1.

**Reasons for selecting sample survey over census survey:**

- Cost-effectiveness: Sample surveys are generally more affordable than conducting a census,
which involves surveying an entire population.
- Time efficiency: Sample surveys can be completed more quickly compared to censuses,
which can take a significant amount of time to conduct.
- Feasibility: In cases where the population is large or spread out geographically, conducting a
census may be impractical, making sample surveys a more feasible option.
- Accuracy: Sample surveys can provide accurate estimates of population parameters if
properly designed and executed, eliminating the need to survey every single individual in the
population.
- Resource optimization: By focusing resources on a sample rather than the entire population,
organizations can allocate their resources more efficiently.

2. **Sampling:**
- Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals or items from a larger population
to represent the characteristics of the whole.
- Need in Market Research:
- Cost-effectiveness: Conducting research on a sample is often more affordable than
studying the entire population.
- Time efficiency: Sampling allows researchers to gather data more quickly than surveying
the entire population.
- Practicality: In some cases, it's impractical or impossible to study the entire population,
making sampling necessary.
- Accuracy: When properly executed, sampling can provide accurate insights into the larger
population's characteristics.

3. **Sampling Process:**
- Define the population.
- Select a sampling frame.
- Choose a sampling method.
- Determine sample size.
- Execute the sampling plan.
- Collect data from the sample.
- Analyze and interpret the data.

4. **Characteristics of a good sample:**

- Representative: The sample should accurately reflect the characteristics of the population.
- Adequate size: The sample size should be sufficient to provide reliable results.
- Random selection: Individuals or items should be selected randomly to avoid bias.
- Homogeneity: The sample should be relatively homogeneous in characteristics relevant to
the study.
- Feasibility: The sample should be feasible to obtain within the constraints of time, budget,
and resources.

- Advantages of sampling:
- Cost-effective.
- Time-efficient.
- Feasible for large populations.
 - Can provide accurate estimates.

- Disadvantages of sampling:
- Potential for sampling error.
- Risk of non-representativeness.
- Requires careful planning and execution.

5. **Sampling methods:**
- Random sampling: Each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.
- Stratified sampling: Population divided into subgroups (strata) and random samples are
taken from each stratum.
- Cluster sampling: Population divided into clusters, and a random sample of clusters is
selected.
- Systematic sampling: Every nth individual in the population is selected.

6. **Probability sampling methods:**

- Situations for each method:
- Random sampling: Used when every member of the population has an equal chance of
being selected, suitable for relatively homogenous populations.
- Stratified sampling: Suitable for populations with distinct subgroups, ensures representation
from each subgroup.
- Cluster sampling: Useful for geographically dispersed populations or when a complete
sampling frame is unavailable.
- Systematic sampling: Appropriate when the population is ordered in some manner, such as
by time or location.

7. **Probability vs. non-probability sampling methods:**

- Probability sampling:
- Involves random selection of individuals from the population.
- Provides a known chance of selection for each member.
- Non-probability sampling:
- Does not involve random selection.
- Selection is based on judgment or convenience.
- Results may not be as statistically reliable as probability sampling.

8. **Systematic sampling as probability sampling:**

- Systematic sampling is a probability sampling technique that involves selecting every nth
element from a population list after a random starting point. This method ensures that each
element in the population has an equal probability of being included in the sample, thus
adhering to the fundamental principles of probability sampling.

The randomness in selecting the starting point is crucial as it helps to minimize bias and ensure
that the sample is representative of the entire population. Once the starting point is determined
randomly, every nth element is selected systematically until the desired sample size is achieved.

By providing an equal opportunity for each element to be selected, systematic sampling allows
researchers to generalize their findings from the sample to the entire population with a known
level of confidence. This makes it a robust and reliable method for conducting surveys and
studies in various fields, including sociology, market research, and epidemiology.

Furthermore, systematic sampling is relatively straightforward to implement and is often more

efficient compared to other probability sampling methods, such as simple random sampling. It
also offers advantages in terms of ease of implementation and cost-effectiveness, making it a
popular choice in practical research settings.

In summary, systematic sampling is a probability sampling technique that ensures each element
in the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, thus providing a
representative subset for statistical inference and generalization to the entire population.

9. In response to the statement, I would partially agree and partially disagree, depending on the
context and interpretation.

1. **Agreement**: Sampling error is inherent in any sampling process and cannot be entirely
eliminated. Even with careful sampling techniques, there will always be some degree of
variability between sample estimates and population parameters. This variability arises due to
chance fluctuations in the selection of the sample and is a fundamental aspect of statistical
inference. No matter how large or well-designed a sample is, there will always be some level of
uncertainty associated with the estimates derived from it.

2. **Disagreement**: While sampling error cannot be completely eradicated, it can be minimized

through various means. Employing appropriate sampling methods, such as random sampling or
stratified sampling, helps to reduce bias and increase the representativeness of the sample.
Additionally, increasing the sample size generally decreases the sampling error, as larger
samples provide more precise estimates of the population parameters. Furthermore, advanced
statistical techniques, such as bootstrapping or resampling methods, can be used to quantify
and account for sampling error in inferential analyses.

Moreover, it's essential to differentiate between sampling error and other sources of error, such
as non-sampling error. Non-sampling errors arise from factors like measurement errors,
non-response bias, or sampling frame inaccuracies, and these errors can often be minimized
through careful study design and data collection procedures.

In conclusion, while it's true that sampling error is inherent in the sampling process and cannot
be entirely eliminated, it can be mitigated through thoughtful design, larger sample sizes, and
statistical techniques. However, complete removal of sampling error is not feasible, and
researchers must always acknowledge and account for its presence when interpreting the
results of any sampling-based study.

10.

11.

12.

13. The selection of a random sample is a critical aspect of survey research, as it ensures that
each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample, thus
providing a representative subset for analysis. Several criteria guide the selection of a random
sample:

1. **Randomness**: The sample should be selected randomly to ensure that every individual or
element in the population has an equal chance of being selected. This helps to minimize bias
and ensure the generalizability of the findings to the entire population.

2. **Independence**: Each selection within the sample should be independent of previous

selections. This means that the selection of one individual should not influence the selection of
another, maintaining the randomness of the sample.

3. **Unbiasedness**: The sampling method should not systematically favor certain individuals or
groups over others. It should be free from any form of bias, whether intentional or unintentional,
to ensure the fairness and representativeness of the sample.

4. **Representativeness**: The sample should accurately reflect the characteristics of the

population from which it is drawn. This requires careful consideration of factors such as
demographics, geographic distribution, and other relevant characteristics to ensure that the
sample is representative of the population.

The procedure followed in the selection of a random sample typically involves the following
steps:

1. **Define the Population**: Clearly define the population of interest, including any relevant
characteristics or subgroups.

2. **Choose a Sampling Frame**: Identify a list or database that contains all the elements of the
population from which the sample will be drawn. This is known as the sampling frame.

3. **Assign a Unique Identifier**: Assign a unique identifier to each element in the sampling
frame. This could be a number, code, or other identifier that distinguishes each individual or
element.

4. **Random Selection**: Use a random selection method to choose the sample from the
sampling frame. Common techniques include simple random sampling, systematic sampling,
stratified sampling, or cluster sampling. Each technique has its own procedure for ensuring
randomness and representativeness.

5. **Select Sample Size**: Determine the desired sample size based on statistical
considerations such as confidence level, margin of error, and population size.

6. **Draw the Sample**: Using the chosen random selection method, draw the sample from the
sampling frame according to the predetermined sample size.

7. **Verify and Document**: Verify that the selected sample meets the criteria for randomness,
independence, and representativeness. Document the sampling procedure and the selected
sample for transparency and reproducibility.
By following these steps and adhering to the criteria for selection of a random sample,
researchers can obtain a representative subset of the population for analysis and draw valid
inferences about the population as a whole.

14. Cluster sampling and stratified sampling are both techniques used in survey sampling to
improve the efficiency and representativeness of the sample. While they share some similarities,
they also have key differences in their implementation and objectives.

**Differences:**

1. **Sampling Methodology**:
- Cluster Sampling: In cluster sampling, the population is divided into clusters or groups, and
then a random selection of clusters is made. All individuals within the selected clusters are
included in the sample. It involves a two-stage sampling process: first selecting clusters, then
sampling individuals within those clusters.
- Stratified Sampling: In stratified sampling, the population is divided into homogeneous
subgroups called strata based on certain characteristics (e.g., age, gender, income level).
Samples are then independently drawn from each stratum. Unlike cluster sampling, where
clusters are randomly selected, in stratified sampling, samples are selected independently
within each stratum.

2. **Purpose**:
- Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling is often used when it is impractical or costly to sample
individuals directly from the population, especially when the population is geographically
dispersed or organized into natural groups or clusters.
- Stratified Sampling: Stratified sampling is used to ensure that important subgroups within the
population are adequately represented in the sample. It helps to reduce sampling variability and
improve the precision of estimates by ensuring proportional representation of each stratum.

3. **Variability Reduction**:
- Cluster Sampling: Cluster sampling tends to introduce more variability within clusters due to
the homogeneity of individuals within clusters. This can lead to larger sampling errors compared
to stratified sampling.
- Stratified Sampling: Stratified sampling aims to reduce variability within each stratum by
ensuring that samples are drawn from homogeneous groups. This results in more precise
estimates for each subgroup and the overall population.

**Similarities:**

1. **Efficiency**:
- Both cluster sampling and stratified sampling aim to improve the efficiency of sampling
compared to simple random sampling. They achieve this by targeting specific groups or clusters
within the population, which reduces the resources needed to obtain a representative sample.

2. **Representation**:
- Both techniques aim to ensure that the sample is representative of the population by
accounting for potential sources of bias and variability. Cluster sampling achieves this by
randomly selecting clusters, while stratified sampling ensures representation by sampling from
each stratum.

In summary, while cluster sampling and stratified sampling share the goal of improving the
efficiency and representativeness of survey samples, they differ in their sampling
methodologies, purposes, and approaches to variability reduction. Cluster sampling focuses on
sampling natural groups or clusters, while stratified sampling targets homogeneous subgroups
within the population.

15. Multistage sampling is a complex sampling technique that involves dividing the population
into multiple stages or levels, with sampling carried out at each stage. This method is often used
when it is impractical or too costly to obtain a simple random sample of the entire population
directly.

The general procedure for multistage sampling involves the following stages:

1. **Primary Sampling Units (PSUs)**: The population is first divided into clusters or primary
sampling units (PSUs). These clusters may be geographical regions, institutions, or other
naturally occurring groupings.

2. **Selection of PSUs**: A subset of PSUs is selected using a sampling method such as simple
random sampling, systematic sampling, or probability proportional to size (PPS) sampling.

3. **Secondary Sampling Units (SSUs)**: Within each selected PSU, further divisions or
stratifications are made to create secondary sampling units (SSUs).

4. **Selection of SSUs**: A sample of SSUs is then selected from within each selected PSU
using one of the sampling methods mentioned earlier.

5. **Final Sampling Units**: Finally, individuals or elements are sampled from the selected SSUs
to form the final sample.

Conditions under which multistage sampling can be used effectively include:

1. **Large or Spatially Dispersed Populations**: Multistage sampling is suitable for large

populations that are geographically dispersed, where it may be impractical to sample the entire
population in one stage.

2. **Resource Constraints**: When resources such as time, budget, or manpower are limited,
multistage sampling allows for more efficient sampling by reducing the need to survey every
individual in the population.

3. **Heterogeneous Population**: If the population exhibits significant variability or heterogeneity

across different clusters or strata, multistage sampling allows for targeted sampling within
specific subgroups, leading to more accurate estimates.

4. **Logistical Considerations**: Multistage sampling may be necessary in situations where

logistical constraints make it challenging to directly access all elements of the population. By
breaking the sampling process into stages, it becomes more manageable to implement.
5. **Administrative Boundaries**: Multistage sampling is often used when the population is
naturally grouped into administrative units, such as states, provinces, or districts, making it
convenient to sample clusters at each administrative level.

Overall, multistage sampling offers a flexible and efficient approach to sampling large, diverse
populations in situations where simple random sampling may not be feasible or practical.
However, careful consideration must be given to the design and implementation of each stage
to ensure the validity and representativeness of the final sample.
12. Designing an appropriate sample is crucial in ensuring the validity and reliability of research
findings. Here are the key steps involved in creating an appropriate sample design:

1. **Define the Population**: Clearly define the population of interest. This includes specifying
the characteristics, demographics, and any relevant subgroups that need to be represented in
the sample.

2. **Determine the Sampling Frame**: Identify a sampling frame, which is a list or database
containing all the elements or units of the population. The sampling frame should be
comprehensive and accessible, ensuring that every member of the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample.

3. **Choose a Sampling Method**: Select an appropriate sampling method based on the

characteristics of the population and the research objectives. Common sampling methods
include:
- Simple Random Sampling: Each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected, and selections are made independently of each other.
- Systematic Sampling: Selecting every nth element from the sampling frame after a random
starting point.
- Stratified Sampling: Dividing the population into homogeneous subgroups (strata) and then
randomly selecting samples from each stratum.
- Cluster Sampling: Dividing the population into clusters or groups, randomly selecting
clusters, and then sampling all members within selected clusters.

4. **Determine Sample Size**: Calculate the appropriate sample size based on statistical
considerations such as the desired confidence level, margin of error, variability within the
population, and available resources. Larger sample sizes generally provide more precise
estimates but may require more resources.

5. **Implement Sampling Procedures**: Carry out the sampling procedures according to the
chosen sampling method and sample size determination. Ensure that the sampling process is
conducted rigorously, following the principles of randomness, independence, and
representativeness.

6. **Select Sampling Units**: Select the specific sampling units or elements from the sampling
frame according to the sampling method and sample size determined in the previous steps.
Document the selection process for transparency and reproducibility.

7. **Address Non-Sampling Errors**: Consider potential sources of non-sampling errors, such

as non-response bias, measurement error, or sampling frame inaccuracies. Implement
strategies to minimize these errors, such as adjusting for non-response or using validated
measurement instruments.

8. **Validate Sample Design**: Validate the sample design by assessing its representativeness,
adequacy, and potential biases. Conduct pilot studies or sensitivity analyses to test the
robustness of the sample design and make any necessary adjustments.

9. **Document Sample Design**: Document all aspects of the sample design, including the
sampling method, sample size determination, sampling frame, selection procedures, and any
considerations for addressing non-sampling errors. This documentation ensures transparency
and facilitates the replication of the study.

10. **Review and Refine**: Review the sample design periodically and refine it as needed
based on feedback, preliminary findings, or changes in research objectives. Continuous
evaluation and refinement of the sample design help to ensure the validity and reliability of
research findings.

By following these steps, researchers can design an appropriate sample that accurately
represents the population of interest and provides reliable data for analysis and inference.

11. Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where researchers aim to ensure
that the sample reflects certain predetermined characteristics in proportion to their prevalence in
the population. While quota sampling is relatively easy to implement and can be cost-effective, it
has several drawbacks and limitations. Here are some arguments against quota sampling:

1. **Non-randomness**: Quota sampling does not involve random selection of individuals from
the population. Instead, researchers deliberately select participants to meet predetermined
quotas based on certain characteristics. This lack of randomness can introduce bias into the
sample, leading to results that may not be representative of the population.

2. **Sampling Bias**: Since participants are selected based on specific characteristics rather
than randomly, quota sampling may result in sampling bias. Certain groups within the population
may be overrepresented or underrepresented, depending on the quotas set by the researchers.
This can skew the findings and lead to inaccurate conclusions.

3. **Inability to Generalize**: Quota sampling may not allow for generalization of findings to the
entire population. Since the sample is not randomly selected, it may not accurately reflect the
diversity and variability present in the population. As a result, findings from quota samples may
not be applicable or generalizable to the broader population.

4. **Difficulty in Setting Quotas**: Determining the appropriate quotas for different

characteristics can be challenging. Researchers may struggle to accurately estimate the
prevalence of certain traits within the population, leading to arbitrary or biased quota allocations.
This can further exacerbate sampling bias and undermine the validity of the results.

5. **Difficulty in Obtaining Cooperation**: Participants may be less willing to participate in quota

sampling compared to random sampling methods. This is because quota sampling involves
targeted recruitment based on specific characteristics, which may raise concerns about privacy
or fairness among potential participants.

6. **Lack of Statistical Control**: Quota sampling lacks the statistical control afforded by
probability sampling methods. Without random selection, researchers cannot accurately assess
the sampling error or calculate confidence intervals around their estimates. This makes it difficult
to quantify the precision of the findings and draw robust statistical inferences.

7. **Limited Applicability**: Quota sampling may be less suitable for certain research contexts or
objectives. It may not be appropriate for studies requiring precise estimates of population
parameters or studies aimed at making causal inferences. In such cases, probability sampling
methods are generally preferred.

Overall, while quota sampling may offer practical advantages in terms of cost and efficiency, its
reliance on non-random selection and potential for bias limit its utility in producing reliable and
generalizable research findings. Researchers should carefully consider these limitations and
weigh them against the specific objectives and constraints of their study when deciding whether
to use quota sampling.

10. Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the selection of participants is not
based on random selection principles. Instead, participants are chosen based on specific criteria
or convenience, leading to a sample that may not accurately represent the population.
Non-probability sampling methods are often used in situations where it is difficult or impractical
to obtain a random sample, such as in qualitative research, exploratory studies, or when
resources are limited.

Here are various methods of non-probability sampling along with their advantages and
disadvantages:

1. **Convenience Sampling**:
- **Method**: Participants are selected based on their accessibility and convenience to the
researcher. This could involve sampling individuals who are readily available or easy to reach.
- **Advantages**:
- Convenient and cost-effective.
- Quick and easy to implement.
- Useful for exploratory research or when time and resources are limited.
- **Disadvantages**:
- Prone to selection bias, as participants who are easily accessible may not be
representative of the population.
- Lack of generalizability, as the sample may not accurately reflect the diversity of the
population.
- Results may be less reliable due to the non-random selection of participants.

2. **Purposive Sampling**:
- **Method**: Participants are selected based on specific characteristics or criteria relevant to
the research objectives. The researcher deliberately chooses individuals who possess these
characteristics.
- **Advantages**:
- Allows researchers to target specific groups or individuals of interest.
- Useful for studying unique or hard-to-reach populations.
- Provides flexibility in sampling strategy.
- **Disadvantages**:
- Susceptible to researcher bias, as the selection of participants is based on the researcher's
judgment.
- May not be representative of the entire population, leading to limited generalizability.
- Difficulty in ensuring that the sample adequately covers the full range of relevant
characteristics.
3. **Snowball Sampling**:
- **Method**: Participants are recruited through referrals from existing participants. The
sample grows like a snowball as participants refer others who meet the criteria.
- **Advantages**:
- Useful for sampling hidden or hard-to-reach populations.
- Facilitates access to participants who may be distrustful of researchers or reluctant to
participate.
- Allows for the inclusion of diverse perspectives within the sample.
- **Disadvantages**:
- Vulnerable to bias, as participants may refer others who share similar characteristics or
viewpoints.
- Difficulty in controlling the size and composition of the sample.
- Limited generalizability due to the non-random nature of participant recruitment.

4. **Quota Sampling**:
- **Method**: Researchers select participants based on predetermined quotas for certain
characteristics (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity) to ensure that the sample reflects the diversity of the
population.
- **Advantages**:
- Allows for the inclusion of specific subgroups within the population.
- Can be more cost-effective and efficient compared to probability sampling methods.
- Provides flexibility in sampling strategy.
- **Disadvantages**:
- Prone to sampling bias, as the selection of participants is not based on random principles.
- Difficulty in setting accurate quotas and ensuring representativeness.
- Limited generalizability, especially if quotas are not properly defined or implemented.

Overall, non-probability sampling methods offer flexibility and practicality in sampling,

particularly in situations where random sampling is not feasible. However, they also have
limitations in terms of bias, generalizability, and reliability, which researchers must carefully
consider when designing and interpreting their studies.

7. Probability sampling and non-probability sampling are two distinct approaches used in
selecting samples for research studies. Here's a differentiation between the two:

1. **Definition**:
- Probability Sampling: Probability sampling is a sampling technique where every element or
individual in the population has a known, nonzero chance of being selected in the sample. It
involves random selection, ensuring that each member of the population has an equal
opportunity to be included.
- Non-probability Sampling: Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the
selection of participants is based on criteria other than random selection. Participants are
chosen based on specific characteristics or convenience, leading to a sample that may not
accurately represent the population.

2. **Randomness**:
- Probability Sampling: Probability sampling methods involve random selection, ensuring that
each member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
Randomness is a key characteristic of probability sampling.
- Non-probability Sampling: Non-probability sampling methods do not involve random
selection. Participants are chosen based on specific criteria or convenience, rather than through
random selection. As a result, non-probability samples may not accurately represent the
population.

3. **Representativeness**:
- Probability Sampling: Probability sampling methods aim to create samples that are
representative of the population from which they are drawn. Since each member of the
population has an equal chance of being selected, probability samples are more likely to
accurately reflect the characteristics of the population.
- Non-probability Sampling: Non-probability sampling methods may result in samples that are
not representative of the population. Participants are selected based on specific criteria or
convenience, which may lead to sampling bias and limitations in generalizability.

4. **Generalizability**:
- Probability Sampling: Probability sampling methods generally allow for greater
generalizability of research findings to the population from which the sample was drawn. Since
probability samples are more likely to be representative, the findings can be more confidently
applied to the broader population.
- Non-probability Sampling: Non-probability sampling methods may result in limited
generalizability of research findings. Since participants are not selected randomly, the sample
may not accurately represent the population, leading to challenges in generalizing the findings.

5. **Examples**:
- Probability Sampling: Examples of probability sampling methods include simple random
sampling, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, and cluster sampling.
- Non-probability Sampling: Examples of non-probability sampling methods include
convenience sampling, purposive sampling, snowball sampling, and quota sampling.

In summary, probability sampling involves random selection of participants, resulting in samples

that are more likely to be representative and generalizable to the population. Non-probability
sampling, on the other hand, involves non-random selection based on specific criteria or
convenience, which may lead to sampling bias and limitations in generalizability.