CLASS – 9 SUBJECT – SCIENCE (BIOLOGY)

CHAPTER – 5

THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE

KEY WORDS-

Unicellular organisms: They are single-celled organisms, e.g., Amoeba,

Paramecium, Chlamydomonas, bacteria, etc.

Multicellular organisms: They are composed of more than one cell, e.g., plants,
animals, fungi, etc.

Diffusion: The movement of a substance from a region of its high concentration

to the region of its low concentration is called diffusion.

Osmosis: The spontaneous movement of water molecules from a region of its

high concentration to the region of its low concentration through a selectively
permeable membrane is called osmosis.

Hypotonic solution: If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water
concentration than the cell i.e., outside solution is very dilute, then it is called a
hypotonic solution.

Isotonic solution: If the medium surrounding the cell has exactly the same
water concentration as the cell, then it is called isotonic solution.

Hypertonic solution: If the medium surrounding the cell has a lower

concentration of water than the cell i.e., very concentrated solution, then it is
called hypertonic solution.

Plasmolysis: The shrinkage or contraction of the contents of the cell away from
the cell wall when a living plant cell loses water through osmosis is known as
plasmolysis.

Genes: Functional segments of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) are called genes.

Prokaryotes: The single celled organisms which lack a well-defined nuclear

membrane are called prokaryotes.

Eukaryotes: The single celled or multicellular organisms which have a well

defined nuclear membrane are called eukaryotes.
 Discovered By Period of What they discovered?
time
Robert Hooke 1665 noticed the presence of cells in a cork
slice
Leeuwenhoek 1674 found the presence of living cells in the
pond water
Robert Brown 1831 recognized the existence of a nucleus in
the cell
Purkinje 1839 invented the term ‘Protoplasm’ which is
the liquid present in a cell
Schleiden and 1838, 1839 presented the cell theory that all
organisms are actually made up of cells
Schwann

Virchow 1855 suggested that all cells come from cells

that already exist in nature

The Cell Theory

1. A cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms.
2. All the living organisms are made up of cells.
3. Cells are formed from pre-existing cells.
4. A cell has the capability to divide itself into cells of its own type. Therefore,
more cells can generate from an already existing cell.

Shape, size and number of cells:

Cell shape:

• The shape of cells is related to the specific function they perform.

• Some cells like Amoeba and WBCs have changing shapes.
• In some cases the cell shape could be more or less fixed and peculiar for a
particular type of cell; for example, nerve cells have a typical shape.
Cell size:

• The size of the cell also varies considerably in different animals and plants.
• The average cell size varies from 0.5 to 20µ (µ = micrometer).
 • In human body, the smallest cell is RBC and the longest one is the nerve
cells.
Cell number:
• The number of cells in living beings differs from the one in unicellular
organisms to many in multicellular forms.
• The number of cells in not definite in multicellular organisms, and may
increase along with the growth and volume of organism.

Structure of cell: Structurally the cell is formed of three major parts:

1. Plasma membrane or cell membrane

2. Cytoplasm and its contents

3. Nucleus

Plasma membrane (cell membrane):

• Plasma membrane is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the
contents of the cell from its external environment.
• Plasma membrane is living, thin, delicate, elastic, selectively permeable
membrane.
• The plasma membrane is flexible and made up of organic molecules called
lipids and proteins.

Functions:

• Plasma membrane permits the entry and exit of some materials in the
cells. It also prevents movement of some other material. Therefore, the
plasma membrane is called a selectively permeable membrane.
• Substances can pass across a membrane by two processes- diffusion and
osmosis.
➢ Diffusion: Some substances like carbon dioxide or oxygen can move
across the cell membrane by a process called diffusion.
“Diffusion is the spontaneous movement of molecules from a region of
its higher concentration to a region of its lower concentration.”
Example: movement of carbon dioxide and oxygen during respiration in
organisms.
➢ Osmosis:
The movement of water molecules through a selectively permeable
membrane from a region of higher water concentration to a region of
lower water concentration is called osmosis.
Q . What will happen if we put an animal cell or plant cells into solution of
sugar or salt prepared in water?
1. If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration than
the cell, i.e., if solution is a very diluted solution, the cell will gain water by
osmosis. Such a dilute solution is called hypotonic solution. This process
is called endosmosis.

(a) Hypotonic solution (b) isotonic solution (c) hypertonic

solution

2. If the medium surrounding the cell is exactly the same water concentration
as the cell, there will be no net movement of water across the plasma
membrane resulting in no change in the size of the cell. Such a solution is
called isotonic solution.
3. If the medium has a lower concentration of water than the cell, i.e., if it is
very concentrated solution, the cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a
concentrated solution is called hypertonic solution. This process is
known as exosmosis.

Endocytosis : It is a process by which the plasma membrane engulfs food

and other materials inside the cell. Amoeba acquires its food through such
processes.
Cell Wall
• The cell wall is a outer, hard covering of the cell which maintains the shape of
the cell.

• The cell wall is generally made up of cellulose.

Functions:

1. Cell wall protects cell membrane and the internal structures of the cell.
2. It provides rigidity and determines the shape of the plant cell.
3. It prevents drying of the cell and helps it to bear unfavourable conditions.
4. It provides mechanical strength to the plant cells.
5. Plasmolysis: Plasmolysis is a process in which the contents of the cell that
are away from the cell wall shrink or contract when a cell loses water due
to Osmosis when it is kept in hypertonic solution.
6. Dead cells cannot absorb water through osmosis.
7. Plants, fungi, and bacteria exist in very dilute hypotonic external media
without bursting because of their rigid cell wall. Even if the cells swell up
the cell wall is able to prevent them from bursting out.

The Nucleus
Nucleus is a prominent, organelle present in cell which is the controlling centre of all
activities of cell.
The Structure of the Nucleus

• A nucleus has a nuclear membrane which covers it all around.

• There are pores present on the nuclear membrane that allow movement of
substances in and out of the nucleus.

• There are chromosomes, rod-shaped structures present in the nucleus which

contain genetic information.

PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL

The chromosomes contain two types of things -

1. DNA - This is responsible for organizing and constructing new cells

2. Proteins - These help in packaging and condensation of DNA.

➢ Chromatin: Chromatin is thread-like material present in a cell. The chromatin organizes

itself into chromosomes whenever the cell is about to divide.
➢ Nucleolus: It is called as the Brain of the Nucleus. It comprises of 25% of the volume
of the nucleus. It consists of proteins and ribonucleic acids (RNA). It helps in formation of
ribosomes which help in formation of proteins inside the cell.
➢ Nucleoid :Sometimes cells do not have a well-defined nucleus because they lack a
nuclear membrane. Such a nucleus with no definite nuclear boundaries is called
a Nucleoid. Example in prokaryotic cells.

❖ Differences between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells:

Prokayotic cell Eukaryotic cell

1.Prokaryotes are always unicellular 1.Unicellular and multicellular
organisms.
2.Nucleus is not well defined and 2.Well defined nucleus is present.
known as nucleoid.
3.A single chromosome is present . 3.There are multiple chromosomes.

4.Membrane bound organelles 4.Membrane bound

such as Mitochondria, Golgi complex organelles, such as Mitochondria,
etc. are absent. Golgi complex etc. are also present.

5.They undergo asexual reproduction 5.They undergo sexual as well as a

sexual reproduction
Example – Bacteria, Blue green algae Example – Fungi, Plants and Animals
(Cyanobacteria

Cytoplasm
• The plasma membrane has a fluid like substance in it which is called the cytoplasm.

• The cytoplasm contains several organelles that can perform distinct functions of the
cell
Functions of Cytoplasm

• It supports and suspends the cell organelles and molecules.

• The cellular processes occur in cytoplasm such as formation of proteins.

• It allows movement of substances in the cell such as hormones.

• It dissolves cellular wastes.

Cell organelles:
• A cell has to perform different functions with the help of its various
membrane- bound cell organelles.
• Cell organelles are “small organs” of the cell and are found embedded in
the cytosol. They form living part of the cell and each of them has a definite
shape, structure and function.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• The structure of the ER is quite similar to that of the plasma membrane. It is a
network-like structure which consists of membrane-bound tubes and sheets.

• Two types of ER – Rough ER: Rough ER contains ribosomes that are responsible
for the manufacturing of proteins in the cells. They give a rough texture to the cell.
Smooth ER: The smooth ER manufactures fats or lipids in the cell which allow the
functioning of the cell.
Membrane Biogenesis: Proteins and lipids synthesised on ER are used for making
cell membrane. The process is known as Membrane Biogenesis.
• Proteins can act as an enzyme

• Both protein and lipids can act as hormones

Functions of ER
• Transportation of material between different parts of the cytoplasm and also
between the nucleus and cytoplasm

• Folding of proteins which are synthesised by ribosome on RER.

• Detoxifying poisons and drugs out of the cell is the function of SER.
Golgi Apparatus
Camillo Golgi discovered the Golgi Apparatus.
• It contains vesicles that are arranged parallel in stacks. These stacks are
called Cisterns. These vesicles have their own membranes. These membranes
are sometimes connected to those of the ER.
Functions of Golgi Apparatus
• Golgi apparatus carries materials synthesized by the ER to different parts of the
cell. The material is stored and packaged in vesicles.

• Formation of complex sugar

• Formation of lysosomes.

Lysosomes

➢ They are single membrane vesicles which are responsible for cleaning the cell. They can
digest any foreign material such as food or bacteria and even the worn out cell
organelles.
➢ Lysosomes are capable of doing so because they have digestive enzymes in them.
These enzymes break the materials and digest them. These enzymes are synthesized
by RER and packaged into lysosome by Golgi bodies.

➢ If the cell’s own material gets damaged or dead gets there are chances that
lysosomes burst out, thus digesting its own cell so lysosomes are called ‘suicide
bags of the cell.

Mitochondria
➢ It is a double membrane organelle which has its own DNA and that is why often
called ‘Semi Autonomous Organelle’
➢ The cell requires energy in order to carry out several activities. This energy is
generated by mitochondria which are often called as the ‘Powerhouse’ of the
Cell.
➢ Mitochondria are site of cellular respiration. They use oxygen from air to oxidise
the carbohydrates and thereby release energy.
➢ The Mitochondria generates ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) which are energy
giving molecules of the cell that are often called as their ‘Energy Currency’.
 ➢ Outer Membrane of Mitochondria is Porous in Nature and Inner Membrane is
Deeply Folded that is called as Cristae that Facilitates Generation of
ATP molecules as it has a larger surface area.

Plastids
➢ Just like mitochondria it is also double membraned organelle which has its own
DNA and ribosome.

➢ Plastids exist in plant cells only. Depending upon the type of function plastids can
be classified as –
Chromoplast Leucoplast
Coloured in nature, contain a pigment called Colourless in nature
chlorophyll
Cause photosynthesis in plants Act as storage spaces of the cells
Contain orange and yellow pigments Contain starch, proteins and oil

➢ Stroma – It is a fluid-filled matrix in the chloroplasts. It is colorless fluid that contains all
the enzymes that are needed for the light-dependent reactions in Photosynthesis.

Vacuoles
➢ Vacuoles are the places where cells can store the liquids and solids. They are
present in both plants and animals but the plant vacuoles are bigger in size than
the animal .
➢ In plant cells vacuoles are full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
➢ Plant cell vacuoles store all the material that is required for the plant to stay alive such
as water, amino acids, sugars, and some proteins
➢ Food vacuoles are responsible for digestion of food in the cells as they contain food
enzymes. The digested food then passes into the cytoplasm. Example in single celled
organisms like Amoeba.
➢ In some unicellular organism Contractile vacuoles are responsible for osmoregulation
(maintaining the water content of the cells) and excretion in the cells.

❖ CELL DEVISION: The process by which new cells are made is called cell
division. There are two main types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis.

MITOSIS –
➢ The process of cell division by which most of the cells divide for growth is called
mitosis.
➢ In this process, each cell called mother cell divides to form two identical daughter
cells.
➢ The daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as mother cell.
➢ It helps in growth and repair of tissues in organisms.
 MITOSIS MEIOSIS

MEIOSIS-
➢ Specific cells of reproductive organs or tissues in animals and plants divide to
form gametes, which after fertilisation give rise to offspring.
➢ They divide by a different process called meiosis which involves two consecutive
divisions.
➢ When a cell divides by meiosis it produces four new cells instead of just two.
➢ The new cells only have half the number of chromosomes than that of the
mother cells.