Module IV

• Metrology [from Ancient Greek metron (measure) and logos (study of)] is the science of
measurement.

• Metrology includes all theoretical and practical aspects of measurement.

• Metrology is concerned with the establishment, reproduction, conservation and transfer of

units of measurement & their standards.

• For engineering purposes, metrology is restricted to measurements of length, angle &

quantities which are expressed in linear or angular terms.
 Sensitivity

• It denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the

instruments responds.
 Accuracy
• Accuracy may be defined as the ability of instruments to respond to a true
value of a measured variable under the reference conditions.

• It refers to how closely the measured value agrees with the true value.
 Precision
✓ It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements.

✓ Precision is the degree of closeness with which a given value may be repeatedly
measured.

✓ A quantity called precision index describes the spread, or dispersion of repeated result
about some central value.

✓ High precision means a tight cluster of repeated results while low precision indicates a
broad scattering of results.
 Calibration

• Calibration is the process of determining and adjusting an instruments

accuracy to make sure its accuracy is with in manufacturing specifications.

• It is the process of determining the values of the quantity being measured

corresponding to a pre-established arbitrary scale.

• It is the measurement of measuring instrument.

• The quantity to be measured is the input to the measuring instrument.

 Errors in measurement

• Error = Measured value – True value

• Absolute error: Algebraic difference between measured value and true

value.

• Relative error: Ratio of absolute error to the measured value.

 Types of error
• Gross error : Includes human error in readings.

• Systematic error : Fault in equipment or design of experiments.

• Static error: Due to environmental effects.

• Dynamic error: Caused due to instrument slowness in responding.

• Instrumental error: fault in instrument.

• Observational error: error due to measurement by observer.

• Environmental error: Due to unknown causes.

• Random error
 Abbe’s principle of alignment

The Abbe’s principle of alignment is named after the German Professor Earnst Abbe. In 1890, he proposed a set of rules for
taking linear measurements.
His principle consists of the following 3 points :
1. For best results, a linear reading should be taken either inline or sideways of the object.
2. In case the above is not possible, the measurement can be taken at a distance parallel to the line being measured. In this
case, the distance separating the object and the scale is known as the Abbe Offset.
3. If the parallelism between the object and the measuring instrument is not respected, a first order error will be introduced. The
error will be a function of the angle the scale makes with the object and the distance separating the two. This error is known as
Abbe Error which is a subset of Cosine Errors.

The error introduced can be calculated using:

ϵ=d(sinθ)
Where, d is the distance between scale and line.
 Standard

• A standard is defined as “something that is set up and established by an authority as rule

of the measure of quantity, weight, extent, value or quality”.

• For example: a meter is a standard established by an international organization for

measurement of length.

• Industry, commerce, international trade in modern civilization would be impossible without

a good system of standards.
 Material Standard
International Prototype meter
• It is defined as the straight line distance, at 0°C,
between the engraved lines of pure platinum-iridium
alloy (90% platinum & 10% iridium) of 1020 mm total
length and having a ‘tresca’ cross section as shown in
figure.

• The graduations are on the upper surface of the web

which coincides with the neutral axis of the section.

• The tresca cross section gives greater rigidity for the

amount of material involved and is therefore economic
in the use of an expensive metal.

• The platinum-iridium alloy is used because it is non

oxidizable and retains good polished surface required
for engraving good quality lines
Imperial Standard yard
• An imperial standard yard, shown in figure, is a bronze
(82% Cu, 13% tin, 5% Zinc) bar of 1 inch square section
and 38 inches long.

• A round recess, 1 inch away from the two ends is cut at

both ends upto the central or ‘neutral plane’ of the bar.

• Further, a small round recess of (1/10) inch in diameter is

made below the center.

• Two gold plugs of (1/10) inch diameter having engravings

are inserted into these holes so that the lines (engravings)
are in neutral plane.

• Yard is defined as the distance between the two central

transverse lines of the gold plug at 62 °F.

• The purpose of keeping the gold plugs in line with the

neutral axis is to ensure that the neutral axis remains
unaffected due to bending, and to protect the gold plugs
from accidental damage.
 Wavelength Standards
• Because of the problems of variation in length of material length
standards, the possibility of using light as a basic unit to define primary
standard has been considered.

• The wavelength of a selected radiation of light and is used as the basic

unit of length.

• A krypton-filled discharge tube in the shape of the element's atomic

symbol.

• A colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas, krypton occurs in trace

amounts in the atmosphere, is isolated by fractionally distilling liquefied
air.

• The high power and relative ease of operation of krypton discharge

tubes caused (from 1960 to 1983) the official meter to be defined in
terms of one orange-red spectral line of krypton-86.
• Based upon the accuracy required, the standards are subdivided into four
grades namely

1. Primary Standards

2. Secondary standards

3. Tertiary standards

4. Working standards
1. Primary standards:

• They are material standard preserved under most careful conditions. These are not used for
directly for measurements but are used once in 10 or 20 years for calibrating secondary
standards.

Ex: International Prototype meter, Imperial Standard yard.

2. Secondary standards:

• These are close copies of primary standards w.r.t design, material & length.

• Any error existing in these standards is recorded by comparison with primary standards after
long intervals.

• They are kept at a number of places under great supervision and serve as reference for
tertiary standards. This also acts as safeguard against the loss or destruction of primary
standards.
3. Tertiary standards:

• The primary or secondary standards exist as the ultimate controls for reference at rare
intervals.

• Tertiary standards are the reference standards employed by National Physical

laboratory (N.P.L) and are the first standards to be used for reference in laboratories &
workshops. They are made as close copies of secondary standards & are kept as
reference for comparison with working standards.

4. Working standards

• These standards are similar in design to primary, secondary & tertiary standards.

• But being less in cost and are made of low grade materials, they are used for general
applications in metrology laboratories.
Line Standard
• When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two lines, then it is called “Line Standard”.

• Examples: Measuring scales, Imperial standard yard, International prototype meter, etc.

Characteristics of Line Standards

• Scales can be accurately engraved but it is difficult to take the full advantage of this accuracy.

Ex: A steel rule can be read to about ± 0.2 mm of true dimension.

• A scale is quick and easy to use over a wide range of measurements.

• The wear on the leading ends results in ‘under sizing’

• A scale does not possess a ‘built in’ datum which would allow easy scale alignment with the axis of measurement, this again results in
‘under sizing’.

• Scales are subjected to parallax effect, which is a source of both positive & negative reading errors

• Scales are not convenient for close tolerance length measurements except in conjunction with microscopes.
END STANDARDS

• When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two parallel faces, then it is called
‘End standard’.

• End standards can be made to a very high degree of accuracy.

• Ex: Slip gauges, Gap gauges, Ends of micrometer anvils, etc.

Characteristics of End Standards

• End standards are highly accurate and are well suited for measurements of close tolerances as small as 0.0005 mm.

• They are time consuming in use and prove only one dimension at a time.

• End standards are subjected to wear on their measuring faces.

• End standards have a ‘built in’ datum, because their measuring faces are flat & parallel and can be positively located on a datum surface.

• They are not subjected to the parallax effect since their use depends on “feel”.

• Groups of blocks may be “wrung” together to build up any length. But faulty wringing leads to damage.

• The accuracy of both end & line standards are affected by temperature change
 LIMITS AND FITS
• An assembly is the result of a number of components fitted with each other.
• So component must fit with each other in a desired way to ensure correct and reliable functioning of the
machine.
• For example: If a shaft is to rotate in a hole, there should be enough clearance between the two, to allow
the oil film to be maintained for lubrication.
• The two extreme permissible sizes for any dimension (maximum and minimum) are called the limits.
Terminologies
Terminologies
Terminologies
 Fits
✓ Fits of two mating parts is defined as the degree of tightness or looseness between them.
✓ The type of fit between the two mating parts depends upon the size of clearance and interference.
✓ Clearance is the amount by which the actual size of shaft is less than the actual size of the hole in an
assembly. Mathematically
Maximum clearance = Upper limit of hole - lower limit of shaft
Minimum clearance = Lower limit of hole - upper limit of shaft
✓ Interference is the amount by which the actual size of the shaft is larger than the actual size of the mating hole
in an assembly.

Maximum Interference = Lower limit of hole - upper limit of shaft

Minimum Interference = Upper limit of hole - lower limit of shaft.
Types of Fits
Types of Limit systems
✓ For hole, H stands for a dimension whose lower deviation refers to the basic size. The hole H for which the
lower deviation is zero is called basic hole.

✓ For shaft, h stands for a dimension whose upper deviation refers to the basic size. The shaft h for which
upper deviation is zero is called basic shaft.
DESIGNATION OF A FIT
1. A journal bearing and bushing need to be designed. The nominal size is 25 mm. What dimensions are
needed for a 25 mm basic size with a close running fit which is a lightly loaded journal and bushing
assembly.
(Select H8/f8 coarse fit, Diameter 25 mm lies between steps of 24 and 30 mm)
 Gauges

✓ Gauges are one of the most commonly used inspection tools in production shops for quick checking and
validation of the dimensions of manufactured parts.
✓ Gauging has become an integral part of any machining process as they help in ensuring the required degree
of interchangeability among the millions of parts manufactured all over the world.
✓ The type and design of the gauges depend on the application, production volume and level of precision
required.
✓ Limit gauges are inspection tools of rigid design, without a
Limit Gauges
scale, which serve to check the dimensions of
manufactured parts.
✓ Limit gauges do not determine the actual value of the
inspected dimensions of a part but indicate whether the
part dimensions are manufactured within the limits
specified.

✓ These gauges are used in the inspection of interchangeable parts. Usually two gauges of hardened steel are provided for
each dimension to be tested. They are the ‘Go’ and ‘No Go’ gauges.
✓ For example to check an external dimension one gauge is of such size that the part will not pass within it (‘No Go’ gauge)
and the other of such size that the part just passes through it (‘Go’ gauge).
✓ In such a condition, the part is accepted as within the limit of accuracy but if other wise, the part is rejected as “off-size”.

❖ A ‘Go’ gauge should pass over or through a correct feature. It checks the maximum material condition of the part.

❖ A ‘No Go’ gauge should not pass over or through a correct feature. It checks the minimum material condition of the part.
 Plug Gauges
❖ Plug gauges are of cylindrical form used in the manner of a plug for inspecting internal dimensions.
❖ Plain plug gauge is used to check the size of a hole.
❖ The gauging portion is made of suitable wear resisting steel and hardened, ground and lapped.

✓If the hole size is correct within tolerable limits, the ‘Go’ end will enter the hole while the ‘No Go’ end will not.
✓ If the ‘Go’ gauge does not pass, the hole is under size and if the ‘No Go’ gauge passes, the hole is over size.
✓ Various types of plain plug gauges like solid type, taper inserted type, fastened type, flat type and segmental
type are available for holes ranging from smaller to bigger sizes.
 Ring Gauges
➢ Plain ring gauge is a couple of gauges (‘Go’ gauge and ‘No Go’ gauge) having measurement side with the
maximum and minimum limit deviation of shaft to assure the interchangeability of the shaft.
 Snap Gauges
➢ A snap gauge is a limit gauge, having a C-shaped frame with hardened, adjustable anvils at opposite ends,
used to check diameters, lengths, and thicknesses. The anvils are made up of hard materials such as
tungsten carbide for wear resistance.
Snap Gauges
 Plate Snap Gauges
➢ These gauges are made up of suitable quality wear resistant steel plates. The gauging surfaces are hardened,
stabilised, ground and lapped. The other surfaces are finished smooth and all sharp corners and edges are
removed.
➢ Taper plug gauge is in the shape of the frustum of a cone for checking Taper Gauges
tapered holes and taper ring gauges are used for checking tapered shafts.
➢ Taper gauges do not measure angles but are used to check the diameter
at the bigger end and the change in diameter per unit length.
➢ The gauging surfaces are ground, lapped and covered with suitable rust
proof coating. The gauges should be demagnetized.

❖ Two lines are provided on the taper plug gauge denoting the upper (red)
and lower (blue) limits. The taper plug gauge is inserted as far it goes with
light pressure. At the extreme point, the face of the large end of internal
taper shall lie within the two lines if within tolerable limits. Taper plug
gauges may be plain or tanged.

✓ The taper ring gauge shall be inserted into the taper shank under test, as
far as it goes with light pressure. In the case of plain taper ring gauge at
the extreme position, the small end of the taper shank shall be flush or
short of face of the ring gauge on the small end. This is verified with the
help of straight edge.
 Feeler Gauges

✓ Feeler gauges are used for checking the clearances

between mating surfaces
eg. clearance between piston and cylinder.
✓ These are a bunch of narrow strips of steel sheet, each
made to a given thickness. Each strip has an indication
of its thickness and grade.
✓ The Indian standard establishes seven sets of feeler
gauges which differ by the number of blades in them and
the range of thickness.
 Taylor’s Principle
✓ William Taylor developed a concept relating to the gauging of components i.e to check the specific dimensions and geometric
feature of a component. His concept, known as Taylor’s Principle is used in the design of limit gauges.

✓ ‘Go Limit’: It refers to that limit of the two limits of size which corresponds to the maximum material condition i.e presence of
the greatest amount of material permitted at a prescribed surface.

✓ ‘No Go’ Limit: It refers to that limit of the two limits of size which corresponds to the minimum material condition i.e presence
of the least amount of material permitted at a prescribed surface.

✓ Taylor’s principle states that the ‘Go’ gauge should check all the dimensions (roundness, size, location, etc) of the workpiece
at a time, for the maximum metal condition and the ‘No Go’ gauge should check only one dimension of the workpiece at a
time, for the minimum metal condition.

✓ The maximum metal condition results at the upper limit of a shaft and at the lower limit of a hole. The minimum metal
condition results at the lower limit of a shaft and at the upper limit of a hole.
 Taylor’s Principle
✓ The Taylor’s Principle of gauge design gives two statements
which are discussed here:
Statement 1:
✓ The “Go” gauge should always be so designed that it will cover
the maximum metal condition (MMC), whereas a “NO-GO” gauge
will cover the minimum (least) metal condition (LMC) of a feature,
whether external or internal.

Statement 2:
✓ The “Go” gauge should always be so designed that it will cover as
many dimensions as possible in a single operation, whereas the
“NO-GO” gauge will cover only one dimension. Means a Go plug
gauge should have a full circular section and be of full length of
the hole being checked as in shown figure :
 Gauge Maker’s Tolerance and Wear Allowance
✓ It is economically impractical to manufacture gauges to their exact size or dimensions. Dimensional variations arise due to
limitations of the manufacturing process, skill of operator, etc. So some permissible deviation in accuracy must be assigned
for gauge manufacture.
✓ This tolerance that is allowed in the manufacture of gauges is termed as gauge maker’s tolerance (or) manufacturing
tolerance (or) gauge tolerance.
✓ Limit gauges are usually made 10 times more accurate than the tolerance they are going to control.
✓ During inspection, the measuring faces of the ‘Go’ gauges constantly rub against the surfaces of parts in inspection, thereby
suffer wear and lose their initial dimension. Due to this wear, the size of ‘Go’ plug gauges decrease while that of snap gauge
or ring gauge increases.
✓ Some wear allowance is added in a direction opposite to the wear to increase the service life of gauges. A wear allowance of
10% of gauge tolerance is widely accepted in industries. The ‘No Go’ gauge does not undergo any wear as it seldom
engages with the workpiece. Hence, there is no need to provide wear allowance in the case of ‘No Go’ gauges.
 Module IV – Problem
MACHINE TOOLS AND METROLOGY- MET 307

KTU
Easy and Quick learning for exams

Design the general type of GO and NOT GO gauges

Dr. Anand Sekhar R

Que. Design the general type of GO and NOT GO gauges as per the British system for a 40 mm shaft and
hole pair designated as 40 H8/d9, given that
(a) i = 0.453 ∛D+0.001D microns
(b) 40 mm lies in the diameter range of 30–50 mm
(c) IT8 = 25i
(d) IT9 = 40i
(e) upper deviation of shaft = –16D0.44
(f) wear allowance assumed to be 10% of gauge tolerance
 Interchangeability
An interchangeable part is one which can be substituted for similar part manufactured to the same drawing.

When one component assembles properly (and which satisfies the functionality aspect of the assembly) with
any mating component, both chosen at random, then it is known as interchangeability.

Example we have 100 parts each with a hole and 100 shafts which have to fit into these holes. If we have
interchangeability then we can make any one of the 100 shaft & fit it into any hole & be sure that the required
fit can be obtained. Any M6 bolt will fit to any M6 nut randomly selected.
 Advantages of Interchangeability
1. The assembly of mating parts is easier. Since any component picked up from its lot will assemble with
any other mating part from another lot without additional fitting and machining.
2. It enhances the production rate.
3. It brings down the assembling cost drastically.
4. Repairing of existing machines or products is simplified because component parts can be easily
replaced.
5. Replacement of worn out parts is easy.
6. Without interchangeability mass production is not possible.
 Selective assembly
Often special cases of accuracy and uniformity arises which might not be satisfied by certain of the fits given
under a fully interchangeable system.
For example if a part at its low limit is assembled with the mating part a high limit, the fit so obtained may not
fully satisfy the functional requirements of the assembly. Also machine capabilities are sometimes not
compatible with the requirements of interchangeable assembly