well heat conductor
fabrics. It increases tensile strength of fabric.

Relation between Twist & Yarn strength/ Effect of twist in yarn

strength:
The strength verses twist curve can be divided into two section:
1) A low twist region in which the effect of cohesion out-weights
that of obliquity, giving rise to an increase in strength slow at
first up to the point at which fibres may just begin to break and
increasing rapidly as more and more fibres break.
53
 2) A high twist region in which further increase in cohesion no
longer produces and increase in strength since the majority of
the fibres break, while the increasing inclination of the fibres
causes the strength to fall. The division betn the two regions
corresponds to the twist at which the maxm strength is relaised.
At this twist the greater proportion of the fibres break.

Optimum Point
Importance of twist:
St i) The shape of yarn become round dye to twist.
re ii) Increase tensile properties of yarn due to twist.
Breaking
n iii) The more twist is increased
Point still the const value, the yarn
gt
become so strength.
iv) The inter-cohesion affinity of fibres increases due to twist
Twist
and do not open the fibres easily.

Measurement/Determination of yarn twist:

Method Instrument
1. Single untwist method. Ordinary twist tester.
2. Fibre straightened
method.
3. Single twist-untwist
method.
4. Double twist-untwist Semi Automatic Method.
method.
5. Multiple twist-untwist Automatic twist tester
method.
Twist measurement of plied
yarns:

54
 Method Instrument
1. Ordinary twist tester.
2. Take up twist tester.
3. The quadrant twist tester.

Ordinary twist tester(fibre straightened method):

Constriction:
● In this method, a ordinary twist tester is used by which the twist
of 1 yarn can be determined.
● This instrument has two jaws betn which 1 yarn is set.
● It has a revoluation counter which counts the number of
untwisting turns of the yarns.
● For counting the no of turns required for the yarns untwisting
there is a revoulion counter in the instrument.
● Again a lens is used to watch the number of revoluation
accurately.

Procedure:
● At first the yarn is set between two jaws.
● Then a weight is hung at one end of the yarn for a fixed tension.
● The yarn is led through the fixed jaw, over a guide pulley.
● After closing the fixed jaw the turns are removed by rotating
the handle in the appropriate direction.

55
 ● The end point may be judged by eye with the help of a small
lens, but greater presision can be obtained by the use of a
dissecting needle.
● When most of the twist is removed, the needle is pushed
through the fibres close to the fixed jaw and gently moved
towards the rotating jaw.
● Any residual twist turns upto the latter and removed by a final
adjustment.
● The no of turns removed is read from the revoluation counter
and recorded.
● From the results of fifty tests the mean and the co-efficient of
variation are then calculated.

Semi Automatic Twist Tester:

Features:Features of a semi automatic twist tester as-
i) 10 long yarn is taken as a sample to measure twist.
ii) The m/c is users friendly, in diplay screen 4 different languages are
installed for showing output results.
iii) The programmes are automatically executed.
iv) The whole system is electronically controlled.
v) It keeps uniform system on yarn.
vi) A printer can be linked for documentation and showing output
results.

56
Procedure:
● In this m/c nominal/common TPI is adjusted.
● A 10” yarn is clamped manually inside rotating and frss clamp.
● Then ‘Edit’ button is pressed to select single or double twist-
untwist method.
● Then ‘Enter’ button is pressed to set that method.
● Then by processing ‘Start’ button the untwisting process
begins.
● The untwisting is seen by magnifying glass.
● After the yarn been totally untwisted the m/c is stopped and
the result is seen from ‘Display’ unit.
● Then result can be printed necessary.

Probm:-01:
Calculate the TPI of 20 Nm cotton yarn assuming TM = 4.2
Indirect system,

Chapter

57
6 Sampling
Sample:
A sample is a relatively small fraction which is selected to represent a
population. i.e. sample is a selected separate unit or part which acts as
a representative of a lot, consignment or design. A sample is used to
illustrate the qualities and the defects of the whole lot.
Suppose a bale of cotton weighing about 500 lb is to be tested and the
information required is the staple length of cotton fibre. By using a
suitable sampling method, 20 mg cotton fibre is taking for testing.
So, Bale weight (in mg) = 500 x 453.6 x 1000
= 226,800,000
Sample weight (in mg) = 20
Sample wt / Bale wt = 20/226,800,000 = 1/11,340,000
Thus less than one eleven millionth of the bulk could represent the bale.

Sampling:
The process by which a sample is collected from a large number of mtls
is called sampling.

Objects of sampling:
I) To prevent the wastage of time.
II) To reduce cost.
III) To assure good quality.
IV) To know the perfect characteristics of population.
V) To avoid the destructive nature of many tests.
VI) To increase the quality of population/ raw mtls.

Factors which govern sampling methods:

The sampling methods which are governed to a large extent by
factors such as following:
I) The form of the mtl.
58
 II) Amount of mtl available.
III) Nature of the test.
IV) Type of testing instrument.
V) Information required.
VI) Degree of accuracy required.

Types of sampling methods:

There are basically two types of sampling methods:
1. The Random sampling methods.
2. The Biased sampling methods.

1. The Random sampling method:

— In Random sampling method, every individual in the
population has and equal chance of being included it.
— The number in the sample must be sufficiently large to
include all the variations of the individuals in the
population.

2. The Biased sampling method:

— In biased sampling method, the selection of an
individual is influenced by the factors rather than
chance.
— Hence a sample does not truly represent the bulk.
— The cause of the bias may be the physical characteristics
of the individual, its position relative of the person
doing the sampling.
— The longer fibres have a greater chance of being selected
from a strand of mtl than the short fibres.

59
Difference between Random sampling & Biased sampling method:
Random sampling Biased sampling
1. Every individual in the 1. Every individual in the
population has an equal population has not an equal
chance of being included it. chance of being included it.

2. It is not influenced by the 2. It is influenced by the factors

factors. i.e. Physical i.e. physical characteristics.
characteristics.
3. Not depending on the 3. Depending on the position of
position of the sampling the sampling person.
person.
4. A sample truly represents the 4. A sample does not truly
bulk. represent the bulk.

5. The sample/ test result is not 5. The sample result is

dependable and acceptable. dependable and not
consistent.
6. Random method is 6. It may be negligible.
considered best.

Sampling for determining fibre properties: Fibre sampling method:

1. Length and extent biased sample.
2. The squaring technique.
3. The cut squaring method.
4. The zoning technique.
5. The tong sampling method.
6. The core sampling method.
The zoning technique for Raw cotton:

60
If the bulk of the material is not homogeneous, a number of sub
samples must be taken at random from different places in the bulk. The
number of sub samples depends upon the degree of heterogeneity of
the bulk and may be found by experiment.
The following procedure for preparing a sample for the stapling test by
comb sorter.
Step 1: From the bulk, a sample of about 2 oz is prepared by
selecting about eighty large tufts chosen, so far as is
possible, over the bulk.
Step 2: Divide this sample into four quarters.
Step 3: Take sixteen small tufts at random from each
quarter, size approximately 20 mg.
Step 4: Each tuft shall be halved four times, discarded
alternately with right and left hands and turning the
tuft through a right angle between successive
helving. Sixteen ‘wisps’ are thus produced from
each quarter sample.
Step 5: Combine each set of wisps into a tuft.
Step 6: Mix each tuft in tuft by doubling and drawing
between the fingers.
Step 7: Divide each tuft into parts.
Step 8: Obtain four new tufts by combining a part of each of
the former tufts.
Step 9: Mix each new tuft again by doubling and drawing.
Step 10: Take a quarter from each tuft to make the final
sample.

61
62
Tong sampling method:
● In the tong sampling method and extent biased sample is
obtained. In effect, the grip of a pair of surgical tongs becomes
equivalent to the line AA in figure the material should be in a
more or less parallel order, and so slivers, rovings and yarns
can be treated in this way.
● After opening out the material into a thin flat sheet, one pair
of tongs is used to clamp about three groups of fibres at right
angles to the fibre direction.
● The clamped fibres are then removed from the rest of the
material and carefully combed on one side of the tongs and
after combing, a second pair of tongs clampes the fibres on
the combed side of the sample as shown in figure, care being
taken to ensure that the limbs of both pairs of tongs are
parallel to each other and in contact.
● The first pair of tongs is then removed and the uncombed
fringe combed. The fully combed sample is then transferred
to a velvet pad ready for further testing.

Yarn sampling method:

Yarn sampling:
Yarn is available as a number of independent packages and the
problem of sampling is the selection of a small number of such
packages from a large number. The population may be frames of ring
bobbins, a skip of mule cops, a bundle of hanks, or a delivery of yarn
on cones. A random sample is preferred and for mill experiments and

63
research great care is taken to ensure that this type of sample is
obtained.

Method:
1. Determination of count.
2. Count of yarn removed from fabric.
3. Twist in yarn in package form.
4. Lea strength of spun yarns.
5. Single thread tensile test.
1. The determination of yarn count:
● At first either 16 or 8 packages of a unit sample is taken. The no.
of skeins to be taken from the unit sample for the test is sixteen.
Take these skeins 16 separate packages.
● For spun yarns from cops, spgn frame bobbins; take sixteen
packages. The skeins should be wound from the top portions of
eight of the packages and from about half-way through the
remaining eight.
● With large packages such as cones and cheeses, take eight
packages and wrap two skeins from each; where there is done
it is preferable to take one skein from the outer portion and one
from near the middle. For continuous filament yarns, one skein
only needs to be taken from the outside of each of sixteen cones
or cheeses.

64
 2. Count of yarn removed from
fabric:
For warp sample:
● Rectangular strip along
warp direction minimum
2 strips.
● Each warp strip contains
at least 50 ends.

For weft sample:

● At least 5 rectangular weft strip
containing minimum picks of each
strip.
● Weft strip be different package of
weft yarn.
3. Twist in yarn in package form:
— Taker the test specimen in equal numbers from ten
packages.
— 1 yd yarn should be removed from the free end as free
end is untwisted easily.
4. Lea strength of spun yarn:
— Take twenty packages from each of which a complete
lea may be withdrawn.
— If twenty packages are not available a smaller multiple
of four packages may be used. Provided that in taking
twenty leas equal numbers can be taken from each
package of a group of four.

65
 5. Single thread tensile test:
— Specimen may be taken from any type of yarn package
from an unwoven warp or from a woven or knitted
fabric.
— At least fifty specimens shall be taken for each test on
single yarns and two ply yarns of medium to fine count
but the number may be reduced to thirty for coarse two
ply and for cabled yarns.

Fabric sampling methods:

A and D are warp

C and B are weft
● Generally the region near the selvedges often posses slightly
different properties to the body of the cloth.
● Therefore fabric within say 2 inches of the selvedge should not
be used.
● The reasons for theses different will be appreciated when one
watches fabric being woven; the extra strains on the yarns at

66
 either side of the cloth are usually noticed and templing will
also have its effects.
● No. two samples should contain the same threads.
● In other words as many of the component threads as possible
should be represented in the samples. Fig (a) and (b).
● When weft way strips are selected it is suggested that some of
the strips should include fabric woven from two weft packages.
This is because the weft tension at the start of a fresh package
may be much lower than the tension at the end of the old
package, thereby giving rise to a change in the fabric structure
and some variation in strength, an effect known as the ‘cop end
effect’.
Chapter

7
Fibre maturity:Maturity
Fibre maturity (of cotton) is a fibre characteristic which expresses the
relative degree of thickening of the fibre wall. In other words, it is the
measure of primary and secondary wall thickness. It is usually
estimated by several indirect tests which are often used to find out the
proportion of fibres containing a maturity greater than some selected
level. A fibre will be mature if a high degree of wall thickening took
place during cotton growth.
Fibre maturity depends on —
I) Weather.
II) Types of soil.
III) Plant diseases.
IV) Pests.
V) Dead fibers
Importance of maturity:
1. Nep formation:
67
 The immature thin walled fibres are more flexible than thick walled
fibre. So they blend and tangle more easily forming neps. If these
neps appear in the dyed cloth they show up as spechs of lighter
shade.
One of the main troubles caused by the presence of these thin
walled immature fibres is nepping. It is created during processing,
starting at the gin. It also occurs for some natural causes like
fragments of seed pods which attached to fibre. Where rubbing
between surfaces occurs e.g. during carding, minute knots of
tangled fibre are caused.
2. Dyeing faults:
Immature fibres can not be dyed evenly. If in a fabric there is
yarn of immature fibres, shade variation will occur. The thinner the
secondary cell wall, the lighter the shade will be.
3. Fineness:
The immature fibres can not produce fine fabric and yarn.
Immaturity decreases the wt. of unit length of fibre and thus
reduces fineness. As a result the accuracy of the test is badly
affected.
4. Less yarn strength:
Due to immaturity, yarn strength reduces and for that breakage of
yarn occurs during spgn.
5. Less production:
Ends down is increased due to immaturity. As a result production
is less.
6. Fabric quality:
Immature fibres are less absorbent and have uneven surface. So
they are uncomfortable in handle and weaving.
7. Yarn hairiness:

68
 Immature fibre leads to yarn hairiness.
8. Problem in spgn:
The immature fibre, the fragments of seed pod attached to a fibre,
which creates great problem during spgn.
Immature fibre causes the problems:
1. Nep formation.
2. Dyeing faults.
3. Less fineness.
4. Less yarn strength.
5. Less production.
6. Less quality fabric.
7. Yarn hairiness.
8. Problem in spgn.
Effect of immaturity in Textile Processing:
● Nep formation.
● Problem in spgn.
● Uneven dyeing shade.
● Problem in fineness measuring.
● Less yarn strength.
● Less production.

Types of fibres:
1. Normal fibre.
2. Thin walled fibres.
3. Dead fibres.

1. Normal fibre:
Normal fibres with a well-developed cell wall and pronounced
convolutions in the raw state and become rod-like after swelling. It is
denoted by ‘N’. In normal fibres no empty spaces are seen in
longitudinal section.

69
2. Thin walled fibres:
Thin walled fibres having the structure and characteristics lying
between normal and dead fibres. It is denoted by ‘T’.

3. Dead fibres:
Dead fibres appear ribbon like even after swelling. They are extremely
immature fibre. If the cell-wall is less than one-fifth of the total width
of the fibre is termed as dead fibre.

Maturity ratio:
Maturity ratio of a method of numerically expressing the maturity of a
sample of cotton fibre. It is the ratio of actual degree of wall thickening
to a standard degree of wall thickening.

So, Maturity ratio =

In other words, Maturity ratio is the ratio which expresses the actual
fibre wt. per centimeter H, in relation to a standard fibre wt. per
centimeter Hs.

70
So, Maturity ratio = =

Show that, M = : Relation between immaturity count &

fibre wt.:
Let, N = Rod like normal fibres.
D = Dead fibres (ribbon like).
H = Actual fibre wt. per cm.
Hs = Standard fibre wt. per cm.

Peirce and Lord found N-D and H for several pure strains of cotton and
within each series only the maturity varied. A linear relation ship was
found between H and N-D:
H = 0.9370 (N-D) + 135.2.
And Hs = 0.9370 (67-7) + 135.2
According to standard counting,
The no. of normal fibre, N = 67
And the no. of dead fibre, D = 7

So, Maturity ratio, M = =

=
= 0.0049 (N – D) + 0.706

For rounded figure, M =

The maturity ratio is therefore proportional to the degree of thickening
of the cell wall.

71
For cotton, θ = 0.577 M; [As Peirce and Lord]
For all dead fibres, N = 0, D = 100

So, M = = 0.2
For all mature or normal fibres, N = 100, D = 0

So, M = = 1.2
So, the theoretical range for value of M will be from 0.2 to 1.2 for all
dead and all mature or normal fibres.

Degree of cell wall thickening:

The degree of wall thickening may be expressed as the ratio of the
actual cross-sectional area of the wall to the area of the circle with the
same parameter.
It is denoted by ‘θ’.

So, let A be the actual cross-sectional area of the wall and A ́ be the area
of the circle of the same perimeter.

So, Degree of wall thickening, θ =

Now, A ́ ́ = r2 = ;r = Radius of the circle

72
 A ́́ = ;[P2 = (2 r) 2 = 4 2r2]

Let P = perimeter of the circle = 2πr.

So, θ = = =
Assess of the fibre maturity:
One of the troubles caused by immature fibbeer was faulty dyeing. This
difference between the dyeing properties of mature and immature
fibres is employed in the Goldthwaite test to give a visual indication of
the maturity of a sample of cotton. Two dyes are used on the same bath,
a red and a green dye, mature fibres are stained red and immaturity
fibres green, the red color being developed in the cellul0ose of the
secondary wall. Hence little or no secondary wall thickening – no red.
Chapter

8
Fibre fineness:
Fineness
The fibre fineness is expressed in wt. per unit length or length per
weight. According to “Textile Institute”, the fineness of cotton, silk and
manufactured fibres is usually expressed in terms of average linear
density.
A single fibre has variable cross-section along its length and varies in
cross-section shape from fibre to fibre. To overcome their effect in
calculating fineness, same index of fineness is derived.
Mass = Volume x Density
= Cross-section area x length x density.
For a known length or unit length,
Mass α Cross-sectional area.

73
For this suitable fineness index is taken by measuring the wt. of a
known length of fibre is called linear density and this is expressed in
terms of wt. per unit length.
Hence, fineness can be calculated.

Importance of fineness:
1. Lower irregularity of yarn:
With a greater number of fibers in the cross-section the basic
irregularity is reduced. The finer the fiber the higher the number
and the lower the irregularity. Fine fiber gives more regular yarn
than the coarse fiber.
2. Uniformity of count:
A fine fiber can be spun to finer than coarse fibre measurement of
fineness. In other words the finer the fibre, the higher the yarn
count will be.
3. Uniformity of strength:
In a given cross-sectional area, if a given count is spun a fine and
coarse fibre, a more and a stronger yarn will result from the fine
fibre because of being large no. of finer fibre.
4. Uniform of fabric characteristics:
As fine fibre gives more uniform yarn, so it gives good quality
fabric with uniform property.
5. Less twist:
The finer the fiber the greater the total surfaces area available for
inter fiber contact and consequently, less twist is needed to provide
the necessary cohesion.
6. Spinning performance:
The fineness of the fibre affects several mechanical properties and
therefore influences the behaviour of the fibre during processing.
7. Good appearance:
74
 The finer yarn produced by finer fibre is good appearance.
8. Less neps:
In the finer yarn, less neps present.

Principle of fibre fineness measurement:

1. Gravimetric method.
2. Optical method.
3. Air flow method.
4. Vibroscope method.

Air Flow Method:

Principle:
In this method, fibre fineness is measured by air flow. If large amount
of air is blown, the fibre will be coarse and if small amount of air is
blown, the fibre will be fine. — The method based on this principle.
Procedure:
● A sample of known weight is taken and compressed in a
cylinder to a known volume and subjected to an air current at
a known pressure.
● The rate of air flow through the porous plug of fibre is
measured.
● Suppose, two cylinders of similar dimensions were filled with:
a) A few cylinder rods of large diameter.
b) Many rods of small diameter.

● If air were blown through the two cylinders at the same

pressure, it would be finding that the rate of air flow through
(b) was less than through (a).

75
 ● The reason is that the air flowing through (b) has more rod
surface to flow past.
● The difference in the rate of air flow is a measure of the
difference in the surface area of the large diameter and small
diameter rods. This leads us to consider the specific surface.

Calculation:
Specific surface is defined as the ratio of surface area to volume.

i.e. Specific surface =

let the volume of the cylinder, V= Cross-section area, A x Length, L

= xL ;[A = , D = diameter]
And surface area of cylinder = dL

Therefore, specific surface, S =

76
 = dL x

The ratio is equal to the ratio of =

= =

So, S α
For fibres of circular cross-section specific surface is inversely
proportional to the fibre diameter. Therefore by measuring the rate of
air flow under controlled condition, the specific surface S, can be
determined and consequently the fibre diameter. Then by using a value
for the density of the mtl, the fibre wt. per unit length/ fineness could
be derived.

The WIRA cotton fineness meter:

This instrument is a modified version of the Wool fineness meter and
is manufactured by Shirley Developments Ltd. The diagram of the
general arrangement of the apparatus is shown in fig.

Construction:
● In this apparatus, A is a cylindrical holder with a perforated
false bottom.

77
 ● M is a manometer which indicates the pressure difference in
cm;
● V is a control valve which controls air flow through cotton plug.
● F is a flow meter indicating air flow in litre per min.
● In this chamber, a sample of fixed wt (5 gm) is compressed to a
fixed volume by piston P.

Working principle:
● 6 gm sample weighed to an accuracy of 0.05 gm is fluffed up
to eliminated any tangled parts.
● The sample is then packed into the cylindrical holder and
compressed to a constant volume by the perforated plunger.
● With the flow control valve shut, the exhaust pump is switched
on.
● The air flow is then regulated by the control valve until the
manometer indicates that a pressure difference of 18 cm of
water across the ends of the plug of cotton.
● The flow meter to be is graduated in Micronaire and the reading
at the top of the indicator float is recorded.

78
 ● A repeat observation is made after removing the sample and
repacking it into the holder.
● For greater accuracy, a third observation is operated.
● Then the mean value is taken. Therefore direct reading of cotton
fineness is got.

Gravimetric method:
1. Cotton:
For carrying out this experiment, at first the comb sorter
diagram is made. Then 5 tufts of fibre are taken at intervals down
the diagram and from each tuft a section is sliced out by means of
two razor blades set in a holder at a spacing of 1 cm. then using a
large lens and good lighting, 100 fibres are counted from each of
the tufts. Each group of 100 fibres is collected and weighed on a
sensitive micro balance. The mean fibre weight per centimeter is

79
 calculated. After determining the maturity of cotton, this may be
corrected to give the standard fibre weight per centimeter, Hs.
2. Bast fibres:
At first five tufts from the staple diagram are taken. Then they
are combed straight and a known length is from the middle of each
tuft and weighed to an accuracy of 1 in 100 and the number of fibres
counted. The mean fibre wt. per unit length is then calculated.
3. Man made staple fibre:
The length of individual fibre is measure by a scale on a velvet
pad. Two pairs of tweezers are used to remove the crimp. Each fibre
is weighed on a micro bale and the results used to calculate the fibre
weight per unit length.
4. Wool:
After completing a fibre length test the fibres are collected and
thoroughly cleared of oil, allowed to condition and then weighed on a
micro balance. The total fibre length is calculated and knowing the
number of fibres the fibre wt. per unit can be derived.
Let, h = the class length
N = the number of fibres in each class.
W = the total wt. of all the classes.

Then, Mean weight per unit length =

For a given density, the weight per unit length and the fibre dia
are related. Assuming, a circular cross section and taking the density
of wool to be 1.31, the diameter is given by,

dgrav =
Where, W is the total wt. of the fibres in mg.
80
 n is the number of fibres in each length class of h cm.
And dgrav is the dia of fibres in microns.
Micronaire value:
The term micronaire value is now a widely used expression and where
as originally the figure meant fibre wt. in micrograms per inch.
The micronaire value regarded as indication of maturity and fineness.
The units are commonly ignored.
The higher micronaire value of the fibre, the fibre regarded coarser.
Micronaire value plays a vital role during mixing of different grades of
fibres for Yarn preparation. The higher micronaire value difference of
fibre, higher yarn irregularity.
The fibres are classified in different grades on the basis of micronaire
value.
Micronaire value Classification of fibre
or below very fine
3.0 to 3.9 fine
4.0 to 4.9 average
5.0 to 5.9 coarse
6.0 to above very coarse

System / Unit of measuring fineness:

The fineness of cotton fibre is measured by following two systems:
1. British System:
In this system, the linear density is either the fibre wt, per cm or
the hair wt. per cm, H.
Here the unit of wt.= milligram x 10-5
And the unit of length = cm.
The unit of fineness = H x 10-5 mg/cm.
Example: The fibre wt. per cm for an American upland cotton may
be 142 i.e. 192mg x 10-5/cm
81
 2. American System:
In this system, the linear density is expressed in microgram per
inch.
Here, the unit of wt. = microgram (gm x 10-6)
The unit of length = inch.
Example: the linear density of American Upland would be 4.9 i.e.
4.9 microgram per inch.
In this system, fineness is expressed in micronaire.

Relation between two fineness measuring systems:

American linear density = fibre wt in gm x 10-6 / inch
= A x 10-6 gm / inch
British linear density = fibre wt. in mg x 10-5 / cm
= fibre wt. in gm x 10-3 x 10-5 / cm
= H x 10-8 gm/cm
= H x 10-8 x 2.54 gm / inch
We have, A x 10-6 = H x 10-8 x 2.54
A = H x 10-2 x 2.54
This is the derived relationship between them.
Chapter

9 Tensile Properties

82
Load: The application of a load to a specimen in its axial direction
causes a tension to be developed in the specimen.
The load is usually expressed in gm wt or pounds.
Breaking Load: The load at which material break is called breaking
load. It is usually expressed in gm –wt or lb-wt.
Stress: Stress is the ratio between the force applied and X-sectional area
of the specimen.

So, Stress= =
Units: Dynes/cm2
Mass stress: Mass stress is the ratio of the force applied to the linear
density (mass per unit length).

So, Mass stress=

Units: gm-wt/denier or gm –wt per tex.
Breaking Length: The breaking length is the length of the specimen
which will just break under its own wt when hung vertically.
Unit of breaking length is kilogram.
Problem: 100 denier Rayon yarn break at a load of 185 gm what is
breaking length?

Breaking length=
=16.65 gm

83
Strain: The strain is the term used to relate the stretch or elongation
with the initial length.

Strain=

=
Extension: By expressing the strain as a percentage we obtain
extension. A B C D

Extension= 100%

Extension is sometimes referred to as the strain percent.

Elastic Recovery: It is a property of a material by which it tends to
recover its original size and shape.

Elastic recovery =
Breaking extension:
The breaking extension is the extension of specimen at the breaking
point, which is expressed in percentage of initial length.
If, L1= initial length of specimen
L2= final length of specimen at break.

Breaking extension =
=

As this is a ratio of two lengths, it has no unit,

84
Work of rupture:
For an individual specimen “work of rupture” is defined as the energy
needed to break the fibre. It is the measure of toughness of the material.

If we consider a fibre under a load F, increasing in longth by an amount

all we have.
Work done = Force  displacement = F.dl
Hence total work done in breaking the fibre, i.e, the of rupture will be,

or, Work of rupture = Area under stress-strain curve

The unit of work of rupture is the same as the unit of work i.e joule,
dyne, etc.

85
Work factor:
If the fibre obeyed Hook’s law, throughout the lest from “Zero” loan to
breaking load” the stress-strain curve would be a straight line. Then
the ratio.

Would be equal to ½ For a Particular Curve this ratio is known as work

factor.

Thus for a curve which is convex towards the elongation axis the work
factor is grater than ½ and if the curve is concave to elongation axis the
work factor is less than ½ in the Figure, OMA curve is greater than ½
and OBA is less than ½.

Tenacity or specific strength:

The tenacity of a material is the mass stress at break. An alternative
term: used in place of tenacity is specific strength.

Mathematically,
86
The units of tenacity is gm/tex, gm/denier
CN/tex etc.

Load-elongation curve for nylon and viscose:

In load-elongation curves of a 250 denier viscose rayon yarn and a 30
denier nylon yarn. The test length in each case was 20 in and the yarns
were tested on a Scott Serigraph which operates on the inclined-plane
principle to give a constant rate of loading.

Stress-strain curve:
The stress-strain curves derived from the load-elongation curves. The
general shape of the curves remains the same but their relative
positions have changed. The superior strength of the nylon is more
clearly seen and the compression between the two types of fiber made
easier.

87
Stress=

Strain=
Factors affecting yarn strength:
1. Staple length: Longer staple cotton gives higher strength with
synthetics where much longer staple lengths than cotton are
available, the increase levels off after the optimum length.
2. Fiber Fineness: Fine fiber gives greater yarn strength than
coarse fibers when spun into a given size.

88
 3. Fiber strength: Logically, a strong fiber produces a stronger
yarn than a weak fiber.
4. Twist: For any single spun yarn, there is always a twist that
gives maximum strength. A twist less than or greater than this
optimum amount results in a yarn of lower strength.
5. Evenness: the greater the uniformity of a spun yarn, the higher
is its strength and the more uneven a yarn, the lower is its
strength.
6. Fiber length distribution: Variations in the distribution of fiber
lengths will cause a variation in yarn strength. The greater
percentage of short fibers, the lower the strength of the yarn.
7. Fiber finish: The type and amount of chemical finish applied to
fibers, particularly the man made tibers, has a very definite
effect on the strength of the yarn, as well as on the processing
characteristics of the staple.
8. Maturity: If maturity of fibre increases yarn strength also
increases.
Factors affecting the tensile properties of textiles:
1. Test specimen length.
2. The capacity of the machine.
3. The effect of humidity and temperature.
4. The previous history of the specimen.
5. The form of the test specimen.
6. The time of loading and the time to break the specimen.
1. Test Specimen length:
● If we tested the specimen at a gauge length AB, the strength
recorded would be that of the weakest point and the value
would be S1.
● If we had tested the specimen in two breaking loads, S1 and
S2, the mean of which would be higher than S1.
89
 ● Hence, by testing the yarn at a shorter gauge length the
apparent yarn strength has increased.
● This effect is known as the “weak link” effect.

2.The capacity of the machine:

● If a weak specimen is tested on a high-capacity machine the
time to break it will be short, and therefore an optimistic
strength result will be produced .
● The capacity of the machine should be chosen so that the time
required to break the specimen is close to the recommended
time.
3. The effects of humidity and temperature:
● The mechanical behavior of textile fibers and fibers structures
is influenced by the amount of moisture in the specimen.
● The moisture relationships of the various fibers types differ and
naturally.
● The degree to which the fibers properties are modified will
vary.
● The stress-strain curve for a hydrophobic material such as
Terylene and when tested in the dry state will be similar to
curve obtained from a wet test.
● On the other hand the curve obtained when testing say acetate
rayon dry and wet will exhibit significant differences.
90
 4. The previous history of the specimen:
● The mechanical properties of a specimen before and after
straining changes mention ably.
● Chemical treatment may also affect the tensile properties of the
specimen.
5. The form of the test specimen:
● The test specimen is a composite structure built up from
individual fibers or filaments.
● Changes in the twist factors used cause changes in the yarn
strength, elasticity, liveliness, luster, and other yarn
characteristics.
● In case of fabric, the warp way properties differ from weft
properties.
6. Time of loading and breaking: A rapid test produces a higher
breaking load than a slow test.
Let, FT=the breaking load for a time to break of T sec, and
F10=the breaking load for a time to break of 10 sec.
Then,

91
 FT=F10(1.O9-.O9log T)
By rounding off the figures we obtain,
FT=F10(1.1-0.1log T)

Therefore,
Constant Rate of Loading:
1. A specimen ‘A’ is gripped in a fixed top
jaw J1 and in a bottom jaw J2 which is
moveable.
2. A force F IS initially zero but increasing at
constant from zero, is applied to the
specimen along the direction shown in
figure.
3. Due to applied force, the specimen will be extended until it
eventually breaks.
4. The loading has thus caused the elongation.

Constant Rate of Elongation:

92
 1. A specimen ‘B’ is gripped in the fixed top jaw ‘J3 a And in the
bottom jaw J4 which is moveable downwards.
2. The bottom jaw J4 can move downwards at a
constant velocity by means of a screw
mechanism
3. Initially the tension in ‘B’is zero but when the
bottom jaw J4 moves downwards the
specimen is extended and an increasing
tension is developed until the specimen finally
breaks.
4. In this case ,the extension causes loading,

The pressley fibre strength tester:

Working principele:
● The pressly instrument tests a small flat bundle of parallel fibres
gripped betn special clamps.
● From the bulk of the cotton several small tufts of fibre are
selected at random and manipulated into a parallel ribbon

about wide by a coarse hand comb.

● The ribbon is placed across the two black clamps which are held
in the vice. The top jaws of the clamps are then snapped over
the ribbon and tightened to a predetermined limit.
● When the clamps are removed from the vice, a fringer of fibres
of fibres will protrude form each side. These are trimmed-off
flush with the faces of the clamps.

93
 ● At this stage we have a small ribbon of parallel fibre of known
length 0.464” but of unknown weight, gripped at “Zero” gauge.
● This is basically beam balance. In the figure, AB is a beam
pivoted at point O
● When the end B rises, fixed lower clamp C 1 move upward and
away from the fixed lower clamp C2 To carry out the test the
lamps are inserted into the end of the tester and spirit level
leveled the instrument, then the main body of the tester
becomes level, the beam has a inclination of few degree to the
horizontal.
● The heavy rolling weight(w) is initially held in position by a
catch but as soon as the catch is lifted, the weight is released
and rolls down the beam.
● As the weight moves away from the beam pivot, the average of
the arm AO increases until the force exerted on the ribbon of
fibres is sufficient to break it. As soon as the break occurs the
arm AO drops and a breaking device cause w to be stopped
instantly.

94
 ● The distance traveled by the weight is the measure of the load
required to break the specimen. A scale calibrated in pounds is
joined with beam and found accurate reading.
● Again fibre ribbons are cut into halves and weigh on a torsion
balance.
● The following quantities are used to calculate several
measurement of fibre strength of the two data. i.e. Breaking
load in lb and weight in milligram-
I) The Pressley Index

II) Tensile strength

III) Tensile strength in

IV) Breaking length in

Poblem 01: In pressleys fibre sorter, the breaking load and wt of fibre
bundle were found 121 lbs and 1.5 mg. Calculate and tensile strensile

in 1000
Soln:
Here, Breaking load = 121 lbs
wt of fibre = 1.5 mg

95
Problem 02: If PSI = 100000, Fibre bundle wt = 1.5. Find out Tenacity

in

Soln:

Problem 03: Breaking load and weight of fibre were recorded 15 lbs

and 1.55 mg respectively. Calculate tensile strength in PSI and

Soln:

University of Dhaka
96 Previous Year Questions
 B.Sc. in Textile Technology, Part-II, Exam-2005
Sub: Textile Testing & Quality Control-I
Time: 3 Hrs Full marks: 60
(Answer any six questions)
1. a) Quality control is governed by three ‘M’-explain.
b) Write down the importance of process control.
c) Why controlled atmosphere is necessary in case of spinning and
weaving mill.
(3+3+4=10)
2. a) Write down the effect of regains on the mechanical, electrical and
thermal properties of fibre.
b) Write down the standard moisture regain of the following fibres:
Cotton, Nylon, Polyester, Silk, Jute, Wool.
c) Define hygrometer and oven dry weight.
(5+3+2=10)
3. a) Mention the different types of equipments for the measurement of
fabric Length, Fineness, Maturity, Strength, Moisture.
b) Write in brief the working principle of shirely comb sorter for fibre
length measurement.
c) What is the relationship between effective length and staple length?
d) What is span length?
(2+5+1+2=10)
4. a) Establish the relationship between yarn dia and count in case of direct
system and indirect system.
b) If a skein of 100 m of filament viscose yarn weights 1.67 gram,
calculate its denier.
c) How will you calculate double yarn count?
(5+3+2=10)
5. a) Define microniare value. Why it is so important for the selection in
cotton spinning mill?
b) Write short notes on fibre maturity.
c) How fibre grading is done?
97
 d) Describe in brief the working principle of Shirley Analyser for
measurement of trash content of cotton fibre.
(2+2+2+4=10)
6. a) Define fineness.

b) Prove that, , Where S = Specific surface, d = fibre diameter.

c) Write down the importance of fibre fineness.
d) If the linear density of American upland cotton is mg/cm
in British system find out its linear density in American system.
(1+4+2+3=10)
7. a) Explain elastic recovery.
b) Explain the principle of Presley strength tester to determine fibre
strength.
c) Write down the factors affecting the tensile properties of textiles.
(2+4+4=10)
8. a) Define Tenacity, Breaking extension and Yield Point.
b) How load-elongation curve is converted into stress strain curve?
Describe with example.
c) What are the effects of humidity & temperature on Load-extention
characteristics?
d) What is C.S.P. of yarn? Mention the standard C.S.P. of the following
yarn counts:
Ring: Ne 20 card, 26 card, 30 comb, 40 card, 80 comb;
OE: Ne 6, 10, 16, 26, 30
(2+3+2+3=10)
9. Write short notes on any five of the following:
a) Relationship between moisture regain and moisture content.
b) Correct invoice weight of material
c) Digital fibrograph
d) Universal system of count
e) Yield point

98
 f) Hysteresis effect
( =10)
---x---

Introduction
1. Define: Testing and quality control. (2:04)
2. What do you mean by quality control and what is the modern
concept of quality control? (3:03)
3. What are the objectives of Textile Testing? (2:02) (2:02s) (2:01)
4. Explain the objectives of testing? (4:04)
5. State the importance of product control. (2:04) (2:03)
6. Differentiate betn product control and process control. (2:04)
7. What is the importance of process control? And product control?
What is the best producer and why? (2+2:03)
8. Briefly explain “Quality control” are governed by 3 M’s? (3:03)
9. What are the duties of quality control officer? (2:02s)

Sampling
1. What is the meaning of ‘Sample’ and ‘Sampling’, what is the object
of sampling? (1+2:03)
2. Write about different types of sampling. (3:01)
3. Write down the name of the methods of fibre sampling. (2:04)
4. Explain fabric sampling method. (3:04)
5. Write down the factors by which the sampling methods are governed
to a large extent. (2:04)
6. Explain random sampling method and biased sampling method.
(3:04)
7. Discuss the factors which govern sampling methods. (2:00) (2:02)
(3:02s)
8. Describe the sampling procedure for yarn and fabric testing. (5:01)
9. Give flow diagram of fibre sampling which you will prefer. (3:02s)

99
 10. Suppose you received a cotton bale from textile industry. You have
to determine the staple length. Which sampling technique will you
prefer? Discuss this method with flow diagram. (6:00)
11. Describe the zoning technique for raw cotton sampling. (5:03)
12. What are the differences betn random sampling and biased sampling
method. (2:03)
13. Describe a suitable sampling technique for cotton sampling. (6:02)
14. Short note: i) Tong sampling method. (2.5:02) ii) Biased sampling
method. (2.5:02) (2.5:02s)

Moisture(MR/MC)%
1. What do you mean by the term- i) Moisture regain. ii) Moisture
content. (2:01)
2. What are the advantages of moisture in Textile? (2:00)
3. Discuss the effects of moisture regain on fibre properties. (5:02)
4. Discuss the effects of moisture regain on physical properties. (4:04)
5. What are the factors affecting the moisture regain of textiles. (4:02)
(4:04)
6. What do you mean by the term: i) Standard moisture regain. ii)
Standard moisture content. (3:02s)
7. Short note on: Digital RH and temperature meter. (2.5:01)
8. Define: Relative humidity and absolute humidity. (2:04) (2:02s)
9. What is correct invoice weight? State the standard moisture regain of
Cotton, Silk, Nylon, Polyester and Wool. (4:01) (2:03)
10. Calculate the correct invoice weight of 70/30 cotton/polyester
blended yarn if the over dry wt. of the consignment is 150 kgs.
(4;01) (4:03) (4:00)
11. Why correct invoice weight is necessary in case of textile? (2;02s)
12. Short note: i) Correct invoice weight. (2.5:02)

100
 13. Prove that , where R = Moisture regain.; C = Moisture
content. (4:03) (2.5:02s) (4:00)
14. Explain hysteisis effect. (3:02s) (3:04) (2.5:00)
15. State standard testing atmosphere. (1:02)
16. Short note: Electric Moisturemeter.
17. Write briefly about wet and dry bulb hygrometer. (2:04)

Fibre length
1. Define staple length, Effective length, Mean length and Modal
length of cotton fibre. (4:01)
2. How we can measure the fibre length of cotton by shirley comb
sorter. (6:01)
3. How can you measure the maximum length, staple length, effective
length, short fibre% and Dispersion% by Shirley comb sorter. (5:03)
(5:04)
4. Draw fibrograph and indicate different types of length of fibre.
(3:04)
5. Write down the method of sorting in case of Shirley comb sorter.
(3:04)
6. Write down the four main steps basically involved in case of fibre
sorter method. (3:04)
7. What is relation betn effective length and staple length. (1:04)
8. What are the relation betn effective length and staple length. (1:04)
9. Describe length measuring principle in HVI. (4:01)

Fibre fineness
1. What is fineness? Show the relation betn Americal and British
system. (3:00) (3;02s)
2. Describe WIRA fineness meter. (4;02s)

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 3. How can you measure Trash content by Shirley Analyzer? (3:02s)
(5:00)
4. Describe color and trash measurement principle in modern fibre
testing instrument. (4:01)
5. Mention standard rating table of maturity and fineness of fibre.
(3:02)
6. What are the properties of fibre we can get from HVI testing. (2:01)
7. Describe fineness measuring principle of textile fibre in HVI testing.
(4:01)
8. Write down the iravemetric methods to determine the fineness of
cotton, wool and man made fibre. (4:00)
9. Short note: WIRA cotton fineness meter. (2.5:00)
10. What are the practical uses for which the shierly analyzer is
intended? (5:00)
11. Describe with sketch the Shirley analyzer. (4:02)
12. Short note: i) Shirley analyzer. (2.5:02) ii) Shierly comb sorter.
(2.5:01)

Yarn count
1. Define count in English, Tex, Metric, Worsted and lbs/spindle
system. (5:01) (5:02s)
2. Define count, describe different systems available for the
determination of yarn count. (3:02)
3. Describe the instrument for determination of yarn count from a small
piece of fabric. (4;02)
4. What are the instruments for determination of yarn count. (4:02)
5. Describe count data system to measure yarn/sliver/roving count.
(3;02s) (4:03)
6. Define: Uniformity ratio and uniformity index. (2:04)
7. Establish the relation between yarn count and yarn diameter. (4:03)
8. A cotton yarn count is 90’s Ne. find out the tex count of that yarn
without using conversion factor. (3:02)
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 9. Weight of 1 lea is 1.6gms. find out the yarn count in N m system.
(2:02s) (4:03) (3:04)
10. A double yarn is produced from 40’s Ne single yarn. Find out the
resultant count of the double yarn. (2:03) (2:01)
11. 2000 meters of nylon yarn weight 1.6 gm. Find denier, tex, Ne, N m
and worsted count of the yarn. (5:01)
12. Find out the average count from the following:
Production of Ne 20 = 500 lbs/day
,, ,, Ne 30 = 1000 lbs/day
,, ,, Ne 40 = 400 lbs/day. (2:01)
13. Find out the average count from the following:
Production of Ne 20 = 5000 lbs/day
,, ,, Ne 26 = 1500 lbs/day
,, ,, Ne 40 = 4000 lbs/day
,, ,, Ne 50 = 2000 lbs/day. (2:03)

14. Prove Tex = (2.5:00)

15. Short note: i) Quardant balance. (2.5:00) (2.5:02s) (2.5:02) ii)
Beesleys balance. (2.5:02s) iii) Knowles Blance. (2.5:01)

Fibre maturity
1. Difine fibre fineness and state the effect of maturity on fibre
fineness. (4:00) (4:02) (4:02s) (2:03) (2:04)
2. Define maturity and maturity ratio. (2:02s) (1:03) (2:04)
3. What is fibre maturity and how can assess the fibre and classify fibre
according to maturity. (2:02)
4. Define maturity ratio and find out the theoretical range of maturity
ratio. (1+2:03)
5. What is the effect of maturity ratio in textile dyeing and printing?
(2:03)

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 6. Prove that: Maturity ratio (6:00) (6:02) (6:02s)
(6:04)
7. Mention standard rating table of maturity. (2.5:02)

Yarn twist
1. Define twist and twist multiplier. (1:02)
2. What do you mean by twist and write about the direction of twist.
(2:02s)
3. What is twist factor. (1:03)
4. Explain any methods for determination of twist. (4:00)
5. State the basic principle of measuring the amount of twist in a yarn.
(3:03)
6. Describe a twist measuring system by applying untwisting method.
(4:03)
7. Describe with sketch the working principle of semi automatic twist
tester. (4;01)
8. What are the methods and instruments available for yarn twist
determination. (2:01)
9. Explain briefly the effect of twist on yarn strength. (4:02)
10. Deduce the relationship among the amount of twist, twist multiplier
and yarn count (both direct and indirect system) (5:02)
11. Find out the weight of yarn when Tex = 40 and length = 25,000 yds.
(4:02s) (4:04) (4:00)
12. A trading corporation provided you a 24.3 Ne yarn, find out the tex
and denier of that yarn. (1+1:03)
13. State the effect of twist on fabric properties. (3:00)

Fibre tensile properties

1. Define Breaking load, Mass stress, Strain and Breaking length.
(2:00)
2. Define: Tenacity. (1:01) (1:02)

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 3. Define: Work rupture? (1:02)
4. Define: Work rupture? Describe ballistic or impact tester. (5:00)
5. What are the factors affecting the tensile properties of textile fibres?
(3:00) (4:02)
6. Describe the working principle of strength measurement in high
volume fibre testing instrument. (4:02)
7. Explain the relationship between twist and strength yarn. (3:02)
8. Describe with schematic diagram the working principle of pendulum
type yarn strength tester. (4:02s) (4:00) (4:03)
9. How can you measure the fibre strength by presley fibre strength
tester. (5:03) (5:04)
10. Define yield point. How many ways yield point can be find out?
(3:01)
11. Describe the working principle of fibre stelometer with schematic
diagram. (4:01)
12. Write down the difference betn load-elongation and stress-strain
curve. (2:02)
13. PSI = 100,000, Fibre bundle weight = 1.5 mg, Find out the Tenacity
in gm/Tex. (2:01)
14. In Pressley’s bree tester; the Breaking load and weight of fibre
Bundle were found 12 lbs and 1.50 mg. Calculate the Tenacity and
Tensile strength in 1000 lb/sq inch. (4:02s) (4:00) (4:03)
15. The breaking load and weight of a fibre bundle were recorded to 15
lbs and 1.55 mg respectively. Calculate the tensile strength in PSI
and gm/Tex. (3:02)
16. Short note: i) Lea strength tester. (2.5:00) ii) High volume fibre
Tester. (2.5:02s) iii) Pressley fibre strength tester. (2.5:01)

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