1

Author: Reamer Jr., Jeffrey L.

Title: An Analysis of Visible Airborne Magnesium Carbonate Chalk Particulates

in a Gymnastics Facility and the Risk of Respiratory Health Effects
The accompanying research report is submitted to the University of Wisconsin-Stout, Graduate School in partial
completion of the requirements for the
Graduate Degree/ Major: MS Risk Control
Research Advisor: Dr. Brian Finder, DIT, CIH
Submission Term/Year: Spring 2017
Number of Pages: 80
Style Manual Used: American Psychological Association, 6th edition
I have adhered to the Graduate School Research Guide and have proofread my work.
I understand that this research report must be officially approved by the Graduate School.
Additionally, by signing and submitting this form, I (the author(s) or copyright owner) grant the
University of Wisconsin-Stout the non-exclusive right to reproduce, translate, and/or distribute this
submission (including abstract) worldwide in print and electronic format and in any medium,
including but not limited to audio or video. If my research includes proprietary information, an
agreement has been made between myself, the company, and the University to submit a thesis that
meets course-specific learning outcomes and CAN be published. There will be no exceptions to this
permission.
I attest that the research report is my original work (that any copyrightable materials have been
used with the permission of the original authors), and as such, it is automatically protected by the
laws, rules, and regulations of the U.S. Copyright Office.
My research advisor has approved the content and quality of this paper.

STUDENT:

NAME: Jeffrey L. Reamer JR DATE: 07 March 2017

ADVISOR: (Committee Chair if MS Plan A or EdS Thesis or Field Project/Problem):

NAME: DATE: 13 March 2017

This section to be completed by the Graduate School

This final research report has been approved by the Graduate School.
Director, Office of Graduate Studies: DATE:
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Reamer Jr, Jeffrey L. An Analysis of Visible Airborne Magnesium Carbonate Chalk

Particulates in a Gymnastics Facility and the Risk of Respiratory Health Effects

Abstract

The occurrence of a visible haze of airborne chalk (magnesium carbonate or MgCO3) dust may

be witnessed by those who spend an appreciable amount of time within a gymnastics facility and

may indicate a potential risk factor for adverse respirable health effects if long-term exposure to

MgCO3 were to occur. Total and respirable airborne dust samples were measured to quantify the

amount of airborne MgCO3 particulates within a collegiate women’s gymnastics facility during

two separate three-hour practices. Air sampling was conducted within the vicinity of the uneven

parallel bars apparatus which is likely the largest contributor to airborne MgCO3 chalk dust in

the associated gymnastics facility. The results were measured using gravimetric analysis and

then compared to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s (OSHA) permissible

exposure limits (PEL’s) for magnesite to determine if any potential adverse health effects exist

for gymnastics coaches. Despite the analysis within the associated gymnastics facility which

yielded a minimal percentage of total and respirable dust when compared to the OSHA

standards, recommendations to reduce the airborne chalk dust were suggested to minimize any

potential risk for respirable and dermal exposure irritation.

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Acknowledgments

It is of the utmost importance that I thank Dr. Brian Finder for his dedication as well as

the attention to detail he provided throughout my research. I greatly appreciate your endless

guidance as an advisor as well as a CIH in which the knowledge and expertise you provided

helped lay the foundation for growth in my pursuit of higher education within the field of safety

and industrial hygiene. You enforced superb technical writing skills that I will carry with me

into the future. There are few, if any other professionals in which I would choose to help guide

me on an arduous path of educational self-development and discovery.

There are numerous family and friends to also share a thank you with in which I found

support, guidance, encouragement, and the desire to push through this process. I greatly

appreciate those gymnasts and coaches who showed a genuine interest in my topic and raised

curiosity during general conversation which motivated me to remain dedicated throughout this

study.
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Table of Contents

Abstract ........................................................................................................................................... 2

List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. 7

Chapter I: Introduction .................................................................................................................... 8

Purpose of the Study ......................................................................................................... 10

Goals of the Study............................................................................................................. 10

Background and Significance ........................................................................................... 11

Assumptions of the Study ................................................................................................. 12

Limitations of the Study.................................................................................................... 13

Definitions of Terms ......................................................................................................... 13

Chapter II: Literature Review ....................................................................................................... 15

Concerns Regarding Poor Indoor Air Quality .................................................................. 15

Properties and Uses of Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3) ................................................. 16

Known Respirable Concerns of Airborne Particulates ..................................................... 21

Published Literature Regarding Chalk Dust Exposures.................................................... 22

Health Hazards from Dust Inhalation ............................................................................... 24

Prior Assessments Involving Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3) ....................................... 28

Comparison of Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3) Safety Data Sheets .............................. 29

Particulate Exposure Assessment Techniques .................................................................. 30

Total Dust Particulate Sampling ............................................................................34

Respirable Dust Particulate Sampling ...................................................................35

The Importance of Particulate Matter (PM) Size and Shape ............................................ 36

Exposure Control Techniques ........................................................................................... 37

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Engineering Controls .............................................................................................37

Administrative Controls .........................................................................................38

Summary ........................................................................................................................... 40

Chapter III: Methodology ............................................................................................................. 42

Subject Selection and Description .................................................................................... 42

Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 43

Data Collection Procedures............................................................................................... 44

Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 49

Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 50

Chapter IV: Results ....................................................................................................................... 51

Presentation of Collected Data.......................................................................................... 51

Table 1: Total Dust Concentration .................................................................................... 53

Table 2: Respirable Dust Concentration ........................................................................... 54

Environmental Conditions .....................................................................................55

Table 3: Temperature and Humidity ................................................................................. 56

Discussion ......................................................................................................................... 57

Chapter V: Conclusions and Recommendations.......................................................................... 59

Conclusions ....................................................................................................................... 60

Goal Number One: Identify the Chemical Composition of Magnesium Carbonate

Products that are Marked for the Uneven Bars Apparatus Use .................60

Goal Number Two: Identify Total Particulate Exposure Levels of Airborne

Magnesium Carbonate for Coaches Who are Working in the Vicinity of

the Uneven Bars during Apparatus Use .....................................................61

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Goal Number Three: Identify Respirable Particulate Exposure Levels of Airborne

Magnesium Carbonate for Coaches Who are Working in the Direct

Vicinity of Uneven Bar Apparatus Use .....................................................62

Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 63

Areas of Further Research ................................................................................................ 63

References ..................................................................................................................................... 65

Appendix A: Air Monitoring Data Collection Form .................................................................... 74

Appendix B: Wisconsin Occupational Health Lab (WOHL) Sample Submission Form ............. 75

Appendix C: Wisconsin Occupational Health Lab (WOHL) Data Analysis Report .................... 76
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List of Figures

Figure 1: Schematic Side View of the Carriage Apparatus Model .............................................. 18

Figure 2: Side and Front View of the Hang Board ...................................................................... 19

Figure 3: TSI 4146 Primary Calibrator Tool Digital Display ...................................................... 44

Figure 4: Sampling Train Attached to Uneven Parallel Bars Upper Rail Support ...................... 46

Figure 5: Temperature and Humidity Monitor ............................................................................ 47

Figure 6: Large Exhaust Vent Closest to the Uneven Bars ......................................................... 48

Figure 7: Small Exhaust Vent on Opposite Side of the Facility .................................................. 49

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Chapter I: Introduction

The world of gymnastics is consistently evolving in technology, equipment and level of

difficulty performed by the athletes. The uneven parallel bars are an apparatus in women’s

gymnastics that have experienced numerous changes over the years according to Mark Lane, an

engineer for American Athletic, Inc. Mark describes the original bar rails as an oval shape made

of wood and now the bar rails are composed of fiberglass with a maple wood lined exterior

(Butterman, 2014). The advancement in design allows the bar rails to possess greater absorbing

properties and reciprocated flex (“Evolution of Sport – Gymnastics”, 2015, ¶10). A reduction of

15%-17% in graphite fibers ("AAI Graphite E Rail", 2016, ¶3) allows the increased absorption

and flex in the rails. The result of greater flex means the bar rails will store larger amounts of

potential energy to be utilized when a gymnast performs a dynamic release skill. Reciprocated

flex may encourage an increased attempt of difficult skills. In order to perform skills of higher

difficulty, gymnasts typically dust their hands and leather grips (a mechanical aid over the palm

of their hand to enhance safety (Lionnet, 2016) with crushed magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)

chalk prior to performing on the uneven parallel bars. Dusting the gymnast’s hands and grips

with MgCO3 chalk assists in repelling moisture and thus promotes the athlete to maintain a safe

grip (Hattingh, 1998) during their performance.

If a person was to walk into a gymnastics facility during practice, it is possible that a

noticeable white haze would be clouding the air (Gutman, 1998). Of the four events in women’s

artistic gymnastics (uneven parallel bars, vault, floor, and beam), the apparatus with significant

contribution to this haze is likely to be the uneven parallel bars due to consistent application of

crushed MgCO3 chalk. Though the bars may be localized in a gymnastics facility, constant

practice on this apparatus may contribute to elevated airborne magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)
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chalk particulates. It is possible that a majority of gymnastics coaches have never considered

adverse health effects of magnesium carbonate chalk use within their practice facilities.

Gymnasts use MgCO3 chalk on their leather grips and apply it frequently. During the

process of applying dried chalk to the leather grip attached to each hand, particulate matter

becomes suspended in the air from aggressive rubbing and/or blowing of the crushed MgCO3

chalk (Tarlo, Cullinan, & Nemery, 2010). The authors further mention that a common practice

post chalk application is blowing excess amounts from the hands which increase airborne chalk

particulates within the respirable vicinity. The study also suggests that airborne chalk

particulates in gymnastics facilities may result in adverse effects such as respiratory irritability

and asthma flare-ups (Tarlo, Cullinan, & Nemery, 2010). Another common practice is scuffing

residual chalk off the bars with a scouring pad prior to performance. Chalk dust often becomes

airborne from scouring the bars. Also, the gymnasts’ dismounts onto mats may result in ground

reaction forces that range between 8.8 and 14.4 times their respective body weight (Čuk &

Marinšek, 2013). The impact from the dismount may create a wave of air recirculating airborne

particulates from previously settled chalk dust both on the mat and within the surrounding area.

As clouds of chalk filled air are created, the athlete and coach have little choice but to inhale

such air contaminants. It is possible that a gymnastics coach would be designated to lead

multiple rotations on a specific apparatus for an entire shift which may exceed three hours.

Constant exposure to the chalk dust may pose a respirable risk to coaching staff in gymnastics

facilities, and may have a larger effect on those who coach bars frequently.

A coach who is prepared to provide hands on spotting of the gymnast during various

skills on the uneven bars apparatus during practice may position themselves in front of, behind,

or in-between the apparatus. Placement into one of these positions allows the coach to anticipate
 10

and react appropriately by catching (spotting) the gymnast to prevent a head, neck or spinal

injury if the gymnast were to miss-perform a skill. According to Dr. Sans, there are two ways to

spot the gymnast. The first is termed an assistive spot which helps shape the gymnast into proper

form and technique and the second is a rescue spot which is reactive in the event of a fault during

performance (Sans, 1996). Spotting also creates the potential for increased vulnerability of chalk

dust inhalation for a coach who is operating within the vicinity of the uneven bars apparatus.

According to Michael Taylor, author of Best Practices for the Gymnastics Business, gymnastics

coaches experience numerous ailments due to poor ergonomics (2009). When observing the

athlete, the coach may experience moderate cervical extension for increased periods of time.

This position may contribute to a higher risk of the coach inhaling chalk dust, or acquiring

particles of chalk in areas prone to cause irritability on the face, under the nostrils, or in the

eyes/mouth. Thus, the presence of visible airborne magnesium carbonate chalk particulates

during uneven bar apparatus use in gymnastics facilities may be posing a respiratory health risk

to the associated coaches.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to determine the extent that coaches are exposed to airborne

magnesium carbonate particulates during uneven bar apparatus use within gymnastics facilities.

Goals of the Study

The goals of this study are to:

1. Identify the chemical composition of magnesium carbonate products that are

marketed for uneven bar apparatus use

2. Identify total particulate exposure levels of airborne magnesium carbonate for

coaches who are working in the vicinity of uneven bar apparatus use
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3. Identify respirable particulate exposure levels of airborne magnesium carbonate for

coaches who are working in the direct vicinity of uneven bar apparatus use

Background and Significance

Chalk is not a requirement in the sport of gymnastics; however, it plays a specific role in

the safety of the gymnast. As the gymnasts sweat, their hands become slippery while performing

on the uneven bars apparatus. If a gymnast were to slip while performing, the result could be

catastrophic. The application of magnesium carbonate chalk allows the athlete to maintain a

comfortable and safe grip when utilizing the chalk. For this reason, a standard use of chalk,

daily, in gymnastics facilities across the United States (U.S.) is common practice.

The presence of airborne magnesium carbonate chalk dust presents potential health risks

for a variety of reasons. It may be a respiratory, ocular or dermal irritant according to the

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (2005), which states that magnesium carbonate

is a, “nuisance particulate – Accumulation in lungs” and may increase asthma related episodes.

Understanding potential respiratory health risks that exist from the inhalation of chalk dust in a

gymnastics environment is important for gymnastics coaching staff. It is reasonable to assume

potential health risks may exist since the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

(NIOSH) specifically states on their magnesium carbonate international chemical safety card in

all capital letters, “PREVENT DISPERSION OF DUST” ("CDC - MAGNESIUM

CARBONATE - International Chemical Safety Cards - NIOSH", 2015). The Occupational

Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has established an 8-hour time weighted average

(TWA) of 15mg/m3 for magnesium carbonate ("OSHA Annotated PELs", n.d.). If the TWA is

exceeded, then punitive legal actions may occur (Occupational Exposure Limits - One Tool in a

Hazard Assessment, 2012).

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Knowing and understanding potential respiratory effects from the inhalation of chalk

particulates may facilitate improved coaching practices for staff. Improved practices may

include rotational shifts of events, awareness of the amount of chalk used by athletes, and

improved housekeeping practices. Occupational considerations for implementing control

measures in gymnastics facilities to reduce chalk dust may prove beneficial for air circulation

and respiratory function of the athlete and coach. Housekeeping and overall cleanliness of a

facility may also result in reduced recirculation of already settled chalk dust.

Without proper occupational considerations and upon experiencing adverse respiratory

effects from inhaled chalk dust particulates, a coach may consider filing a worker compensation

claim. A compensable claim is possible if the coach is able to relate his or her respirable effects

to chalk dust inhalation. The respiratory system provides an easy route of exposure (Park, Kim,

& Song, 2014) to dust particulates in which gymnastics coaches may generate respiratory issues

problematic enough to seek a claim.

The research will also identify the size and quantities of chalk dust particulates in the air

and analyze, based on size, the depth in which chalk dust particulates may reach in the lungs.

Understanding the extent that chalk dust travels inside the human lungs based on particulate size

will also assist in creating ideal standard operating procedures for coaching staff among

gymnastics facilities.

Assumptions of the Study

This study allows for the following assumptions to be considered:

1. All gymnasts performing on the uneven parallel bars use magnesium carbonate chalk.

2. The facility used in this study will be using magnesium carbonate chalk blocks and

not a liquid version of magnesium carbonate chalk.

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3. Gymnasts perform on the uneven bars five days a week.

4. Coaches will spend a minimum of three hours per day, five days a week, in the

gymnastics facility.

Limitations of the Study

The limitations of this study are:

• A potential lack of published research on magnesium carbonate chalk dust exposures

within gymnastics facilities.

• The study is restricted to one gymnastics facility and is not generalizable.

• The sample size (n=4) of the study was minimal

Definitions of Terms

The following is a list of terminology commonly found in the sport of gymnastics and

may be referenced throughout this research.

Apparatus. A specialized event specific to the sport of gymnastics. There are four in

women's artistic gymnastics (uneven parallel bars, vault, beam, and floor).

Chalk. A dried, powder substance that is used in gymnastics to prevent slipping.

Primarily it is used on the leather portion of hand grips prior to mounting the uneven bars.

Chalk eater. A machine utilized in gymnastics facilities to circulate air through a filter

in order to reduce the amount of chalk dust particles in the air.

Grips. A device anchored to the wrist of the athlete with a strap of leather extending

beyond the palm of the hand with two finger holes at the end. Chalk is applied to the leather

portion.

High bar. In reference to the uneven parallel bars referring to the higher of the two bars.

Low bar. In reference to the uneven parallel bars referring to the lower of the two bars.
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Level 10. The highest level of competition for optional gymnastics.

Spotting. A term used when a coach assists a gymnast in performing a skill to enhance

safety.

Support. References any or all of the four vertical risers that support the high and low

bar rails on the uneven bar apparatus.

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Chapter II: Literature Review

The purpose of this study was to consider potential adverse health effects of gymnastics

coaches due to exposure of inhalable magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) airborne particulates.

Gymnasts typically use MgCO3 chalk when performing on the uneven parallel bars. During

application of the chalk to his/her hands and grips, the MgCO3 powder aerosolizes and may

contribute to substandard indoor air quality within a gymnastics facility. Magnesium carbonate

chalk is thought to enhance safety among the gymnasts during athletic performances on the

uneven bars by absorbing moisture. This chapter describes properties and uses of MgCO3,

respirable concerns and health hazards of dust exposure, airborne particulate sampling

techniques, and finally possible control measures that may be implemented to control airborne

MgCO3 particulates within a gymnastics facility.

Concerns Regarding Poor Indoor Air Quality

There are several determinants in the workplace that lead to disorders and communicable

diseases (World Health Organization, 2016) which includes acute and chronic respiratory health

issues. Aside from physical characteristics of machinery that may create a risk to employees, it

is also important to consider the physical dangers that are not always as visible, such as

substandard air quality. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) lists reduced indoor air

quality (IAQ) as one of the current top concerns for public health (Baksh, 2016). According to

the U.S. EPA, indoor air quality studies have measured pollutants at significantly higher

concentrations than that of outdoor air (EPA, 1997).

Indoor air quality is measured for numerous reasons in order to ensure a safe respirable

environment for employees in all types of indoor facilities. The primary reasons for sampling

IAQ include situations where employees are experiencing fatigue, reduced concentration, a lack
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of production, and medical health issues (Maroni, Seifert, & Lindvall, 1995) and especially for

individuals if particulate matter levels exceed a certain threshold in their respective work areas

(Spengler, McCarthy, & Samet, 2001). Other signs and symptoms as a result of reduced indoor

air quality may include headaches, irritation to the eyes, nose, throat and/or lungs (Indoor Air

Quality, 2016, ¶1). Consistent exposure to reduced indoor air quality with quantifiable airborne

particulate matter (PM) may lead to adverse health risks pertaining to the lungs (Hulin, Simoni,

Viegi, & Annesi-Maesano, 2012).

Properties and Uses of Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3)

Magnesium carbonate is described in the Dictionary of Science and Technology (1992)

as a white powder-type substance with minimal water solubility properties. Magnesite is a

synonym for magnesium carbonate and is defined similarly according to PubChem (2016) as a

crystalline powder which serves as an ingredient in chalk commonly used in sports. The fore-

mentioned MgCO3 chalk is the compound that gymnasts apply to their hands and grips prior to

performing on the uneven bars apparatus. Magnesite is also described as a crystalline dust and

may portray a yellow or brown color (PubChem, 2016, ¶ 4.2.1). The Occupational Safety and

Health Administration (OSHA) considers magnesite a “respirable nuisance” (Chemical Sampling

Information, 2016) which by definition refers to being an airborne particulate with relatively low

toxicity (Cherrie, Brosseau, Hay, & Donaldson, 2013). Historically, low toxicity dusts have

demonstrated minimal adverse effects on the lungs and thus may be the primary reason why such

airborne particulates receive little attention for further regulation below the current 15mg/m3

exposure limit (Cherrie et al., 2013). Though MgCO3 dust is a respirable nuisance per OSHA

standards, respirable nuisance dusts are still concerning since a certain level of toxicity likely

exists. Therefore, gymnastics coaches who work within the vicinity of the uneven bars apparatus
 17

may experience enough exposure to airborne chalk dust particulates and thus result in the

occurrence of adverse health effects.

Magnesium carbonate is a multi-purpose compound common within various

activities/industries in relation to athletics, neoprene rubber production, medical applications,

and the makeup industry ("Uses of Magnesium Carbonate", n.d., ¶16). The Cosmetic Ingredient

Review (CIR) in their “Safety Assessment of Simple Carbonate Salts as Used in Cosmetics”

report, mention that MgCO3 is used as a bulking and opacifying agent, as well as an absorbent

(Johnson & Heldreth, 2016). There are sports outside of gymnastics that use chalk to enhance

gripping ability, especially with weightlifters who often use this material on their hands to grip

various types of barbells. Brian Neale, certified strength and conditioning specialist (C.S.C.S.)

and owner of a personal coaching business in New York commented that when chalk is used in

weightlifting, the substance provides increased friction and thus allows a weightlifter to exercise

with heavier weights while maintaining a stronger grip (Cannon, 2015).

Another sport that relies on the use of MgCO3 chalk is rock climbing. Rock climbers use

chalk to maintain dry hands to increase the friction coefficient between the fingers and the rock-

based surface (Li, Margetts & Fowler, 2001). This is similar to the reason why gymnasts use

MgCO3 chalk, although there is a belief that MgCO3 assists in safety among athletes who are

performing on the uneven parallel bars in order to maintain dry hands and also to prevent the

gymnasts fingers from slipping off of the bars (Hattingh, 1998). However, Li, Margetts and

Fowler (2001) hypothesized that there is not a significant benefit to chalk use when the desired

results are to increase the friction coefficient between hand grip on an object, and their research

indicated such. To simulate the effect of rock climbing with quantifiable data, the researchers

designed an apparatus that involved four strain gauges (one at each corner), two steel rods which
 18

paralleled one another with each end of a rod on top of a strain gauge, and a carriage which was

situated on top of the steel rods (depicted in Figure 1). The carriage served as a platform for

three types of rocks to be placed on. The participants in the study rested their arm on an armrest,

with the carriage device placed in front of the armrest. The researchers then placed one of three

rock materials (sandstone, granite, or slate) on the carriage, had the participant grip the material,

and then measured the friction coefficient. These measurements were assessed under different

variables which included all three types of rock materials, as well as dry or wet fingers crossed

with chalk or no chalk on the fingers. Li, Margetts and Fowler’s (2001) research found that the

coefficient of friction was approximately 18% less when MgCO3 chalk was applied as opposed

to situations when no chalk was present on the fingers.

Figure 1. Schematic side view of the carriage apparatus model. Adapted from: Li, F., Margetts,

S., & Fowler, I. (2001). Use of ‘Chalk’ in Rock Climbing: Sine Qua Non or Myth?. Journal Of

Sports Sciences, 19(6), p.429.

 19

While Li, Margetts and Fowler’s study did not assess the variables associated with

ambient temperature and humidity, a separate study by Amca, Vigouroux, Aritan, and Berton

(2012) did examine such environmental aspects while measuring the friction coefficient of chalk

use on the fingers during rock climbing. Amca, Vigouroux, Aritan, and Berton (2012) included

the variables of temperature and humidity due to potential effects that such may have on the

friction coefficient value. The study by Amca et al. (2012) utilized a specially designed

apparatus referred to as a hang board (depicted in Figure 2). The hang board consisted of a

wooden plate with the top tilted outward from a fixed frame and the bottom of the wooden plate

served as the fulcrum at the fixed frame. There were also hold blocks mounted to the wooden

plate for the participants to hang from. The wooden frame would be tilted outward while a

participant held onto the hold block, and once the participant slipped due to the increasing angle

of the wooden plate towards horizontal, the friction coefficient was then measured. The

researchers discovered that MgCO3 chalk use correlated to an increased friction coefficient

ranging from approximately 19% to 21.5% greater than without MgCO3 chalk, which contradicts

Li, Margetts, and Fowler’s previously explained study.

Figure 2. Side and front view of the hang board. Adapted from: Amca, A., Vigouroux, L.,

Aritan, S., & Berton, E. (2012). The Effect of Chalk on the Finger–Hold Friction Coefficient in

Rock Climbing. Sports Biomechanics, 11(4), p.475.

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Other variables considered in the study by Amca et al. (2012) included temperature and

humidity which were assessed at various ranges from 12° to 28°C, and from 28.5% to 76%,

respectively. Despite testing the fore-mentioned ranges in temperature and humidity, the

researchers presented no conclusive data that temperature and humidity affected chalk use and

grip strength, but suggested that further studies consider a detailed analysis of temperature and

humidity as independent variables (Amca et al., 2012).

A belief by Sivamani et al. (2003) is that ambient temperature and humidity may affect

hydration of the human skin. One possible reason for the contradiction among the previously

discussed rock climbing studies is that the measured friction coefficient may be related to the

hydration of the skin in regards to ambient air temperature and humidity. Li et al. (2001)

presented data that MgCO3 chalk use in rock climbing does not increase the friction coefficient

while Amca et al. (2012) presented data supporting an approximately 20% increase in friction

coefficient with the use of MgCO3 chalk. Both studies focused on finger grip forces, but only

Amca et al. measured temperature and humidity. In regards to gymnastics, the belief that

MgCO3 chalk serves as an important grip enhancement mechanism remains constant. Given that

Amca et al. (2012) analyzed temperature and humidity with minimal evidence of having an

effect on grip strength related to the use of MgCO3 chalk, this study of aerosolized MgCO3 dust

particulates attempted to account for temperature and humidity during associated gymnastics

practices.

Another difference between the previously discussed rock climbing studies which may

serve as a more likely reason for the contradiction of grip enhancement results lies within the

methodology of the two studies. Li et al. (2001) used a contraption (Figure 1) which utilized

tangential forces that pulled the object away from the individual in an attempt to achieve a
 21

friction coefficient. However, true body weight and forces may not be accurately represented in

this model whereas Amca et al. (2012) utilized a design which is precisely simulative of forces a

rock climber may experience (Figure 2). The design employed by Amca et al. (2012) may

possibly have resulted in greater accuracy when determining true effects on grip strength when

utilizing MgCO3 chalk. These two studies both considered grip strength benefits, or a lack

thereof, through the use of MgCO3 chalk which may help to empower whether gymnasts have a

strong basis to heavily rely on the use of MgCO3. One benefit of chalk use in gymnastics may be

grip strength, but a potential downfall may be respirable health concerns due to aerosolized chalk

particulates.

Known Respirable Concerns of Airborne Particulates

Numerous sources of airborne dusts have been studied and associated with various types

of occupational lung diseases (Hazard Prevention and Control in the Work Environment, 1999).

Dust may be defined in various forms, although an optimal definition is a dry particulate under

100 microns in diameter that is created from crushing, grinding, or other operations that has the

ability to cause particulates to become and/or remain airborne for a period of time (Calvert,

1990). Respirable diseases from dust inhalation may range from mild irritation to inflammation,

alveolitis and/or cancer (Inhalation Disorders, n.d.). A majority, if not all inert dust particulate

exposure studies over the last two decades have been correlated to adverse health effects of the

lungs such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder (COPD) (Cherrie et al., 2013). The Mayo

Clinic defines COPD as an inflammatory lung condition from chronic exposure to gases and

particulate matter which results in constricted breathing (Mayo Clinic, 2016).

According to the Office of Mine Safety and Health Research (2010), silica is a common

element comprising over 25% of the Earth’s crust. The inhalation of crystalline silica is linked
 22

to lung diseases such as silicosis (a scarring of lung tissue) as well as cancer. The result of

continuous overexposure to respirable silica is hundreds of deaths per year with multiple new

cases simultaneously occurring (Professional Safety, 2016). With over 25% of the Earth’s crust

containing silica, it is possible that miners are exposed to silica dust while mining magnesite for

the production of MgCO3 chalk. If trace amounts of silica are in the magnesite, the risk of

exposure to silica may carry into the production and eventual use of MgCO3 chalk in various

gymnastics facilities. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health’s (NIOSH)

chemical card for magnesite, MgCO3, carbonic acid, and magnesium salt states that if there is

greater than 1% crystalline silica in the magnesite during mining, then adverse health effects of

the lungs may occur (CDC, 2015). The concern NIOSH states regarding the potential for

crystalline silica to exist in magnesite and/or MgCO3 would hopefully lead an individual to

exercise increased caution regarding chalk dust exposures. With known respirable concerns

from various types of dust inhalation, it is important to understand that significant exposure to

airborne chalk dust in gymnastics facilities may have mild to severe consequences to an

individual’s health.

Published Literature Regarding Chalk Dust Exposures

If magnesite contains elements other than magnesium carbonate, then it would not be

considered pure. Matt Ford conducted research on two brands of rock climbing chalk (the

identical chemical makeup of the compound used in gymnastics and weightlifting) to ascertain if

commercially available MgCO3 chalk is 100% pure as certain manufacturer’s labels suggest.

The authors discovered through dispersive spectrometry that one brand was comprised of

calcium and MgCO3 while another product contained trace amounts of silicon, which may serve

as a drying agent (Ford, 2012). According to Dr. Bill Cordua (n.d) silicon is a pure element
 23

whereas silica is a combination of silicon and oxygen and creates silicon dioxide (SiO2).

Therefore, it is possible that silicon within certain MgCO3 chalk-based products may oxidize and

thus present trace amounts of silica.

Understanding that numerous types of dust pose a risk to the respiratory system

reinforces a need for additional research regarding chalk dust inhalation. According to

Majumdar, Gajghate, Pipalatkar and Chalapati Rao (2011), minimal published information exists

in regard to chalk dust-related indoor air pollution and its effects on the respiratory system. Dust

is considered to be a form of particulate matter (PM), and chronic inhalation of such materials

include negative respiratory effects, especially within specific populations of children or those

with asthma (Sacks et al., 2010). A minimal number of published studies in rock climbing

(MgCO3 chalk) and classroom teaching (CaCO3) have been performed and thus alludes to a lack

of research on aerosolized chalk dust and its respirable effects in general. In an indoor/outdoor

airborne particulate matter comparison study, Alves et al. (2014) discussed the fact that indoor

air quality research exists regarding schools, offices, and homes, but little to no information

exists with regard to establishing the level of air quality within recreational facilities.

Numerous forms of airborne dust have been discussed in published literature, but there

are several which lack scientific exposure-related research. A chemical which is a similar

compound to MgCO3 chalk is dolomite, which is a type of limestone that is composed of calcium

magnesium carbonate with the formula CaMg(CO3)2 (Dolomite, 2014). Similar to magnesite,

dolomite is classified as a nuisance dust with little information in existence regarding its

potential adverse respiratory effects (Neghab, Abedini, Soltanzadeh, Iloon-Kashkooli, &

Ghayoomi, 2012). Though gypsum is a calcium sulfate compound, Brun et al. (2013) indicates

that published literature on the pulmonary effects of inhaled gypsum dust appears to be non-
 24

existent. Majumdar and William (2008), in their studies regarding classroom chalk state that

quantifiable data of CaCO3 chalk dust particulates entering the respiratory system are practically

non-existent, even though CaCO3 chalk dust is PM and may behave similar to other airborne

particulates. The authors provide an indication that similar to other particulates, an occupational

risk to a teacher’s respiratory system exists due to CaCO3 chalk dust inhalation (Majumdar &

William, 2008).

The dusts that have a strong correlation with cancer, such as asbestos fibers and silica

appear to be heavily researched. The lack of research on MgCO3 is likely to remain minimal

unless a correlation is discovered that provides the existence of health hazards which result in

chronic respirable disorders. The author of this study has observed that gymnastics coaches

work in an environment where visible airborne MgCO3 chalk dust concentrations are present

once a practice has commenced and thus believes a potential negative respiratory impact might

exist within a gymnastics setting. Gymnastics is a niche sport outside the realm of

biomechanics, and there is little, if any literature related to the presence of occupational health

risks for gymnastics coaches. The lack of research on chalk dust exposures empowers the

foundation of this research and the need to identify risk factors that may exist for gymnastics

coaches who often work near the uneven bars apparatus and risk the inhalation of chalk dust

particulates.

Health Hazards from Dust Inhalation

Irritation to the human body internally and/or externally is typically a concern of airborne

exposures from dust particulates. Various irritations from MgCO3 may result from dermal,

ocular and respirable exposures which includes coughing (Magnesite (Total Dust), 2016). The

respiratory based route of exposure is usually of greatest concern, but dermal exposures have
 25

recently gained significant consideration, especially if the dusts contain metal particulates

(Lundgren, 2005). One observation of MgCO3 chalk dust is that it is slightly water soluble

(CDC, 2016), which means there is a potential for absorption through the skin (Hazard

Prevention and Control, 1999). However, a more significant concern is dust that enters the

respiratory system. Dust particulates may enter the respiratory system through inhalation via the

oral or nasal passages. If the dust particulates are not filtered in the nasalpharyngeal region, then

such will likely reach the tracheobronchial region. The smallest particulates which measure 2.5

microns or less in size may be able to reach the alveolar sacs within the lungs where the gas-

blood exchange occurs (Schlegel & Hemminger, 2011). Particulate size and its importance is

later discussed in this literature review. Depending on particulate size and the amount of time

that is spent in the vicinity of inhalable airborne particulates, certain negative effects may range

from mild and irritating to acute and chronic disorders and/or health impairing diseases (Kim,

Kabir, & Kabir, 2015).

Upon penetration of dust into the respiratory system, certain acute effects may transpire.

The term “acute” in regards to toxicology may be defined as sudden onset of adverse health

effects which last for a short duration of time with likely reversible effects (Hazard Prevention

and Control, 1999). Acute symptoms may include but not be limited to irritation of the skin,

congestion in the respiratory system, irritation of the throat, and fatigue (Acute Respiratory

Infection, 2016). Magnesium carbonate dust is referred to by OSHA as a nuisance dust

(Chemical Sampling Information | Magnesite Total Dust, 2016) which infers that it possesses a

relatively low toxicity and thus may only cause acute mild dermal or respirable irritation.

Cherrie et al. (2013) disputes nuisance dusts being synonymous with low toxicity by referencing

coal and other airborne particulates with minimal crystalline silica levels that are now linked to
 26

long term respiratory diseases. Cherrie et al. (2013) further discuss that guidelines of nuisance

particulates, which are regarded as only creating acute effects, are not sufficient due to

epidemiological studies which link long-term health effects to low toxicity dusts (Cherrie et al.,

2013).

If proper exposure reduction-based controls are non-existent in the workplace, then

employees may experience constant exposure to certain respirable particulates over extended

periods of time. The two types of approaches that may be employed in order to reduce exposures

to hazards include engineering and administrative controls. An engineering control is a method

that focuses on minimizing the hazard and requires a change in design which removes the

workers’ access to the physical hazard (Geigle Safety Group, Inc., n.d.). If engineering controls

cannot be employed, an administrative control may be implemented, although such an approach

is less favorable. An administrative control refers to policies, procedures and safe practices but

does not actually remove the physical hazard (Geigle Safety Group, Inc., n.d.). Without

implementing any controls to reduce airborne dust exposure, an employee may have an increased

risk of acquiring a chronic health and/or respiratory issue. The World Health Organization

(WHO) defines a chronic disease as one that is established over a long period of time which

requires methodical forms of treatment (Tunstall-Pedoe, 2006). Numerous chronic diseases

affect the lungs which result from the inhalation of respirable toxic particulates. Chronic

diseases known from the respiration of particulates include respiratory morbidity, various types

of lung cancer, and COPD (Health Effects of Particulate Matter, 2013). Certain airborne

particulates are known to remain suspended in the air for long periods of time and travel long

distances prior to settling and therefore the inhalation of these particulates may result in a

reduced quality of life (Kim, E. Kabir, & S. Kabir, 2015).

 27

Another compound used for chalk is calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Similar to MgCO3,

CaCO3 is white in color, odorless, and exists as a natural form in various minerals (CDC –

Calcium Carbonate, 1995). Though this is not the type of chalk that is used in gymnastics-

related applications, it is commonly employed in classroom settings in conjunction with chalk

boards. Calcium carbonate chalk poses similar concerns to MgCO3 when considering respiratory

hazards. An occupational risk exists for teachers who may inhale chalk while lecturing

concurrently with writing on chalkboards. Not only is the inhalation of chalk particulates an

issue, but settled chalk dust is also a concern (Lin, Lee, & Huang, 2015). This indicates a need

for additional gymnastics chalk dust research since it’s the researcher’s opinion that

housekeeping appears to be a problematic issue within gymnastics facilities.

According to the NIOSH pocket guide (2015), calcium carbonate creates similar

respirable effects as MgCO3. This includes respiratory, ocular, and dermal irritation, and a

potential for COPD as well as other respiratory related diseases (Lin, Lee, & Huang, 2015).

Recommended exposure limits (REL) and permissible exposure limits (PEL) are also equal for

CaCO3 as they are for MgCO3. The OSHA time weighted average (TWA) exposure limits for

both compounds are 15 mg/m3 for total dust and 5 mg/m3 for respirable dust.

An additional health hazard from airborne particulate exposure is allergic reactions and

asthma. Due to varying inhalation-based tolerance levels among the human population, it is

difficult to have set regulations of indoor air quality standards (Spengler, McCarthy, & Samet,

2001). Aggravated asthma is proven as an adverse health effect in studies of airborne particulate

exposure, especially when exposed to particulate matter of 2.5 (PM2.5) microns (μm) (Kim, E.

Kabir, & S. Kabir, 2015). Not every individual lives with asthma or allergies, but it is apparent

how the burden of the smallest amount of airborne particulate matter may cause increased
 28

physical reaction-based risks and/or adverse health effects. One study conducted by Nikam and

Hirkani (2013) measured the peak expiratory flow rate (PFER) in 75 teachers after a one-year

period of using chalk and a blackboard as the primary instructional aid in a classroom setting.

The researchers compared the PFER in the associated teachers to a control group of 75

individuals in the same region but who did not work in or around chalk. The researchers

discovered a significant decline in PFER among the associated study group which was attributed

to the use of chalk on black boards. Another conclusion by the researchers was that teachers are

at risk for occupational ailments related to airflow obstruction and increased respiratory

infections from chronic chalk dust inhalation related to chalk use on blackboards in classrooms

(Nikam & Hirkani, 2013). Given the previously mentioned research, one could reasonably

conclude that MgCO3 exposures in gymnastics coaches may create similar types of allergic

reactions as experienced by classroom instructors who write with chalk on black boards.

Prior Assessments Involving Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3)

A comparative particulate matter study was conducted involving the indoor air quality of

both a gymnasium and a fronton separately, and then comparing such results to outdoor air

sampling data in the vicinity of the gymnasium and fronton. A fronton is a court that appears to

be a hybrid of a racquetball and tennis court, and the game played within this area is a type of

paddleball. A gymnasium in this instance refers to a university gymnastics facility with men’s

and women’s respective equipment, foam block pits, and trampolines. The authors mention that

little to no information exists for air quality within recreational facilities (Alves et al., 2014).

Indoor air sampling occurred for the first week in the fronton and the second week in the

gymnasium, whereas outdoor air quality was measured during both weeks. Alves et al. (2014)

discovered that when gymnastics-based activities were occurring, particulate matter larger than 1
 29

micron in the air was 2400% greater than that of outdoor air quality when the respective athletes

used magnesium carbonate chalk. The study also discovered that particles less than 1 micron in

size were 500% greater than outdoors, and PM was 32% higher than within fronton during

gymnastics practice (Alves et al., 2014). Alves et al. (2014) also considered respirable dust

fractions mentioning that approximately 14% of inhaled particles may deposit in the alveolar

region according to the collected data in the gymnasium. Therefore, one may conclude that

based on the prior study, a respirable risk of chalk dust inhalation among gymnastics coaches is

likely to exist.

A study conducted by Weinbruch, Dirsch, Ebert, Hofmann, and Kandler (2008) in

Darmstadt, Germany analyzed airborne particulates within indoor climbing and sports facilities

(where gymnastics activities were taking place) with specific consideration of MgCO3 chalk use.

The authors discovered that a significant increase in PM 10µm or less (PM10) existed during

activities involving MgCO3 chalk use and that airborne concentrations were within 1-4 mg/m3,

which is similar to inhalable fractions of other dusts within industry settings according to the

German Federal Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (Weinbruch, Dirsch, Ebert,

Hofmann, & Kandler, 2008). Weinbruch and researchers suggested that a reduction in the

suspended levels of MgCO3 PM is necessary (Weinbruch, Dirsch, Ebert, Hofmann, & Kandler,

2008). In considering the studies conducted by Alves et al. and Weibbruch et al, the potential for

MgCO3 airborne particulates to be deposited in the gas exchange region of gymnastics coaches’

lungs is likely.

Comparison of Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3) Safety Data Sheets

Two safety data sheets (SDS) were acquired for the compound MgCO3. The first SDS

was from Science Lab and the second was created by Gracilis from the Czech Republic, which
 30

the latter stated specific industry use is for athletes. Both documents appeared to have little

detail and information regarding first aid measures for serious skin contact and serious inhalation

as well as a lack of information discussing fire and explosive data. However, both documents

stated that MgCO3 is a dermal and respiratory irritant (Gracilis s.r.o., 2013) (Science Lab, Inc.,

2013). Both Gracilis s.r.o. (2013) and Science Lab (2013) suggested an individual be transported

to fresh air upon inhaling MgCO3. One interesting aspect is that Science Lab suggests merely

shoveling the spilled MgCO3 into a waste can while Gracilis recommends using a non-

flammable material that will absorb the powder and then to dispose of such in sealed containers.

It is plausible that potential adverse health risks from MgCO3 exposures do exist, yet both SDS’s

provide little information regarding toxicological effects, combustibility, and ecological

information. According to the two compared SDS’s, both contained minimal detail regarding

health exposure-based information which may prove that little research on adverse health effects

of MgCO3 inhalation exists. If additional information related to adverse health effects is found

to exist in the future, then the corresponding SDS’s will need to be updated with such hazard

warnings.

Particulate Exposure Assessment Techniques

Particulate standards set forth by OSHA provide employers with specific exposure-based

thresholds to abide by when employees operate in environments where airborne particulate

exposures exist. If visible emissions are identified, then the OSHA guidelines indicate that an

employer must conduct an appropriate exposure assessment (OSHA, 2016). Upon entry into a

gymnastics facility during a practice, an individual may identify the presence of suspended

airborne chalk dust particulates. From the previously stated OSHA exposure assessment
 31

guidelines, it appears as though the act of sampling airborne particulates within a gymnastics

facility would be a necessary practice in order to determine a coach’s exposure level.

It is plausible that gymnastics coaches usually work less than a 40-hour work week in the

vicinity of the uneven bars apparatus, which therefore reduces their overall time weighted

average exposure to MgCO3 particulates. A time weighted average (TWA) is a measurement of

a substance that an employee is exposed to during any eight hours of a 40-hour work week

(OSHA 29CFR1910.1000, 2016). The OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL) TWA for

Magnesium Carbonate (Magnesite on the Z-1 table) is 15mg/m3 for total dust and 5mg/m3 for

respirable dust (CDC – Magnesite, 2016). However, even without a coach spending a maximum

40-hour work week in a gymnastics facility, years of constant exposure to MgCO3 particulates

may still have a negative effect on his/her overall lung function.

One method for conducting an air quality assessment is known as the gravimetric

sampling procedure. This process requires the use of an air pump, cassette, and a filter media

that is placed inside the cassette. The gravimetric sampling procedure involves pre-weighing the

filter media and then placing such onto a support pad within a 37mm cassette that is constructed

of polyvinyl chloride (Colinet, 2010). A calibrated air pump then draws a known flow-rate of air

in liters per minute (or L/min) through the filter cassette for a specific period of time. The media

is removed from the filter cassette and then weighed a second time to determine the overall

weight of captured particulates that settled on the media (Sampling and Analytical Methods,

2016). The air pump’s flow rate must also be calibrated on a pre and post-sampling basis with

the respective filter media. A constant air flow rate of 1.8 L/min to 2.0 L/min for general

particulate-based sampling must be maintained throughout the duration of the monitoring period

in order to ensure reasonably accurate sample collection practices and analysis results (General
 32

methods for sampling, 2000, ¶26). A post-sampling calibration flow rate should be within +/-5%

of the pre-sampling air flow to ensure validity of the collected samples. For example, if pre-

sampling calibration was 2.00 L/min, post-sampling calibration must be between 1.90 L/min and

2.10 L/min (Mine Safety and Health Administration, 2014). A method to ensure validity in

determining sample weight of the collected data on the filter media is through the use of a field

blank. A non-exposed media should be weighed pre and post-sampling to help validate accuracy

in calibration of the gravimetric sampling procedure to ensure no contamination occurred during

transport or filter recovery of media employed for air sampling (State of Alaska Department of

Environmental Conservation n.d.). Area sampling is recommended for determining background

levels of inhalable dust which means that the sampling train should be positioned at a fixed

location and at a height that is similar to a person’s respirable zone.

In the field, a device known as a rotameter may be used to ensure that the air pump

maintains a consistent flow rate. A rotameter is a mechanical device (which is calibrated prior to

its use in the field) that uses a float ball to measure the flow rate of air and ensures that the air

pump is operating at the proper adjusted flow rate (Dillon, 2010). Another method for ensuring

consistent air flow of a sampling pump is with a Gilian Gilibrator calibration system. The

Gilibrator uses a glass tube with an infrared sensor at the bottom and top of the tube which

measures the time of travel of a soap bubble after the first sensor is tripped, and stops the time

when the second sensor at the top of the tube is tripped (Sensidyne, 2000). A third method for

air pump calibration includes the use of a TSI model 4146. The TSI 4146 calibrator is a small

tool connected to the air pump via tubing which electronically measures the flow rate of air

within +/- 2% accuracy of the pump’s actual flow rate (TSI Incorporated, 2016). Of the three
 33

calibration tools presented, it appears as though the TSI 4146 is a preferred method for

accurately performing field calibration of air pumps and the corresponding filter media.

If a cyclone is used for measuring respirable fractions (discussed further into this review),

it too must be calibrated. To calibrate a Dorr-Oliver cyclone, it is inserted into a special chamber

with two attachments on the lid for airflow. This is because cyclones only have one attachment

for air flow when sampling. Other cyclones such as the aluminum cyclone still use a chamber,

but the chamber only covers the grit pot and air inlet (Walsh, 2011). The TSI 4146 calibrator

may also serve as a calibration tool for the Dorr-Oliver cyclone which is an additional reason the

TSI 4146 may be a preferred tool beyond the previously mentioned calibration tools.

A preferred method of particulate sampling may be to conduct personal (active) sampling

because this procedure places the filter media within the respirable zone of the worker. Active

sampling is where the pump and corresponding filter media is attached to the individual.

Typically, the calibrated pump is attached to the individual’s belt, with the corresponding

collection device placed within eight to twelve inches of the worker’s mouth or what is

commonly referred to as his/her breathing zone (Burton, 2011). The Occupational Safety and

Health Administration recommends the placement of the collection device to be in front of the

shoulders and within nine inches of the worker’s breathing zone (preferably closer if possible

without interference of the work being conducted) (OSHA Technical Manual, 2016). It is also

recommended that the inlet of the collection device faces downward which will prevent gross

(i.e., large) debris from entering the filter cassette and thus contaminating the results (OSHA

Technical Manual, 2016).

An important consideration when conducting air sampling is to account for temperature

and humidity within the vicinity of the data collection. When measuring airborne dust
 34

particulates, an uncertainty in the data exists due to humidity and temperature (Su et al., 2008)

which may allow a sample to approach, or exceed regulatory standards (Lacey & Faulkner,

2015). Temperature measurements are important because adsorption becomes reduced in

warmer temperatures due to this being an exothermic process (McCammon & Woebkenberg,

1998). Adsorption is defined as adhesion of molecules to a surface, which in turn promotes the

release of heat (Merriam-Webster, n.d.) hence increased temperature minimizing the exothermic

reaction. Humidity also serves an important role in airborne particulate sampling. Low humidity

may have an effect on filter media by creating a high charge and rejecting some particulates or

may retain a non-uniform sample on the media (McCammon & Woebkenberg, 1998).

Additionally, high humidity may affect post sampling filter media tare weight due to moisture

absorbed into the media (McCammon & Woebkenberg, 1998). However, the applicable

laboratory will desiccate the filter media prior to weighting the samples in order to eliminate the

variable of humidity. The technician who adjusts the equipment for field testing must ensure that

the pump was calibrated within the area that the testing will occur otherwise, there may be a

change in the volumetric flow rate of the pump (General Methods for Sampling, 2000, ¶39).

Total dust particulate sampling. Total dust sampling is utilized when measuring the

dusts that are listed in OSHA’s “Personal Sampling for Air Contaminants” Appendix B:

Substance for Gravimetric Determination (which includes Magnesite), or when measuring other

types of nuisance dusts (OSHA Technical Manual (OTM), n.d.). Total dust is also known as

“inhalable dust” and accounts for particulates ranging in size up to 100 microns which may enter

into the respiratory system through inhalation of the nose or mouth (General methods for

sampling, 2000, ¶7).

 35

Respirable dust particulate sampling. Respirable dust involves airborne particulates

that are 10 microns or less and have the ability to reach the alveolar sacs (Respirable Dust

Sampling Procedures, 2008). OSHA states that when conducting gravimetric sampling, if a

cyclone is used and the volumetric flow rate is 1.7 L/min, then a sample may be considered to be

respirable when collecting dust particulates (Sampling and Analytical Methods, 2016). As

previously discussed, a tool referred to as a cyclone is attached to the inlet of the collection

device which allows a separation of the smaller particulates. A Dorr-Oliver cyclone is typically

a 10mm diameter nylon cyclone that is used as part of a sampling train to allow the respirable

fraction of dust (particulates 10 microns in size or less) to be separated from the non-respirable

fraction (Respirable Dust Sampling Procedures, 2008). The respirable fraction of particulates is

ten microns in diameter or less and is generally denoted as PM10 which symbolizes particulate

matter of 10 microns in diameter. A Dorr-Oliver cyclone allows particulates to enter through an

air inlet slit on the side of the device and creates a centrifugal force that allows particulates

greater than PM10 to drop into a grit pot at the bottom of the cyclone while the smaller

particulates pass through the cyclone and are captured on the filter (EMSL, n.d.). The

recommended volumetric flow rate for the Dorr-Oliver nylon cyclone is 1.7 L/min according to

recommended guidelines from NIOSH (McCammon & Woebkenberg, 1998). According to

McCammon and Woebkenberg (1998), the two other types of cyclones that are used include the

Higgens Dewell and an aluminum cyclone which have the recommended flow rates of 2.2 L/min,

and 2.5 L/min respectively. All three types of cyclones are acceptable for measuring respirable

dust, however each have specific operating procedures.

 36

The Importance of Particulate Matter (PM) Size and Shape

A fiber is different partially in the fact that it is comprised of both length and width and

such dimensions of 3:1 are referred to as an aspect ratio which defines the term fiber (WHO,

1997). Fiber dimensions play a crucial role in risk factors of respiratory particulate matter. As

with asbestos, a length to width ratio of a fiber contributes to a higher risk factor of health

concerns (Loomis, Dement, Richardson & Wolf, 2011). An aspect ratio of 3:1 or greater is of

additional concern because of its aerodynamic properties (World Health Organization Europe,

2000). The Reynolds number (Re) is a dimensionless number (Columbia Electronic

Encyclopedia, 2015) that is used in fluid mechanics to describe drag and turbulence (Columbia

Electronic Encyclopedia, 2015). Due to the Re number of particles with a 3:1 or greater ratio, an

increased health hazard exists because the fibrous shape allows the particulates to remain

airborne longer.

In 2008, Majumdar and William conducted research in a classroom which employed

open petri dishes spaced approximately three meters (3m) apart in order to collect airborne chalk

dust as it settled. The researchers collected data from dusting chalk on both smooth and rough

boards as well as non-dusting chalk on the equivalent two types of black boards. This study

analyzed particulate size, shape and structure with an electron microscope. The results

concluded approximately 59% of non-dusting chalk measured 4.5μm or less and dusting chalk

resulted in nearly 41% of particulates at 4.5μm or less (Majumdar & William, 2008).

Additionally, the study utilized electron microscopy depicting shaping of the particulates and

discovering that the dusting particles represented a majority of rod-shaped particulates while the

non-dusting chalk created random shaped particulates (Majumdar & William, 2008).
 37

As Zhang et al. (2015) discovered, chalk dust particulates are not only small enough to

enter the lungs, but may also reach into the lower bronchial alveoli according to Bastonini et al.

(as cited in Zhang et al., 2015). Airborne particles small enough to measure 2.5 micron may be

considered toxic, but particles of 1 micron or smaller typically deposit into the deepest part of the

lungs (i.e. the alveoli) where the gas exchange process occurs (Majumdar & William, 2008).

Majumdar and William (2008) further mention that with minimal research and evidence

published, chalk dust respiration as an occupational hazard is controversial. The conclusion that

may be derived is that chalk dust particulates have the ability to be small enough to deposit into

the gas exchange and may pose a significant health risk over long periods of exposure.

Exposure Control Techniques

In the NIOSH hierarchy of hazards and controls, the highest ranked control is eliminating

(physically removing) the hazard (CDC, 2016). The sequential order after the elimination

approach is through chemical/material substitution, engineering controls, administrative controls,

and personal protective equipment (CDC, 2016). Eliminating the use of MgCO3 chalk in

gymnastics facilities as a whole does not appear to be feasible due to the higher risk that now

exists from increased difficulty in skill performance as compared to four decades ago. However,

the substitution of solid MgCO3 with the use of a liquid-based chalk which is less likely to

become airborne may be a potential option.

Engineering controls. Liquid chalk is an alcohol and water based product that when

applied to the hands, the liquid evaporates and thus leaves a dry film on the hands (Liquid Gym

Chalk, 2015). According to Deary’s Gymastics Supply (DGS) (n.d.), a benefit of liquid chalk

may be that it provides a non-dusty atmosphere within a gymnastics facility as well as indicates

that the liquid form may last longer than powdered chalk. Thus, gymnasts have the opportunity
 38

to perform additional repetitions on a given apparatus without re-applying extra product to

his/her hands.

An additional engineering control that is used in gyms involves a machine referred to as a

Chalk Eater. A Chalk Eater is a machine in the shape of a box with a filter on multiple sides and

an internal air blower which pulls air in through the sides via the filters and then pushes the air

out of the top of the machine. According to Midwest Gym Supply (2016) the chalk eater filters

chalk, pollen and other pollutants out of the air. However, Kevin Keithley states that an air filter

similar to the Chalk Eater is only beneficial for particulates greater than 0.3 microns which may

suffice for a majority of airborne particulates in a gymnastics facility. Keithley also points out

that such filters lack the ability to remove smaller biological pollutants (Keithley, n.d.). He

continues to state that chalk dust may not be the only concern in gymnastics facilities, but

bacterial hazards such as salmonella and E. coli which may be transported through the air on

chalk dust particles are a significant concern (Keithley, n.d.). The Chalk Eater filtration system

may serve as a plausible idea, but the ability of this device to promote a suitable indoor quality of

air or of minimizing airborne chalk dust particulate exposures remains questionable.

Administrative controls. Gymnastics facilities may be difficult to maintain from a

housekeeping standpoint. The existence of large pieces of equipment as well as odd-sized

training aids may reduce storage space within a gymnastics facility. Numerous uneven surfaces

also exist, and therefore it may become difficult for a person to dust, mop and/or vacuum this

area frequently. Magnesium carbonate is considered non-flammable according to the NIOSH

pocket guide 2015 (CDC, 2016), but because it is an organic compound, there may be a level of

combustibility. Dennis Hendershot (2008) claims that any particulate matter may combust under

the right circumstances. Significant levels of chalk dust may settle on mats, flooring, and any
 39

other exposed horizontal surfaces that may collect dust. Hendershot (2008) also mentions that

layered dust levels that exceed 1/32 of an inch may be hazardous in any facility. Since MgCO3

is an organic compound and housekeeping in a gymnastics facility may be difficult, it is possible

for the combustion of the MgCO3 particulates to occur.

It is plausible that gymnastics facilities recirculate settled chalk dust as a result of moving

mats that tend to push a wave of air across settled dust, or from the gymnasts’ impactful landings

on matting in the uneven bars area. Every time that settled chalk dust is recirculated, there is a

concern for inhalation of the aerosolized particulate matter. As Mujumdar et al. (2011) points

out, studies are extremely limited that consider the quantification of chalk dust that has been

suspended in the air. Because chronic MgCO3 exposures may pose a coach-related health issue

within a rarely cleaned gymnastics facility, favorable housekeeping practices are important

(Majumdar et al., 2011).

Implementing standard operating procedures (SOP) for housekeeping could be an

important factor for safety and health within a gymnastics facility. One of the top recommended

safety tips for gymnastics facility owners is to ensure that every piece of equipment is assigned

and returned to its respective common place (Taylor, 2015) for both aesthetic reasons as well as

enhancing the safety of coaches and athletes who would likely be walking over the top of

unstable surfaces and unsupervised use by a student-athlete. In Bobbie Montanari’s “Checklist

for Maintaining a Clean Gym,” the word “chalk” is used seven separate times in that checklist to

include cleaning chalk off bleachers, walls, mats, and on equipment (Montanari, 2010).

Mentioning chalk seven different times validates that the circulation of the MgCO3 dust

particulates remain airborne for excessive periods of time and may pose a significant problem for

respiratory concerns of an individual in a gymnastics facility.

 40

Summary

This chapter summarized properties and uses of MgCO3, a lack of research on MgCO3,

respirable concerns and health hazards of dust exposure, airborne particulate sampling

techniques, and various control measures that may be implemented to control airborne MgCO3

particulates within a gymnastics facility. The intent of this research was to identify the potential

for major health concerns that may exist for gymnastics coaches in relation to respirable airborne

chalk dust particulates.

The air quality of gymnastics facilities may be poor due to suspended dust particulates

from the use of MgCO3 chalk, specifically on the uneven bars apparatus. A lack of research of

chalk dust inhalation in gymnastics facilities is evident. Limited studies of rock climbing and

classroom teaching activities have alluded to a lack of research on chalk dust and its respirable

effects in general (Alves et al., 2014; Majumdar et al., 2011). Gymnastics is a niche sport and

outside the realm of biomechanics, there is minimal literature related to the presence of relevant

occupational health hazards. Not only is there a lack of published literature on chalk dust and the

potential respiratory effects of this chemical compound (Majumdar & William, 2008), but also

for other airborne dusts such as gypsum (Brun et al., 2013). The dusts that have a significant

correlation with the occurrence of cancer such as asbestos fibers and silica appear to be heavily

researched. A lack of research on MgCO3 exposures will probably remain minimal unless

research indicates a correlation which proves the presence of health hazards that result in disease

and/or mortality.

It is possible that the simplest way to collect airborne MgCO3 particulates is through area

sampling. Area sampling requires an air pump with a 37mm cassette, a filter media to collect the

air sample placed inside of the cassette, and an air pump to maintain a flow rate of 1.8 L/min to
 41

2.0 L/min. This process would provide an indication of total levels of airborne dust within a

certain vicinity. In order to sample respirable dust which is particulates 10 microns in diameter

or less, a Dorr-Oliver cyclone is attached to the cassette. The cyclone has an inlet that the air

enters into and then creates a centrifugal force allowing particles heavier than 10 microns to fall

into the grit pot while smaller particles are collected on the filter media. Once the sample has

been collected, the media is removed from the cassette, desiccated in a lab, and then the weight

of particulates on the filter media is measured through gravimetric analysis. Based on the

gravimetric analysis, a facility may need to integrate control measures to mitigate the hazard.

Control measures may include elimination of the source/hazard, using a liquid-based chalk

product, a chalk dust filtration system, and/or housekeeping procedures.

Chalk dust particulates may be measured by size, and as discussed earlier, may provide

an understanding to the deposition in which inhaled chalk particulates may reach within the

respiratory system. As earlier defined, the dictionary of science and technology (1992) mentions

MgCO3 as being slightly water soluble. If it is water soluble, MgCO3 particulates may simply be

processed in the human body. In addition to studying aerosolized chalk particulates within a

sports facility, closing the gap may include studying the participants of the sport itself. Based on

previously discussed research, it is reasonable to assume a potential respirable risk exists from

long term exposure to MgCO3 chalk dust inhalation.

 42

Chapter III: Methodology

The use of magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) chalk within the sport of gymnastics is

significant and will likely continue to serve gymnasts with a perceived fundamental purpose of

providing a sense of safety from slipping during performance on the various types of apparatus.

With the prevalent use of MgCO3 chalk in gymnastics facilities, a noticeable white haze may

exist which is likely associated with continuous application of powdered MgCO3 chalk.

Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine the extent of exposure to airborne MgCO3

particulates among associated coaches who work near the uneven bars apparatus during practice

within a gymnastics facility. In order to achieve this purpose, three goals were considered:

1. Identify the chemical composition of magnesium carbonate products that are

marketed for uneven bar apparatus use.

2. Identify total particulate exposure levels of airborne magnesium carbonate for

coaches who are working in the vicinity of uneven bar apparatus use.

3. Identify respirable particulate exposure levels of airborne magnesium carbonate for

coaches who are working in the direct vicinity of uneven bar apparatus use.

In this chapter, instrumentation and data collection tools are discussed as well as data

collection procedures, data analysis, and limitations of the study.

Subject Selection and Description

The primary aim of this research was to measure airborne chalk dust particulates within a

gymnastics facility. The researcher of this study chose a collegiate gymnastics facility with a

team who conducts consistent practices for approximately three hours per day, five days per

week, over the course of seven months during the central portion of a standard academic school

year. The facility had all women’s gymnastics apparatus to include two sets of regulation
 43

uneven parallel bars as well as two single rail bar stations that were situated above foam pits. All

of the fore-mentioned bars training equipment is located in the northern end of the gymnastics

facility in close proximity to one another.

Instrumentation

All data collection equipment was ordered from the Wisconsin Occupational Health

Laboratory (WOHL) located at 2601 Agriculture Drive, Madison, WI 53718. The WOHL used a

XYZ vacuum oven to dry the 5-micron polyvinyl chloride filters and then used a XYZ desiccator

to equilibrate and then pre-weigh the filters prior to shipment. The air pumps employed to

collect chalk-particulate samples were SKC Airlite air pumps. The SKC Airlite air pumps were

calibrated to the specific media by WOHL prior to shipment. Once the sampling equipment was

received, the pre-sampling and post-sampling calibration was verified using a TSI 4146 primary

calibrator prior to employing the air pumps in the gymnastics facility. The TSI 4146 calibrator

was connected to the sampling train via tubing which provided a continuous digital display of

volumetric flow-rate and allowed for necessary adjustments to the pump (Figure 3). An SKC

field rotameter provided a backup/secondary field calibration tool for pre- and post- calibration

in the event the TSI 4146 experienced technical issues. The flow-rate of the SKC Airlite pumps

were calibrated as close as practical to 2.0 liters per minute (2.0 L/min) for total dust sampling

and 1.7 L/min for respirable dust sampling. Within each sampling train was a two-piece 37mm

yellow-banded cassette which encased a 5-micron polyvinyl chloride (PVC) filter. Four 37mm

cassettes were used for sampling while an additional 37mm cassette served as a blank. Each

cassette was labeled with a numerical value and one of two letters, ‘T’ or ‘R’ representing ‘total’

or ‘respirable’ dust. For example, the first total dust sampling train had a 1-T label written onto

the yellow-band which represented one of two total dust samples collected. In order to measure
 44

respirable dust, a Dorr-Oliver cyclone was attached to one of two different cassettes per each of

the two days of collecting samples with the purpose of allowing particulates smaller than 10

microns to collect on the filter media. Temperature and humidity were also measured during the

air sampling process. A Kestrel model 3500 monitor was utilized to record the temperature and

humidity variables.

Figure 3. TSI 4146 primary calibrator tool digital display. This figure portrays the TSI 4146

calibrator display screen during pre-calibration of an SKC Airlite pump.

Data Collection Procedures

Air samples were collected during two separate gymnastics practices within a collegiate

facility in order to accomplish goal number two and goal number three. Scheduled college

gymnastics practice was three hours per day, five days per week, starting at 3:00p.m. central

standard time (CST) and concluding by 6:00p.m. CST. Once the SKC air pumps were in the

gymnastics facility, one air pump and sampling train was used per day for total dust sampling

and another with a sampling train which included the Dorr-Oliver cyclone was used for
 45

respirable dust sampling per day. One total dust sample and one respirable dust sample was

measured each day for a total of two days. One air pump was set to the flow-rate of 2.0 L/min

for total dust sampling which was verified using the TSI 4146 air flow calibrator. In order to

measure respirable dust, the second air pump with the Dorr-Oliver cyclone was calibrated to

maintain a flow rate of 1.7 L/min which was also verified through the TSI 4146.

Each pump ran for a minimum of three minutes to reach an operating temperature prior to

equipment calibration. Once the two pumps were calibrated and verified, the beginning flow-

rate, date, and time-on information was recorded on the Air Monitoring Data Collection Form

(see Appendix A). The two pumps with their respective 37mm yellow-banded cassette were

attached to one high bar support of one regulation set of an uneven parallel bars apparatus

(Figure 4). The cassettes were positioned as close to one another as possible in order to gain an

idea of total and respirable concentrations of dust that a gymnastics coach may be exposed to

over a three-hour time period when coaching at the uneven bars apparatus. One pump used only

a 37mm yellow-banded cassette oriented horizontally while the other pump included the Dorr-

Oliver cyclone oriented vertically with the 37mm yellow-banded cassette attached within the

device. The 37mm cassettes were attached to the supports at a height of approximately 168 cm

(or five-feet, five-inches) to simulate the vicinity of a person’s respirable zone as if a coach was

positioned near the support in order to observe and/or spot an athlete who was performing on the

high bar rail of the uneven bars apparatus. Both pumps then operated continuously for three

hours straight during the entire collegiate gymnastics practice. At the conclusion of the three-

hour sampling session, the flowrates of each pump and its corresponding filter media were

verified with the TSI 4146 air flow calibrator. The sampling end-time as well as the air flow-

rates were recorded on the Air Monitor Data Collection Form. The Kestrel model 3500 monitor
 46

measured temperature and humidity within six feet of the air pumps (Figure 5) and the associated

data was recorded approximately every hour on the Air Monitor Data Collection Form during the

three hours of air monitoring.

Figure 4. Sampling train attached to uneven parallel bars upper rail support. This figure

portrays both sampling trains attached to one vertical support of the uneven bars apparatus.

White athletic tape was used to hold the equipment in place while the apparatus was performed

on.
 47

Figure 5. Temperature and humidity monitor. This photo depicts the Kestrel model 3500

monitor placed within six feet of both sampling trains.

An important factor regarding air sampling within the gymnastics facility included

observations of the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system. The associated gymnastics

facility was a 6200 square foot area and had eight diffusers, of which four were located within

the vicinity of the uneven bars section of the gymnastics facility. All eight diffusers were at a

height of approximately 7.5 meters (25-feet). One exhaust vent measured approximately 90 cm

x 180 cm (three-foot horizontal by six-foot vertical) and was mounted in the wall at one-meter

above the floor in the northeast corner of the facility (the vicinity of the bars apparatus). This

particular exhaust vent had an external filter attached to it (Figure 6). Another exhaust vent

mounted in the wall was located in the southeast corner of the facility and measured

approximately 40 cm x 80 cm (15 inches vertical by 30 inches horizontal) and was at a height of

 48

approximately 305 cm (10-feet) above the floor (Figure 7). The center airflow was measured by

analyzing the air speed at the vertical and horizontal center point of each of the two exhaust

vents and from a distance of approximately 30 cm away from the exhaust vents. This data was

then recorded on the Air Monitoring Data Collection Form (see Appendix A).

A metal double-door system which opens to the outdoors is located on the north side of

the facility and is only opened per each entry or exit of an individual and therefore remains

closed at all other times. Additionally, a wood-based double-door set is at the south side of the

facility and provides entry into a hallway which delivers access to a fieldhouse, indoor

swimming pool, and offices. The double-doors on the south side of the facility remain open at

all times during gymnastics practice.

Figure 6. Large exhaust vent closest to the uneven bars. This photo portrays the larger of the

two exhaust vents. A 2.5 cm thick filter is attached to the outside of the vent and is layered with

chalk dust.
 49

Figure 7. Small exhaust vent on opposite side of the facility. This figure is a photograph of the

40 cm x 80 cm exhaust vent located in the southeast corner of the gymnastics facility.

Data Analysis

After the four air samples were acquired, the pump time on/off, the total pump run times,

the lowest calibration flow rate for each sample and the calculated total pump volume data was

logged on the WOHL Sample Submission Form (See Appendix B). The four exposed filter

cassettes as well as the completed WOHL Sample Form were returned to the WOHL lab for

desiccation and analysis. In addition to the four samples, a blank cassette was also submitted to

the lab in order to ensure validity of the associated samples analyzed. In order for the lab to

perform gravimetric analysis, the yellow band tape was first removed from the cassettes which

provided access to the 5-micron PVC filter. Identical procedures of drying and desiccating the

filters at pre-sampling occurred for post-sampling. After drying and desiccating the filters, the 5-

micron PVC filters were then weighed to the nearest microgram. The difference between the

pre-sampling and post-sampling weight provided the amount of particulates obtained from the
 50

data collection procedures. The lab then calculated the provided total volume of sampled air in

relation to the corresponding sample weight in order to determine the average air concentration

in milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3). This data was then compared to occupational exposure

levels set forth by OSHA to discover if concerning respirable exposures of chalk dust exist for

coaches who work within the associated area of a gymnastics facility and to formulate necessary

recommendations if needed.

Limitations

The limitations of this study are:

1. A potential lack of published research on magnesium carbonate chalk dust exposures

within gymnastics facilities.

2. The study is restricted to one gymnastics facility and is not generalizable.

3. The sample size (n=4) of the study was minimal.

 51

Chapter IV: Results

The purpose of this study was to determine the extent of airborne magnesium carbonate

(MgCO3) exposure that gymnastics coaches may experience when coaching within the

associated area of a gymnastics facility which contains the uneven bars apparatus. In order to

accomplish this purpose, the following three goals were developed:

1. Identify the chemical composition of magnesium carbonate products that are

marketed for uneven bar apparatus use.

2. Identify total particulate exposure levels of airborne magnesium carbonate for

coaches who are working in the vicinity of uneven bar apparatus use.

3. Identify respirable particulate exposure levels of airborne magnesium carbonate for

coaches who are working in the direct vicinity of uneven bar apparatus use.

The methodology used to accomplish the three goals included an analysis of the

applicable magnesium carbonate safety data sheet (SDS) as well as performing airborne

particulate sampling near the uneven bars apparatus within a collegiate gymnastics facility. The

SDS’s as well as airborne particulate sampling data was then compared to the literature which

provided information regarding the extent of health risks that gymnastics coaches are subjected

to as a result of the inhalation of airborne MgCO3 particulates.

Presentation of Collected Data

The data in this section is presented in regard to three research goals. The first research

goal was to identify the chemical composition of the specific MgCO3 product used within the

sampled women’s gymnastics facility. This was primarily completed through research within

the literature review as well as the analysis of respective SDS’s. Magnesium carbonate is mined

as the mineral magnesite from various locations on the Earth where this chemical compound may
 52

also contain silica. Thus, the purity of MgCO3 may become compromised with trace amounts of

silica and result in airborne exposures of this chemical compound within various gymnastics

facilities. Another element which may exist within marketed MgCO3 chalk is calcium. It is

possible that MgCO3 may also contain measurable quantities of calcium through the mining of

magnesite. The Gracilis Safety Data Sheet (SDS) for athletic-oriented MgCO3 lists the chemical

concentration as being 95% - 100% MgCO3 (Gracilis s.r.o., 2013), which suggests that up to 5%

of this product may contain measureable concentrations of another material such as silica and

calcium. Contradicting the Gracilis SDS is a magnesium carbonate SDS produced by

ScienceLab which states that the chemical concentration is 100% MgCO3. It is likely that the

chemical concentration of this particular product is not pure MgCO3, despite what ScienceLab

indicates within their respective MgCO3 SDS. Stanley, a large producer of various types of

chalk for construction marking purposes states within the emergency overview on their SDS that

this chalk product contains crystalline silica. This indicates that the MgCO3 chalk produced by

Stanley lacks purity. The chalk-based product utilized for the two days of sampling within the

gymnastics facility was labeled as pure MgCO3 which was distributed by Rage Fitness Supply.

A liquid-based MgCO3 chalk product for the use in gymnastics activities also exists and is

comprised of alcohol and water which assist to liquefy the chalk. When applied to the hands or

grips, the alcohol and water evaporate and thus leave a chalky film. No SDS was obtained with

regard to a liquid version of MgCO3 chalk, however the lack of 100% purity and other potential

hazards are likely similar to the other products previously mentioned.

Goal number two was to identify total particulate exposure levels of airborne magnesium

carbonate chalk for coaches who were working within the vicinity of the bars apparatus during

an average collegiate gymnastics practice. This goal was achieved by attaching an air pump to
 53

one upper-bar post of the uneven bars apparatus, initiating the pump for sampling at the

beginning of practice and shutting the pump off at the end of a practice session which constituted

a total run-time of 180 minutes. One pump was mounted in the same location for each of the two

days and measured one total dust sample each day for two consecutive days. The results from

the two samples of total airborne particulates are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Total Dust Concentration

Sample Sample Sample Sampling Total Mass Total Air Average

ID Start Time End Time Duration Collected (µg) Volume MgCO3 Air
(L) Concentration
(mg/m3)
1-T 3:32pm 6:32pm 180 min. 460 µg 367.20 L 1.20 mg/m3
01/04/2017 01/04/2017

2-T 3:35pm 6:35pm 180 min. 380 µg 361.80 L 1.10 mg/m3

01/05/2017 01/05/2017
The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) time weighted average

(TWA) over an 8-hour period for magnesite is 15 mg/m3. The results of the data collection for

the two-day period ranged between 1.10 mg/m3 and 1.20 mg/m3 for a three-hour sampling

period. The overall percentage of the OSHA TWA for each average total air concentration was

computed through the following equation:

𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂 3 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑋

TWA % = = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑇𝑊𝐴 𝑥 100
8 ℎ𝑟. 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠

1.2𝑚𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 180𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.45

Day 1 TWA % = = 15𝑚𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 100
480 𝑚𝑖𝑛

1.1𝑚𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 180𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.41

Day 2 TWA % = = 15𝑚𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 100
480 𝑚𝑖𝑛

The calculated TWA percentage for day one total airborne MgCO3 over a three-hour

sampling period is approximately 3% of the permissible exposure limit (PEL) for an 8-hour work

day. For day two, the calculated TWA was 2.8% of the OSHA PEL for magnesite. When
 54

compared to an 8-hour TWA, the exposure levels remained well below the OSHA PEL of 15

mg/m3. Thus, there appears to be minimal concern for total dust concentration from airborne

chalk particulates within the associated gymnastics facility.

Goal number three was to identify respirable particulate exposure levels of airborne

magnesium carbonate for coaches who were working in the direct vicinity of uneven bars

apparatus use. In order to achieve goal three, the air monitoring setup was similar to goal two in

regard to both the sampling train and the placement of such on the bars upright. However, to

obtain respirable particulates, a Dorr-Oliver cyclone was utilized. The sampling train was turned

on at the start of the gymnastics practice and operated for a total of 180 minutes until the

conclusion of the practice. One pump was mounted in the same location for each of the two

consecutive days and collected one respirable dust sample during each day. The results from the

two samples of respirable airborne particulates are presented in Table 2.

Table 2

Respirable Dust Concentration

Sample Sample Sample Sampling Respirable Total Air Average

ID Start Time End Time Duration Mass Volume Respirable
Collected (µg) (L) MgCO3
Concentration
(mg/m3)
1-R 3:32pm 6:32pm 180 min. 110 µg 313.20 L 0.36 mg/m3
01/04/2017 01/04/2017

2-R 3:35pm 6:35pm 180 min. 77 µg 306.00 L 0.25 mg/m3

01/05/2017 01/05/2017
The 8-hour TWA for respirable magnesite per OSHA standards is 5 mg/m3. The results

of the data collection for the two-day period ranged between 0.25 mg/m3 and 0.36 mg/m3 for

each of the two three-hour sampling periods. The overall percentage of the respirable TWA was

computed through the following formula:

 55

𝐴𝑣𝑔. 𝑀𝑔𝐶𝑂 3 𝐴𝑖𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑥 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑋

TWA % = = 𝑀𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑇𝑊𝐴 𝑥 100
8 ℎ𝑟. 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠

0.36𝑚𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 180 𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.135

Day 1 TWA % = = 5 𝑚𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 100
480 𝑚𝑖𝑛

0.25𝑚𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 180𝑚𝑖𝑛 0.093

Day 2 TWA % = = 5 𝑚𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 100
480 𝑚𝑖𝑛

The TWA percentage for respirable magnesite dust on day 1 calculated to be 2.7% of the

OSHA PEL. The day 2 concentration calculated out to approximately 1.88% of the OSHA PEL

for respirable magnesite dust exposure during an 8-hour work day. When compared to an 8-hour

TWA for respirable magnesite dust, the respirable data remains well below the OSHA PEL of 5

mg/m3 as well as the action level which is approximately half the PEL. Similar to the total dust

results, minimal concern for respirable dust concentration exists within the associated gymnastics

facility.

Environmental conditions. Other variables which are common to consider when

conducting air sampling include ambient temperature and humidity. Both of these

environmental conditions serve as important factors due to the data collection occurring within

the month of January in Minnesota. The outside temperature on the first day of air sampling

(January 4th, 2017) was estimated to be 4°F for a high during the day, and -6°F for a low. The

following day (January 5th, 2017) also experienced extremely cold temperatures with a high of

2°F and a low estimated at -8°F. These low temperatures may account for lower than expected

humidity levels within the gymnastics facility during sampling. The temperature and humidity

within the gymnastics facility were measured with a Kestrel model 3500 monitor which was

placed within six feet of both sampling trains. The respective data was logged at the start of

practice as well as approximately every 60 minutes during sampling time for each day of
 56

sampling on the Air Monitoring Data Collection Form (see Appendix A). Temperature and

humidity for the two days of air monitoring are represented in Table 3.

Table 3

Temperature and Humidity

Day 1: Time Temperature Humidity

3:32 PM 72.1° F 23.6 %

4:33 PM 72.8° F 25.3 %

5:35 PM 68.5° F 25.7 %

6:30 PM 73.0° F 27.0 %

Day 2: Time Temperature Humidity

3:30 PM 69.8° F 21.4 %

4:32 PM 70.2° F 23.3 %

5:32 PM 70.4° F 23.7 %

6:30 PM 70.9° F 24.2 %

Another important factor regarding air sampling is the gymnastics facility’s heating,

ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system. The particular facility in which this data was

collected from was equipped with eight fresh air diffusers and two return vents. The largest of

the two return vents (approximately 90 cm by 180 cm or three-foot horizontally by six-foot

vertically) is located near the uneven parallel bars section of the facility and measured a flow-

rate of 158.40 feet per minute (fpm) at approximately 1-foot away from each of the corners of

the vent. At the center of the same return vent opening, the velocity was 149.60 fpm. A reading

in front of the smallest return vent (approximately 40 cm by 80 cm) opposite of the location of
 57

the uneven parallel bars displayed no reading on the Kestrel air velocity monitor in any position

near the vent. However, when chalk powder was sprinkled from the top of and in front of the

smaller return vent, an observable number of particulates were pulled into the vent system and

thus indicated that this return vent was functional to a certain extent.

Discussion

Under OSHA regulations, MgCO3 is considered a respirable nuisance, meaning that

minimal toxicity levels as well as health effects and/or concerns exist. Any level of toxicity

regarding respirable particulates may impose adverse health effects from the nasalpharyngeal

region through the alveolar sacs of the lungs. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and

Health (NIOSH) has chemical cards for various elements to include one for magnesite, or

MgCO3, which states that if more than 1% crystalline silica exists, then adverse health effects

may occur (CDC, 2015). This is important to note because one study performed by Ford (2012)

attempted to ascertain the true chemical composition of chalk-based products used in sports

through dispersive spectrometry. As discovered through the literature review and in alignment

with the results of Ford’s dispersive spectrometry study, it is likely that few chalk-based products

marketed for sports contain the pure magnesium carbonate-based compound that is listed on the

associated ingredients label.

A lack of research exists in regard to air sampling chalk dust in sports and recreation

facilities as well as minimal literature in existence for chalk inhalation in the field of teaching

and classroom settings which use a similar chalk product made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

Teachers may experience adverse effects from chalk inhalation when utilizing CaCO3 chalk in

conjunction with a blackboard. Though peak expiratory flow rate has been shown to be reduced

among teachers who write on a blackboard with chalk, it would be difficult to parallel those
 58

results to what a gymnastics coach may experience regarding chalk dust inhalation due to the

minimal amounts of dust that was acquired during the sampling period of this study within a

gymnastics facility. Other studies which researched classroom instruction and blackboard use

have indicated that chronic obstructive pulmonary disorders (COPD) are likely to occur from

long-term exposure of writing on blackboards with chalk, but reaching similar conclusions

regarding gymnastics coaches and chalk dust inhalation would be difficult based on the results of

the respirable dust concentrations from this study.

The results acquired from this study of airborne chalk particulates in a gymnastics facility

closely aligned with the results from a study conducted in Germany which analyzed airborne

particulates from MgCO3 chalk use during indoor activities such as rock climbing and

gymnastics. Both studies demonstrated an increase in particulate matter and acquired

concentrations between 1-4 mg/m3 for total dust. Though the results of this facility-oriented

gymnastics study demonstrated the presence of airborne chalk particulates, the data calculations

indicated that only a small percentage of the OSHA PEL for MgCO3 existed at the time of both

monitoring sessions.
 59

Chapter V: Conclusions and Recommendations

The purpose of this study was to analyze visible airborne magnesium carbonate (MgCO3)

chalk particulates within a gymnastics facility and to identify potential risks regarding the

respiratory health effects of MgCO3. This study was conducted in a collegiate gymnastics

facility in close proximity to an uneven bars apparatus during the practices of a competitive

collegiate season. Gymnasts apply MgCO3 chalk to their leather grips multiple times throughout

an average collegiate practice. During any given practice, a visible haze within the associated

gymnastics facility likely exists from constant application of the MgCO3 chalk powder to the

gymnast’s leather grips, impactful landings on mats with settled MgCO3 chalk dust, and a lack of

housekeeping. In order to discover if a potential hazard exists for coaches working within a

gymnastics facility, three goals were developed:

1. Identify the chemical composition of magnesium carbonate products that are

marketed for uneven bar apparatus use.

2. Identify total particulate exposure levels of airborne magnesium carbonate for

coaches who are working in the vicinity of uneven bar apparatus use.

3. Identify respirable particulate exposure levels of airborne magnesium carbonate for

coaches who are working in the direct vicinity of uneven bar apparatus use.

The methodology used to achieve the above three goals included a review of literature as

well as conducting air sampling as close as practical to the uneven bars apparatus in a gymnastics

facility. The cassettes of the sampling trains were placed at a height equivalent to the respirable

zone of a gymnastics coach standing within the vicinity of the bars apparatus who may often spot

or coach an athlete during her performance on the apparatus. The collected data recorded on the
 60

appropriate form and was then shipped with the corresponding sampling media to the Wisconsin

Occupational Health Lab for gravimetric analysis.

Conclusions

This section identifies major findings listed per goal in a bullet point format from the

research conducted regarding potential health risks to gymnastics coaches who perform their

respective duties in the vicinity of the uneven bars apparatus within a collegiate gymnastics

facility.

Goal number one: Identify the chemical composition of magnesium carbonate

products that are marketed for the uneven bars apparatus use. Through a comprehensive

literature review, multiple studies were gathered which analyzed chemical composition of chalk

products. From those studies, the following conclusions were derived:

• Magnesium carbonate (MgCO3) chalk may not be pure, despite wrappers and

contents which list the only ingredient as being magnesium carbonate.

• Magnesium carbonate is mined from areas within the earth that may contain silica,

and thus trace amounts of silica may exist within the MgCO3 chalk that is used within

a gymnastics facility.

• A SDS from Stanley lists within the emergency overview that the company’s chalk

products contain crystalline silica.

• Measurable amounts of calcium may exist in chalk blocks that are labeled as pure

MgCO3.

• Liquid-based MgCO3 chalk products contain alcohol and water which evaporate and

thus leave a chalk-like film on a gymnast’s hands and/or grips.

 61

It is plausible that MgCO3 chalk products which are used for various sport applications

lack purity in the chemical composition of the product, despite ingredient labels that list only the

words magnesium carbonate. The existence of crystalline silica may be so minimal that it is

unnecessary to exhibit concern, however, if the presence of this chemical is one-percent or

greater, then proper actions need to be considered such as acquiring SDS’s from multiple

manufacturers to review the respective ingredients and also performing laboratory testing to

ensure that crystalline silica is non-existent.

Goal number two: Identify total particulate exposure levels of airborne magnesium

carbonate for coaches who are working in the vicinity of the uneven bars during apparatus

use. In order to discover an approximate amount of total airborne chalk dust particulates per

cubic meter, air sampling was conducted utilizing 5-micron polyvinyl chloride filters. The

results were then compared to the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)

regulations for magnesite. Information included in Chapter II discussed airborne particulate

sampling of chalk dust particulates in similar facilities with significantly higher percentages

obtained when compared to the data in this research project. The following conclusions were

identified:

• The total dust samples collected on two separate days yielded similar concentration

results.

• The total dust per cubic meter from the first day of sampling was calculated to be 3%

of the OSHA permissible exposure limit (PEL) for magnesite, which could be

considered an insignificant level to be concerned with.

 62

• The total dust per cubic meter from the second day of sampling was calculated to be

2.80% of the OSHA PEL for magnesite, which is likely an insignificant amount to be

concerned with.

• Other magnesium carbonate-related airborne contaminate research presented in

Chapter II indicated significantly greater numbers exposure levels from a total

particulate standpoint than what was discovered in this research.

Goal number three: Identify respirable particulate exposure levels of airborne

magnesium carbonate for coaches who are working in the direct vicinity of uneven bar

apparatus use. In order to obtain data for goal number three, a similar setup to goal number two

was utilized in regard to the air sampling train. However, to filter out particulates larger than 10-

microns, a Dorr-Oliver cyclone was attached within the sampling train. The Dorr-Oliver cyclone

creates a centrifugal force during air monitoring which allows particulates greater than 10-

microns in size to cycle downward into a grit pot while particulates less than 10-microns were

allowed to pass through and thus were trapped by the filter media. Chapter II of this study

provided detailed information about the Dorr-Oliver cyclone and the process of collecting

respirable particulates. The following conclusions of this form of air sampling are as follows:

• The respirable dust samples collected on two separate days yielded similar

concentration results.

• The respirable dust per cubic meter from the first day of sampling calculated to be

2.70% of the OSHA respirable permissible exposure limit (PEL) for magnesite,

which could be considered an insignificant level to be concerned with.

 63

• The respirable dust per cubic meter from the second day of sampling calculated to be

1.88% of the OSHA PEL for magnesite, which could be considered an insignificant

level to be concerned with.

Recommendations

The following recommendations may be valuable to gymnastics facility-based athletics

programs in order to minimize the potential for elevated MgCO3 chalk dust particulate exposures

to exist:

• Conduct proper housekeeping practices which maintain facility cleanliness and thus

reduce the creation of suspended MgCO3 chalk dust particulates during gymnastics

activities.

• Consider the use of a liquid-based chalk product which is manufactured for

gymnastics purposes.

• Maintain clean return vent filters or change the filters on a routine basis in order to

maximize the ventilation system’s ability to capture suspended MgCO3 particulates

before such can be inhaled by the respective coaches and athletes within the

associated area.

Areas of Further Research

This study was limited in sample size and areas specific to effects of chalk dust

inhalation. The following are areas identified for further research in regard to magnesium

carbonate dust inhalation in athletics:

• Conduct spirometric testing of gymnastics coaches before, during, and after a

practice.

• Assess MgCO3 chalk dust exposures of the athlete/gymnasts

 64

• Conduct the same study with a larger sample size.

• Conduct the same study during a time of the year with warmer outside temperatures

and increased humidity.

• Perform a similar study which includes wipe sampling of dust-laden surfaces.

• Increase the number of days of air sampling.

• Perform personal exposure sampling with the respective filter cassettes attached to

the gymnasts.

• Perform personal exposure sampling for custodial employees who are required to

occasionally clean the dust accumulations from the surfaces within a gymnastics

facility.
 65

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 74

Appendix A: Air Monitoring Data Collection Form

AIR MONITORING DATA COLLECTION FORM

Date:______________ Company:__________________________ Dept.__________________

Location:______________________ Activity:________________________________________

Beginning Temp: _____ Ending Temp: ____ Beginning Humidity: ____ Ending Humidity __

Sample # Pump Beg. Beg. End End F.R. Total Min. Special Notations
# F.R. Time Time

Observations:
1. _________________________________________________________________________________

2. _________________________________________________________________________________

3. _________________________________________________________________________________

4. _________________________________________________________________________________

5. _________________________________________________________________________________

6. _________________________________________________________________________________

7. _________________________________________________________________________________

8. _________________________________________________________________________________

9. _________________________________________________________________________________

10. _________________________________________________________________________________

11. _________________________________________________________________________________

12. _________________________________________________________________________________
 75

Appendix B: Wisconsin Occupational Health Lab (WOHL) Sample Submission Form

 76

Appendix C: Wisconsin Occupational Health Lab (WOHL) Data Analysis Report

77
 78

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