PHYSICS

MaD EASY 2.0

By Dr. Manlsh Raj (MR Sir)
Class Notes in Hadwritten Format
Updated as per latest NMC NTA Syllalbus

Formulae | Special Mnemonics | Important Examples

Clear and Concise Concepts | Special Tips & Tricks | Problem-solving emphasis

Helpful for NEET, JEE and Board Exams

New Edition
 PHYSICS
MED EASY
By Dr:. Manish Raj (MR Sir)

Class Notes in Handwritten Format

Hello... Hello... Hello...

Aap Sabhi Bacho ko MR ka
Bahut Bahut Namaskar

Youare Not Here to Prove Yourself,

You are Here to Improve Yourself
 Contents
Basic Maths .....
1-16
2. Vector. 17-23
3. Units & Dimensions. .24-36
4. Motion in 1-D..... .37-47
..
S. Motion in a Plane 48-55
...
6. Newton's Laws of Motion 56-65
7. Friction.. 66-72
8. Circular Motion..... 73-78
9. Work, Energy, and Power.... 79-86

10. Center of Mass 87-41

11. Collision. 92-97
12. Rotational Motion.... 48-113

13. Gravitation .114-123

14. Elasticity. .124-130
15. Fluid Mechanics..... ...131-145
16. Thermal Properties of Matter.... ..146-152
17. Heat Transfer. .153-156
18. KTG & Thermodynamics.. ....157-170
19. Simple Harmonic Motion... ..171-179
20. Wave and Sound Motion. ..180-191

21. Electrostatics. ..192-202

22. Electric Potential... .203-209
 24 Current Electricity .214-2.2.8
25. Magnetie Effect of Electric Current. .229 -2.442
26. Magnetism & Matter.... ..243-2.So
Electromagnetic lnduction
....
27. .251-260
2s. Alternating Current... .....261-2.70
29. Electromagnetic Wave.... ....71-2.7s
30. Ray Optics.
.276-290
31. Wave Optics..
....2.91-300
32. Dual Nature..
.301-310
33. Atoms.
...311-317
34. Nuclei..
....318-328
35. Semiconductor.
.329-340
 1 Basic Maths

1
Binomial theorem
+ (a - b) =
a'+ b
-
2ab
+ a - b - b)
=
(a+ b)
(a
= + x +
+ (1 + x)* 1 2 1x K +
(r- a(r + af = ( - a
if x <<< 1 then
Multiplication
(1 + *)* = 1+ 2x
ac Ex.:
MR* feel
= bd
(Career + love) Carrier + 2 love
Because carrier >>> love Division

alb ad , Ex.: 2/3_(24) 8

AX <<<« X. cld be 3/4 (3)\(3) 9
+ (1 - x)" = 1 - n Addition
±
+ = + nx ac_ad bc
(1- x)
1 +
+ (1+x)=1- nx
6 d bd

4
+2-(26) (2(5)_16
+
Q.s. The expression of
gravitational potential Ex.: 1
12 (2\6) 3
energy is U
= GMm Wwhere, R is the
R+h
radius of the planet and h is the height
above the surface. Approximate the
3 Componendo and
Dividendo Theorem
expression by using binomial expansion
when h<R.
In Ratio and proportion problems. It states
that for any four numbers a, b, c, and d. if
Sol. U - GMm
R
GMm
+h R(1+ WR)

For h«R
Then,
(2+WR) w1
R a+b c+d
Therefore,

- a-b c-d
GMm
R 4 AP series
= +
2
Important formulae Next term Previous term Common
difference
+ ,
+ + =
a' +
2ab a,a+ a + +
4d..
(a b)

b d, a+2d 3d,a
 Common difference Common ratio;
d nth term- (n-1)" term H
term
Ex: 2, S, S, 11, 14, 17, ... (n-1)" term
th
d
=5 -2=3 term;

n" terw;
no.
of Sum of infinites terms;
a
=a + (n-1) d term valid when r<1.
1-r
Comimon
diff. Q2. Find the sum of given intinite serie:
term term
1 1 1 1
+ For last term, an = l () 1,
8 '16
Sum of n term; (i) 1, 1 1
-1 1 -1
2'4' 8
16 32
no. of terms.
+ S, 2a + (n-1) d Sol. () r=/4
1/2'
1 sumM
=

--1 1/2
-=
2
2
+ S, =(1* term +nh term)
(i) r=- Sum= 1

NOTE:
1-4)
+ n=no. of terms not last tern. 6Quadratic equation
+ Sum of 1* n-natural numbers
n(nt1) a, b, &
.... + ax? + bx + c
1+2+3 + 4 +
n = =0 C are
cOnstant
2 in which a can not
+ Sum of Squares of 1 n-natural numbers be zero
+ -
12 22 + 3? + 42 nz bt Vb-4ac
n (n+1) (2n+1) X=
2a.

+
Sum of roots, x, + Xy = -b
Sum of Cubes of 1
n-natural numbers
Products of roots, X,'X,= C

a
Q.3. Find roots of equation x2
=
5X + 6 -
5 GP series 0; find value of a, b & c by comparing
=
with ax2 + bx +
c=0
Next term Previous term x
Common ratio Sol. a = 1, b= -5 &
c
=6
a, ar, ar, ar, art +
Ex: 16, 8, 4, 2, 1, 1/2, 1/4, So on X=
-(-5) V(-s- 4xix6
2x1
 + logo1 =0
X,
=5t1--3
2
(Taking + sign)

Xy = 2 (Taking - sign) + log,3 =

0.48 x 0.5
+
log(sin90) =o
Q.4. x - 4K = 0; then find roots of equation. + =
log,o5 log,20 2
Sol.
logso3
=
=
4X + log,3 -48
=4 wrong log.2 30
+ Concept of Anti-og
K(X - 4) =0 e =
log Y
x=0;X= 4
correct
By taking Anti-log
(convert into concept of power)
Q.s. x - 4x + 3 0; then find roots.
=

Sol. x - 3X X+3 =O -
MR* ka tadka
X(X-3) -1 (x -3) =0 log Concept of Power
(x - 3)(x - 1) = RoWer

X = 3, X = 1 Base TResult
log 2
=3
Base wahi rahega (Power Result
7 Logarithms interchange hoga)

log, x = log x on y 8 Exponents

the base
log, x =
2.303 log0 X A quantity multiplied by itself one or more
Properties of Logarithms times is indicated by an exponent. The
exponent, shown as a superscript, denotes
+ log, (xy) = log, x+ log, y how many times the multiplication occurs,
for example:
+ log= log x - log y
+ log,x =
log,9 .. SO On
+ logn= 1 log,x The concept of exponents with a few
= n logx examples are shown in table:
4+ log,x^
x = Base
+ log,a log,b 1 X
= 1t =
+ log,a =
1 1 1 1 1
=1 1
2 2 =
2 =4 =8 2 16
Some numerical value of Logarithms = =
3 3 27 3
81
+ log,1 = o 4 4 =
16 4
=64 4" =
256
+ loa.2 = O.30
5 =
25 5 =
125 s =
625
 Multiplication with fraction.
6= 216 6= 1246 4
6= 36 =
=7
2401 = 1.33x12 = x
12 = 16
72 =
49 |7 343 0.5 2
3
7 =
g² =
64
8 =
512 8 4O96 = 1 x =
8 0.25x16 16 4
q = q =
729 qt = 6561 4
81 10
102 10 = 3 - x =
10
= 100 =
100O
= 100OO 0.4 =4 0.75x16
4
16 12
10
x =
Rule of Exponents 2 O.33x15=
3
15 S
non-zero number is zero
+ If Power of any =
1
then result will be one. I.33
4
0.7S =-0.33
4 3
3
Ex:8°= 1
+ Negative Property of
exponent (x is non lmportant property
zero number) 2=o
1 = 1
1
4=0
103 Ex: (8)/=(8)(4/3=(2)>«(/3)=g²s4

Product Property of Exponent

(32)$=(2=2°=8
9 Square root
=
Ex:
10x 10 107 A square root represents a quantity that,
Division Property
when multiplied by itself. gives the original
102*1o-2 number. It isindicated by the radical symbol

Power of a Power: ()or by an exponent of For exawmple:

2

=
Ex: (10)* 109
Ex: 10 + 10 = + = Square root Square root of Decimal
100 100O 11OO
= =
Fractional exponent 1 0.1
yo.o4 =
V4
=
2 0.2
+ The powers of to
10 from 10 6 10: yo.o9 =
0.3
=
10° 1
=
10 = 10 10 = y16 4 yO.16= 0.4
0.1
10 = 100 10 =
O.01 V25 =
5 No.25 =
0.5
10 =1000 103 0.001 =
=
V36 6 = 0.6
10 = 10,000 10 =
O.0001
= V49 =7 Vo.49 = 0.7
10 100,000 10 =
O.00001
= 8
10° = V64 =
1,000,0OO 106 =
O.00OO01 0.8
 10 Cube root
The cube root ofa number y is a value
.00 1.0
Vi21 N1.21 = 1.1 that, when multiplied by itself three times
=
(raised to the power of three), gives the
i44 12 1.2 number x. Mathematically, if y is the cube

.
root of x, then:
y
=
14 N1.96 =
1.4 =*
i96 y=
= N2.25 =
225 15 1.5
= = Example Cube root Because
y256 16 N2.56 1.6 |Description
= =
V289 17 2.89 1.7 Cube root 2= 2x 2
x 2
=2
of 8 =
8
324 = 1s 5.24 = 1.s
Cube root x x
R27 =3 3° =3 3 3
= = of 27
V361 19 3.61 1.9 = 27
Cube root = 4 =
4 x
4 x
V400 =
20 V4.00 = 2.0
of 64
64 4 =
64
4
Square Roots involving Even exponents
Cube root
125 = 5 s =
5 x5 x
5
of 125 =
Expresion Simplified form 125
=
106/2 10 =
Cube root
-8 =
-2 (-2) -2= x
of -8 -2 x -2 -8
V1o 10-4/2 = 10-2

=
2.24 x
10 11 Trigonometry
x
2.3 10-8 V2.3 =
114 10
x PAre = Ro; Algebraic function Re

x
=3 1o= 03
Square Roots involving Odd exponents
Angle
sine/cose/tane; Trigo. function
Expression Simplified form
x = x
Angle isdimensionles.
W10 10 3.16 10 we always use
10o
>For algebraic function,
V10x S.l.
unit radian but for trigonometric
=
3.16x 1072
x
function we may use radian or degree.
V3x 105 V30 10t = S.48 x 102
= x 180° = T rad
Vo x 10-7 V6o x
10-8 7.75 10
1° = rad; or Lrad = 180°
yoooo025 N25 x 10- =5* 10 180 T
 and tangent-are defined based On
angles in a right triangle as folow: the
(Anti-clock)
+ ve d=
rotation
Hypotenuse
=H apis
(clok wise)
2usolo
Ve
rotation
Q.6. Total Angle moved by object in = B
TE-rotation? Adjacent side
Sol. - =
(2T) 2c rad. + Sin =
Cos e Tan e =

Trigonometric function:
+ Sine = 1
A right triangle has two perpendicular sides. Posec Sece Tan =
1
' Cos 9
Cot 9
The hypotenuse, which is opposite the right + From Pythagoras theorem
angle, is always the longest side. The three p² + B = H²
main trigonometric functions-sine, cosine,

Angle 6 300 450 900 1200 1350 1500 1800

Sin
Cos 0
-1
Tan 1 V3 Not V3 -1
define (a)

Trigonometric quadrant graph: -

t cos (9o e) =
sin e
+y axis + cos (90 + ) =
-sin
+ sin (-) = - sin
I| Quadrant IQuadrant + cos = cos
+sin (-6)
All
+Cosec + tan (-0) = - tan
-X axis
+X axis Unique Relation
IQuadrant IV Quadrant
+tan +cos + Sin"9+ Cos =
+cot 0 +sec
1 1+cot'0 =
Cosec?

+ Tan = Sec
0+ 1
-y axis
SomeImportant Triangles
+ Sin (90 + 8) = cos
+ sin (180 - ) =
sin
10
+ sin (90 - 6) = cos 12 25
cos (18O - 6) = - cos A37
24
 + b C
=
Sin 37°
=Cos 37°
Sin A Sin B Sin C
S30
3
= 3 Some trignometric function and their
Sin S3° =Cos 53°
6370 maximum & minimum value
4
Cos (-60°) Sin (-30°) = Trigonometric Maximum Minimum
function Value Value
tan (-13s°) =1 Y=3 sin Ymax 3
: -3
min
Trigonometric formulae
Y=4 sin (5e) Y
max : 4 Y.min -4
+ Sin (A + B) = Sin A cos B + cos A sin B Y=3 sin + 4 cos
bYsov= 5 Y
min
+ Sin (A - B) = Sin A cos B - cos A sin B Y =
3 sin +
4 sin bYoy =7 Y
min =-7
+ Cos (A + B) = Cos A cos B - Sin A Sin B Y= 5 -2 sin 8 Ymay = 7 Ymin =3

+ Cos (A - B) = Cos A cos B+ Sin A sin B 4

Q.7. Force acting on object F =
+ cose
+
tan A + tan B 3sine
tan (A + B) = 1
-tan A tan B Then find minimum wmagnitude of force.
Sol. y = Asine + Bcose
tan A - tan B
+ tan (A - B) =
1 + tan tan B A
YMay = t JA² + B2
=
(a) A
B=0
+ B) = =
Sin (A Sin 28 2sino Cos 4
Cos (A + B) =
Cos 29 = Cos'e - Sin'e (3sine + cose)max
2 Cose = 1 + Cos (26).
(b)
4 4
2 Sin9 = 1-Cos (26)
+ If Angle is Small: S4+1S10
Sin tan cos =
1 12 Phasor diagram
Note: A phasor isa rotating vector that
Sin = represents a sinusoidal function in terms of
(2) 2° (wrong)
its magnitude (amplitude) and phase angle.
Sin (2°) =2* Trad = rad
180° 90 Phasors are typically represented in
Cos =
(4°) 1 the complex plane with the real axis
tan 3 = Trad corresponding to the cosine component and
the imaginary axis corresponding to the
Sin Law sine component.
The phase difference
A¢ = - 0,
+ Vector representation of
,
trigonometric
function
 135°)
Cos 9 +
(e
( 60) orsin Cos
+
-30,orSinCos (e - 30) 45) cos ( - 609)
(0+ or sin (e + 30)
-Sin sin () Let Cos
30° -sin
|-Cos -Sin )40°

|-Cos sin ( - 40°)

Phase difference
Equation-2
Equation-1 -
+
|=l, sin (e /3) |=, sin (e Te/6)
-
|= l, sin (
+ r/3) =, cos ( T/6) =

cos ( +
T6) 2t/3
I, =l, sin (O) |=l,
, =
Sin (e - T/3) |=l, cos ( + Te/3)

I, =
sin (O - 60)
=
l, cos ( - 30)
== 120°
3

d = sec? x
13 Differentiation CpC = -ve ? + (tan)
d
If x andy are variables, then dy (Cosec x) =- cosec x cotx
the rate of change in y w.r.t. x = dx
= Slope
of y-x graph. d = Sec X tan x
Double diff of y w.rt. 'x d = - cosec x
d(cotx)
=
The rate of change in w.rt. '*
d d 1
=
Slope of Slope
=
Change in slope w.rt. 'x d =o
Isin(90°]
dx'
Differentiation of some function
d
d w^ dele)= e
+ Ify =
x, then dy dx d
dx +
e)=o (: e² is const)
+ Ify =
Constant, dy
dx Rules
d cos *
(Sinx) () Addition Rule:
dy dA dB
d
(coSx) E- sin x Y=A +
B +
dx dx dx
dx
 Rule:
() Substraction Q.10y sin (3x), then find
9
dy dA dB
Y= A - B
dx dx dx Sol. = Cos
(i) Multiplication Rule: - dx
(31) d(38)
A dB B dy
dy dA =
Y= A B
+ 3 cos(3×)
dx dx dx Q11.If radius of sphere is increasing 1/r
-
(i) Division Rule: m/s then find rate of change in volume
A dy (dB W.rt. time when radius is Bm.
Y= B A
B dx Sol. v
B =-R
Q.s. = dy
If Y
t,find dt dt
dx
=
dy dt dy 4rR?
Sol: -= 2t dt
dx dx dx dx dyl = =

The MR*
at4R*= 4(3) 4x9 36
Outside lnside Rule
Y= f({x) =y is function of z and
14 Maxima and minima
z is a function ofx. MR* for maxima/minima
/differentiation + For location of maxima/minina put
of outer function lai of lrner dx
(slope) = o and find value where x will be
keep inside as it is fu w.r.tx max™/minm
dy + For exact maxima and minima dont
Q.9. Find for given function.
dx check double differentiation. Just put
() value of 'x' and find 'y'.
(i) y= (** + 4)
+ Double differentiation check nahi karna
() y= ex
just '* ki value put kark 'y nikala jo
(iv) y=sin (4*) 'y' jayda wo maximum 'y' ko kam wo
() y=A sin(wt - k«) minimum 'y'
() (ii) Maxima
Y = e54)
Y=ex
dy- sesx dy dy dy
dx dx
= -4 e 4x du
= 0;
=- Ve

(i) (iv) Slope

Y= (*+4) Y= sin(4)
dy x
dx Cos(4x) 8x ymax

=
3(*+4) x 2x
(v) Y= A sin (wt - kx) Ymin

A cos (wt - kx) x

(-k)
 Chain Rule MR*
Minima
Applicable when power of x is one
dy =
d'y
0;
ds =+ Ve
Integration of outer
dx
function keep inside as it is.
Slope dx
Coefficient of (x)
(2x+3)*
15 Integration
S[2]+C
Area under the curve lnverse of
differentiation sin(3x-4) dx = -cos(3x-4)+C
3
+ C Not valid for n =
-1
n+1

Integration of some function:

16 Co-ordinate geometry
and graph
+
sin x dx = - cosx + C.
Q (Ka92)

x dx =
sing + C.

Distance (PQ) between two points in x-y

dx = lnx + C. plane

+ = PQ = (*, -x)' + (9, - 9)

tanX + C

Slope (m) of straight line

+ +C.
3 m= tan= Y-Y
Graphical representation of sinb & cose NOTE:
Sinb + Slope of straight line rewnains same at all
A the point
+
If o°s<90° then slope is positive
+ If 90°< Bs 18o° then slope is negative
Cose + If e =
90° then slope is infinite
+ If = zero
0° then slope is

+ If straight line parallel to x-axis then slope

Zero
 m K isvalue Jitna Jayda graph utna upar shift
hoga.
+ m

X yk = 7
yx = s
yx = 2>x
R
x ka pawer jitna jayda graph utna niche
jayga.

y
1
1

g=+3
|3
y
y= m +
c
+Ve y=-x?
m
= y= m-c y=-x-3

m rc= -Vve
t4
y

m= -Ve
m=
C= -ve
y= -m + c
"y=m -c
+ If two straight line perpendicular to each yV
other then product of their slope is -1.
17 Rectangular Hyperbola =
nRT
graph for PV
K
y=
T, >T,
-T2
 MR* For Slope
+ KE. =
graph b/w K.E. and m for
2m
constant momentum.

K.E. ^ Slope always

Slope always
increasing decreasing

For magnitude of slope Now we are

talking about value of slope, we will ignore
MR ve & -ve only consider magnitude.
Jisko x- & y-axis pe plot krenge uska MR* Locate where slope is zero
power dekhte hai. + Starting me zero then increasing
T
magnitute of slope.
T°=KR + Last me zero then decreasing magnitude
of slope and becomes zero.

>R >R

slope > Increasing slope Decreasing

magnitute of slope magnitute of slope
1* decreasing then 1st increasing then
increasing decreasing

18 Equation of Circle
Ris radius & centre is at (Ko Yo)
Ex:
(x + 4)
+ y

+
=
s centre at (0, o) R=S
(y - 3)*=49 centre at (-4, 3)
R=7
Slope decreasing increasing
19 Ellipse Magnitute decreasing increasing

Slope decreasing increasing

-2a Magnitute increasing decreasing
 Trapezoid
20 Some Basic Geonnetry Shapes Triangle

Equilateral Triangle of side (a)

+ 1 1 ah
Area +
Area:
2 2.

2 h
30°C
Circle Elipse
a/2
+
Distance from base to centre + + =
Circuwmference =2rr Area rab
= T
+ Area
h
tan 3O =
a/2
Cube Cylinder
a
h= 2V3
+
Distance from centre to corner

2 3 + =
6a + Area = 2Tcrh
Area 2Tr+
Area = + Volume = a + Voluwme =
Trh
4

Hexagonal of side 'a' Cone Sphere

=
Area = TC +
Lrl Area 4Tr
A B 1 4
Th
Volume =
3
Volume
3
= TE

Distance from centre to corner = a

where, =+he
I

Square Rectangle 21 Average of a varying quantity

Ify= f (t) then

B <y>=
Jydt Sydt
+ Area = (² + Area = BH jdt t,-t,
+
Perimetre =
4l + Perimetre =
2(H+B) Ymay be any physical quantity.
 +
If wire of Length L
is Bended as
MR* ka tadka R. showy
find Radius
+
ify is varying linearly then y9Avg Arc length
2
L RO
constant then xy will be maximum L
ifxy= Bend to form
square. Find side length K
for x =
y= square
of/ L

2 L = Perineter of square For whole circle

If Sum of two number isconstant then L= 4
L
product of these two number will be : I(side length of square)= =
2TT
R =
L
maximunm, only when both number are 4 For circle
2r
L= n(27TTR)
ofn number of loop
cqual.
:R
n27T
22 Importantconcept and Question 23 Percentage changes
+ + Case
Length of Rod 2Om is divided in the ratio 1: IF % changes is less than s

1:3:5 then find length of each Part. y= kx* [K =

constant]
1x + 3X + SX = 20
then
= 9
9X 2o If Momentum of object is increased bu 32
20 Find % change in kinetic energy.

= AK.E.
20 m 3x = 20 M Sx=
100
m
KE 2m K.E.
24P
1007)=
+ Spring of lengh L and spring constant k 2(x 10o)
divided into length ratio 3 :2, then the =
2 (3)
ew spring constant of bigger part percetage change
in Kinetic Energy = 6%
3X + 2X = L
+ Case 2: If % change
X = :. kyl, =
is greater than s%
kl % change in x = -initial x Kfinal

3x = 3L Xinitial 100%
KL = k SL
If kinetic energy is increased by 300%,
then percentage change in momentum
will be
3
+ If n identical liquid sphere of r Sol.
radius
cobine to form single large sphere the find
redius of bigger sphere MR*
K.E by 30O% P =/2m K.E
Total volume will be consant
It Means K.E. to P oK.E.
.3x
3 3
TR3 . K.Efinal =4 (K.Einitiat)
400% .:.

.:.
Pfinat = 2 (Pivitia)

.. Momentum
nr = R
increasest to 200.
1
or it increases by
|R = (n)3 r 100 %
 kinetic cnergy is decreascd by 14% then
If Q. 14 A Disc of Radius R/2 cut from a disc
change in Momentum? of mass (M,R) as shown in Fiq. then
find mas of remaining portion.
Sol.

MRR
.
K.E Jes by 19% Momentum
. KE is reduced to 81% is reduced to
.: K.E, = K.E; R/2.
100
P a/K.E. Momentum is
:: PFinat = Pfinal reduced by 10%
(or reduced to q0%)
Linear mass density:
M
+ Mass per unit length Ans. G= Areal mass density
TER?
Mass of removed part m' = o Area of
A= dm dm= rdL removed
dL
mass of remaining = M_3M
M- 4
Scalar Unit kg/m 4

TFA =
constant, nass = x
(length) M
TCR
Q. 12 Find mass of rod if =3 kg/m and
length 12 m Volume mass density (p)
Ans. dm = AdL + Mass per unit volume
=
fam fsdL
mass 3(L)* =3(12-0) = 36 kg.
= dM = pdv
dv
Surface mass density or Areal mass Likg/m?
density
dm unit kg/n' |if p= constant, mass = px volumes
dA
Q. 13 Find mass of disc
a
ifo
= Tt
ka/mofQ. 15 sphere of Radius R/2 is cut from
A

Radius R= 2m. a sphere of mass m and Radius R as

=
shown in figure.
Ans. mass o Area
= =
T (TR) T(2)'= 1o
x
4 =
4O kg Find mass of remaining part.
Areal mass density ()
+ Mass per unit Area
dM dM = gdv
dA \R/2
R

ifo constant, mass = ox

=
Area
Sol. Mass = (p) Volume
Volume of removed part
Same
R
Mass volume
Mass of removed part -
Jitna volume remove hoga same
propotion me mass removes hoga.
Remaining mass = m m 7m

MR
 2 Vector

Vectors Properties of Vectors

1 + In a vector +ve sign and sign -ve indicate
A vector is a quantity that has both direction only.
magnitude and direction. Vectors are used Ex: +5N and -SN, same magnitude of
to represent physical quantities that cannot force in opposite direction.
be fully described by a single number alone. -
+ Angle between vector When two vectors
Examples of vector quantities include are placed head to head or tail to tail then
Smaller angle between vector is caled
displacement, velocity, acceleration, and angle between vector.
force.

Scalar Quantity Vector Quantity

+ Having Having Magnitude
Magnitude only and direction
+ Follow + follow triangle law of
+ Vector can be shifted parallel to itself by
simple keeping magnitude and direction fixed.
algebric vector addition. + Rotation of vector not allowed it will
addition change meaning of vector.
+ Can be changed |+ Can be changed by
+ If angle between A and B
vector is then
only by changing wmagnitude
angle between A and -B is (180°-e).
changing its only, or changing dir
value only or changing both. + All equal vectors are parallel but all
parallels are not equal.
Ex-Speed,time, Ex-Force, Velocity,
+ All opposite (Negative) Vectors are
Mass, Volume, |current density, torque
density current, etc. etc. Antiparallel but all antiparallel are not
Opposite Vector

2 Type of Vectors

Type Magnitude Direction\Angle

Equal Vector Same Same (6= 0)
Parallel Vector May or May not same Same (0 = 0)
Opposite Vector or Negative Vectors Same Opposite B = 180°
=
Anti-parallel Vector May or May not same 180° opposite
Orthogonal May same
Zero/Null Vector Zero any direction

Unit Vectors One

A
 COmponents of Vector in 2-D (effect of
+
If vector is making an angle B
and Y
Vector) from x, y and z-axis respectively
+
cosy 1;sin
= then
cos'a + cos?B a + Sin
B
+ sin
Y= 2
A, = A
sin Direction Cosine
Ax cos B Ay Az
coS X= A coS Y
= A cos A A
A,

3 Vectors addition
=
A Acos î+ A sin 0f
+ It is the process of combining two vectore
by placing the tail of one vector at the
By =B cos head of the other. i.e.,

R
= B sin
B,
+ B= R
+ A A
B =B,f+ By
=
sin i+ B cos
B

Magnitude of resultant Vector Polygon Law of vector addition

A
=JA+ Ay' or B
=JB+ B,2
+ Start tail of next vector from head of
Direction: previous vector and so on.
= =
tan tan
Rectangular component of a vector in 3D Å-B+7=R
R

Magnitude
IÄl-JA+. A2

Az Ä-B+=0

k
Triangle Law of Vector addition
Ay
R
B resultant must be
in the plane of
A and B.
+ IRl=JA* +
B² 2AB cos Vector Subtraction
e then
tan a =
B

A+Bcos
Sin Angle B/wA &&
B is
D= -B
=
Magnitude
If e =
o° 180°
Rasay = A + BR =JA²
+
B² Rpnin A - B
|D|=A + B² - 2AB cos

+ A - BSRS A + B + If =
0° =
90° 9= 18O°
= Dmin = A - BD= A+B D=A+ B
f|A =B A and Angle b/w them &

|R]= 2A cos (0/2) D =

2A sin (0/2) + A - B <DSA +
B

= = =
60°
=
40 120° 180°
R= 2A R= J3
A
R= J2A R=A R=O
=
D =0 D = A D =
J2 A D
J3A D = 2A

Properties of vector addtion and + If |Ä +B =

B - Ä
then angle between
substraction: A
and B is 90°.
+ Magnitude Vector addition
of and
Subtraction are same at 90°. 4 Displacement vector
+
+B-B-Å Commutative

+ distributive P(X,9,74)

= + +
+ Bk then A
+B (A, +
B)Î (A, B)j
+ (A, + B,)k
X

+ f|A +B|=|A|= |B| then angle between + Ifa particle moves from the initial position
(Xy Y
Z) to the final position (Xy Y2
and
A
B is 120°
Z), the displacement vector r is given by:
+ If|A| +|3|=|A +B| then angle between r=(Xy-X_)i + (92-9.j + (2,-z,)k
Å
and B iszero. Or r=Axi + Ayj + Azk
Magnitude of displacement vector
+ IfÄ+
B
=A+ B? then angle between
and B is 90°. +
r=J(« - x} + (9 - 9) +
( -
z4'
 Q.1. Ramlal is moving with velocity Gm/s
cos a = x cos B =
along east and pinky with 6 m/s at 30° A A
Cos Y =A,
cast of north then relative velocity of A
pinky w.r.t Ramlal. B= 60° Y= 4s
Sol. Voe = - Q.6. In which of the following combination
same vector ka subtraction of three force resultant will be zero
m/s
at 60° al =6 (a) 3N, 7N, 8N
Q.2. Find change in Speed and velocity (b) 2N, SN, LN
(c) 3N, 12N, 7N
ý,= 10 mWs
(d) 4N, SN, 10N
Sol. (a) of two smaller must be
Sum
great x
or equal to (3"4).

V,= 10 m/s s Scalar Product (Dot Product)(

Sol. Change in speed = O
magnitude of
change in velocity = 20 m/s B
Q.3. If A = 0.6i + Bi is a unit vector then
find value of B. A
= A(B
Sol. |A = 1 if A is unit vector + -B cos e) = A(Component
of
B along A)
+ B =
Jo.e 1 = (A cos 6) B= B(Component of A
along B)
B + O.36 =
1
Component of B along A =

B=o.b4 =
0.8 A

Q4. Two force 1ON and oN acting then find Component of A along B =
B
resultant of these two force. + Result of
dot product is always scalar.
Sol. 1O-6sR< 1O +
6
R will between 4N to 16N
-k=o
Q.5. Find the angle which a vector i + i +

2k makes with x, y and z-axis = A,B, + A,B, + A,B,

+
A
=J1² 12 +
J2) =
2 Application of dot Product
= + To Find Angle B/W vectors
A, 1
A, =
1 B =
AB cos

A =2 Cos =
AB
 . Te check unit vector 6Cross-Product:
If
A
isa unit vector thtn A A1 |(Vector Product]
• To checkperpendicular vector (orthogona)
.AB- AB sin e

AB cos 90 =0
If A [

.
(Ä r B)

To find componcnt of one vector along

other.
A-B = A(B cos e)

Ax B

cos = = 4 n direction of
is which is
B Comp" of B along A
A perpendicular to A &e B.
4î - 2- - 3k and
IF =
Q7. Å
+ (Äx B) Å =o (ÄxB)-B =0
B-î-3 2k then find A.B

(1) 10 + B
sin component of
A
(2) 16 B perpendicular of A
(3) 3
+ R
=ÅxB
(4) 14
Place your finger of right hand along A
Sol. (2) Ä.B= (4î + 2f - 3Ê )-@+5 )
-2Ê and slap B then thumb will represent R.
= +
4 6+ 6
= 16

Q.8.A force F = 4í + sî newton displaces

a particle through =3i + 6f meter. s
Then find work done.

(2) 24 Joule
i j k
(2) 12 Joule + =
AxB |A, A, A,
(3) 28 Joule B, B, B,

i(A,B, - A,B,)
(4) 42 Joule =

Sol. (2) W

=.š =
(4î +
s ) (3î + 6) - J(A,B, - A,B,)
=
12 + 30 + K(A,B, - A,B)
= + Unit vector does not have any
42 J unit only
have direction and magnitude one.
 Minimum no. of vectors whose resultant f(-14 -(-3) - j(-14 - (-s)
can be zero is '2'.
+
Minimum no of unequal vectors whose + - 4k
resultant can be zero is 3. -11î f
The resultant of 3 Non- coplaner vectors
can't be zero.
+ Minimnum no of Non-coplaner, vectors
between Á and B is?

whose resultant can be zero is 4. Sol. AB Sin =3 AB cos e

+

+
Angle between (A x B) and (Ä +B) is 900 tan =B = 60

Division of vector with vector is not possible

+ Division of magnitude of vector is possible 7 Lami's Theorem (Laws of
Vector can be divided by scalar.
motion) for 3 Vectors
+ If vector multiplied by positive scalar then When,
magnitude change and direction remains
A B C
Same.
Sin a sin B Sin y
+ If vector multiplied by
negative scalar then
+
magnitude change and direction becomes
opposite.
Then, A
B+-0
Scalar triple Product
x ·
R= A B) Result
will be scalar R

and R will be zero if any of these two To

vector becomes parallel.
Area of parallelogram
Area =|A x
B|
Area of triangle: Q.
11. As shown in figure tension in th
Area =
JA x B| horizontal cord is 30 N. The weigh
and tension in the string OA i
W

The condition for coplanarity is

Newton are
A
=0 (B x C)

Q9. Force acting on object F=s? + 3 - 7Ê

position vector r=2i + 2j -k then find
torque ?? (NEET 2022)
30 N

Sol. 7= x ?= 2 2 -1

3 -7
W
 (a) 3o5, 30 (b) 305, 60 Sol. Net force on this object (point)
2F
(c) 6o3, 30 (d) None of these

Ans. 30 2F
Sin 150° Sin 90
6O°
= 60 N 120°
120°
120°
W 30
Sin 120° Sin 15O°
2F
F... =2F - F=F
W 30 -303 13. For two vector and B vector
3/2 1/2 Q.
Á

addition R=A+ and vector

then angle
1 subtraction =A-6
betweenÁand B.
120° Angle
Condition
T= 30
150° 90
N
= 120°

=60°
LW + = = p =
q0°
(ii) A² B²
A- 6²
=
three force acting on the object as + =
Q.
12. If (iv) A B
R2 90°
shown in figure. Then find net force =
90°
on object.

2F= Fa
= + B
| A

9= 180°

120 120° =
180°
-B
120° R=A
F, =
2F F, =F

MR
 Units &
Dimensions
3
Tunneling microscope:
1 Measurement of Length Mass
& time Uses quantum tunneling for atomic-lave
objects.
Parallax Used to measure large
Method Electron microscope:
distance
Uses electrons
for high-resolution imaging.
Parallax_b Measurements:
Angle *//0 Astronomical Unit (AU):
+ Used to measure
distances within Au.
solar system.
Where,
LAU= 1.446 x
10*m
+ e = The angle
formed between two lines of
sight to an object when observed from two Light year (Ly):
+ The distance
distinct positions. that light travels in one year.
= x
+ b= The distance between the two observation 1Ly 9.46 10Sm
points Parsec:
+ x = The actual distance + Another
to the object being unit used in astronomy
measure large distances.
t
measured
Note: Lparsec = x
3.08 10°mn
The conversion between degrees, minutes, + Size of proton (P") =
10m (1 ferm)
and seconds to radians helps in precise + Size of an atom, = m (1A)
10 0

calculation and understanding of the small + Radius of =

angles involved in parallax measurements.
earth, REh 10 m
+ Distance of boundary
+ 10 =
of =
60'= 1.745 10* rad x
Observable Universe 100 m
+ = = x
1' 6O' 2.91 10* rad
+ x
2 Conversion of Units
1" 4.85 10° rad
+ nu= cOnstant, n= measure value of
Measuring Very Small Sizes: Physic
quantity, u= unit of that Physical quantit
Optical wmicroscope:
For small objects visible with light.
 nu
3 SI System (lnternational
System of Units)
The SI (lnternational System of Units) is a
modern version of the metric system, which
is used worldwide for measuring different
is based on seven fundamental
things. t
units, called base units. Each base unit has a
specific symbol and represents a fundamental
quantity in science and everyday life. Here
is a simple explanation of these base units,
1/u
their symbols, and what they measure:
Only use to find value of physical quantity
in new system of unit, if value is know in 7 Base/Fundamental Units:
One unit.
No. Quantity Unit Symbol
Measurement of Mass & Time
1. Length Meter m
1 atom
1 amu = C
+ Mass of 2. Mass Kilogram kg
+ 1
amu = 1.66x 1
ka 3. Time Second
+ e mass 10 ka =
9.1 x
4. Temperature Kelvin K

+ Earth mass:- 10 kg 5. Elec. Current |Ampere A

+ Observable Universe =10 kg. 6. Luminous Candela cd
Intensity
Q.1. Convert 18 km/hr in m/s.
7. Amt. of Sub' Mole Mol
Sol. n,ug = n,u
2 supplewmentary Units:
18 km/hr= n, m/s
No.Quantity Unit Symbol
18x 10m
m/s 2. Plane Angle radian rad
6OxoOs

= x
2. Solid Angle |Steradian sr
n, 18 =5
18 Plane Angle
Q.2. If unit of length is y m in new system of It is the ratio of the arc length (ds) to the
unit then find value of x area in new m
radius (n) of the circle. It is measured in
System of unit. radians, which is a dimensionless unit.
Sol. un = cost
ds

)de
=
ds
de
 Rule of rounding off Numbers
Solid Angle
the ratio of the area (dA) on the surface
It is
+
If the next diqit is less than 5: Keep
as is the
cf asphere to the square of the radius (r) of last significant figure it and drop al
the srhere. It is nmeasured in steradians (sr), digits to the right.
which is also a dinensionless unit. Example: Rounding 3.142 to thres
significant figures: 3.142 becomes 3.14
dA + If the next digit is S or greater: Increor.
the last significant figure by one and drop
all digits to the right.

dA
Example: Rounding 3.146 to three
=
d2 Sr significant figures: 3.146 becomes 3.15
&

Significant Figures Addition Substraction:

Final result should have same no. of decimnal
The digits in a number that contribute to its
precision and accuracy are known as significant placed as that of original no. with minimum
figure. no. of decimal places.

Properties of significant figure: 3.1421 9.49

+ All non-zero digits are significant. 0.241 Ans:-3,47. tAns:-9.92
609 9 98O1
eg:- 42.3 3 S.F. 3.4731 Ans: 9.98

243.4 4 S.F. &

Multiplication Division:
Zero between two non-zero digits is
significant. The no. of S.F. equals the smallest no. of S.F.
eg:- 4.03 S.F.
in any of the original no.
3
S1.028
243.4 4
s6.s5An- b6.8
S.F.
133) Ans-
+ Leading Zero or zeros placed to left are
never significant. 66.84668

eg:- 0.543 3 S.F. s Dimensional Analysis

O.006 1 S.F.

Dimension of physical quantity are power to

+ Trailing zeros or zero placed to the right of
which units of base quantity are raised.
the number after decimal are significant.
eg:- 4.330 S.F. eg:- [MI [LI TT AJ
[KJ
4
343.000 6 S.F. Dimension of some physical quantity
+ Inexponential expression the numerical
+ MasS M
portion given the number of S.F.
+
eg:- 1.32 x 1O S.E. Length L
+ Time
1.32 x.10 3 S.F. T
 Velocity LT Equate the Dimensions:
+ Acceleration LT? Substitute the dimensional formulas of each
+ Force MLT2 quantity into the equation and equate the
dimensions on both sides.
+ Energy - ML²T2 Solve for the Exponents: Solve the resulting
ML²T x,
+ Power System of equations to find the values of
y, and z.
+ Force gradiant MT2
-:Applications: Q.3. If momentum (p), area (A) and time
(t) are to be fundamental quantities,
1. Checking the Correctness of various energy has the dimensioanl formula
formulae: [p°A't]
(a) [p'At1 (b)

eg:- Z = A +B (c) [p'A-t] (a) [p'A-1]

[Z] =
[A]= [B] Sol. Fundamental quantites are momentum
(p), area (A) and time (t). therefore
2. Conversion of one system of unit to
E = kp'At
another.
Substituting the dimensions
[MLT°g IMPLT
eg:- n, (M,^L,°]=n,[M,^LT,°]
[MLOT=[ML T°
power
Comparing
a+ 2b = 2
ny a =
1
n2 M, -a =-2+ c

Solving these equations

MR*
Different physical quantity ka dimension a =
1, b =,c= -1
nikalne keliye force andenergy ka dimension =
Hence, E pA2
yad rakna hai. Avi tension nahi lena aage
ke chapter ke sath yad hota jayga. Note:
+ Formula of force to find dimension of
3. Creation of new formule different physical quantity
Using the principle of homogeneity of F=G32,F=9192
dimension, we can drive the formula of 4TeE,

physical quantity: Hollyd

F= Kx, F=
Assume the physical quantity Y depends on 4Tr
a, b, and e, which have dimensions [a], [b]. F= qE
and (o) respectively. Write the equation in F= qvB
the form: F= 6TYmrv
a b4 c
Y= k
F= Sl
 + Formula of energy to find dimn of MRM
different physical quantity Resistance = R = WL = 1
E hf H kAAT wC
2T
t
E= T
2 = Y x
Stress Strain
=
Time VLC = RC
E =
Q= msAT R
2C
H = Rt Q= mL
Dimensionless Quantities:
E = + Strain
2
+ Refractive index
PV= nRT
+ Relative density
6 Dimensional Formula + Plane Angle
+ Pressure = stress = + Solid Angle
Young's modules
=ML1 T2 + PoisSons ratio
+ Work = Energy =
Torque = M
L2T? Exponential function
+ Power P = M
LTs +
+ Gravitational constant G = Trigonometry function
M
13 T2
+ Relative permittivity
+ Force constant = =
Spring constant MT
+ Coefficient of viscosity = ML T
+ Pure number

t Latent heat L = L2T2 Efficiency

P + Length gratiant
t Electric potential = M L2TA
+ Coef. of friction
+ Resistance = ro - M
L2T'A2
MR*
Pressure = =
+ Capacitance = Stress Young modulus
M
L2 T A2 = Bulk modulus
+ Permittivity E, =
L3T
M
A2
1 x =
+ Angular momentum =
planck's constant strain stress modulus of regitity
= 2
M²LT
B² 1 nRT
€,E* = energy density =
Time Period: 2o 2
M R dimensionally addition, substraction ko
Ta
Vk equal le ke solve karte hai.
Kisi be dimensionless function ya quantity
= =
RC LC
ko one likh sakte hai.
 V
Q4 fvelocity Ax
BtChnd dintnsoN
of A, B andC Qo Acccleration asat find dimansion
MR
of a, B and 8.

Sol. V
AN Bt C
MR Ka feel
A Sol. a at =

t= 8
LT2
B== a 8=t
LT
C= V= LT

QS Force F z ae then find dimension of a t

B= at LT
=
and B

Sol. pF = a pbt = 1 Q.7. Fillin theblanks with correct statement,

Sa= MLT2 SB= T
according togiven statement

Dimension (1) (2) (C) physical quantity| (d) A physical quantity

A

have dimension does not have dimension

Unit (a) A
physical (b) A physical (3) (4)
quantity have quantity does
unit not have unit
MR*
Ans.(1) May have dimension/may be dimensionless
(2) Must be dimensionless/does not haVe dimension
(3) Must have unit
(4) May or may not have unit.
Q.e. Fill in the blanks with correct statement, according to given statement
Physically (2) (2) (e) Equation is (d) Equation is
correctness |physically wrong physically correct
Dimensional (a) Equation (b) Equation (3) (4)
correctness isdimensional isdimensional
wrong Correct
MR
Ans. (2) Must be physically wrong (2) May or may not physically correct

(3) May or may be dimensionally correct (4) Must be dimensionally correct.

S,th u +
(2n - 2)
(S,th dimensionlly correct because it is displacement in One sec.)
 force, acceieration and time taken (b)
1

Q9. If (a) 1, 1, 1, -1, -1

as fudawnental physical quantity then (c) -1, -1, 1
(d) -1, 1, -1
find dincnsion of energy? MR

(a) FAT (b) FAT Velocity me mass hai nahi to n, &,

r ko arrange kar velocity lena
(c) F 'AT2 (d) FA T hai hence.
mass me
cancell, radius bhi mass
nahi
MR" hai, & = ML
and n =
MLT
n
E(ML'T Mass ka dimension force hi 8
and divide karne .kat jayga
Se maSS

dega ek mass energy me hai to F hona to ek ka power positive ek ka negative

chahiye. hona chahiya.
Now L ka square hai ek length force dega Q.12. If energy (E), velocity (M) and tivne
ek acceleration hence A' hona chahiye. ( are chosen as the fundament
quantities the dimensional formula at
Q.10. Planks constant (h), speed of light (c), surface tension will be
gravitational constant (G) taken as (a) EVT2 (b) EVT2
fundamental quantity then dimension EV*T? (d) E
VT
(c)
of length in terms of them.
MR*
MR* Surface tension (MT Ramlal
(a) (b)
c/2 yaha length nahi to length katne ka
socho. Sirf (c) me length kat ho raha
NhG hai.
(c) (d)
cS/2
Limitation of dimensional analysis:
MR*
(1) It not use to derive dimensionless
is
physicall quantity and constant.
We need dimension of length, then mass (2) This can not decide weather the give
should be cancell out by arranging h, quantity is vector or a scalar.
c and me to mass hai nahi; h
G. c
(3) It can not be use to derive an equation
ML2T and G = ML'T to h and G involving more than three physicall
ko multiply karne se mass kat jayga. quantity.
Hence option (b) and (d) wrong ho (4) It can not derive dimensionless function
gaya. Now option (a) and (c) dono me having sine, cose, e ete.
root hai to root laga ke sirf length ka (5) Can not use if one quantity depends
dimension likho phir c se divide kar ke on two other quantity having same
ek length (L) sirf rakho. dimension.

Q.11. Dimension of critical velocitu V of liouid () lt can not derive equation which cantain
+ve and -ve terms.
flowing through the tube are expressed
as n'6, where n is coefficient of
Instruments
viscosity, 8 is density of liquid and r is
+ Least Count (L.C) :
radius of the tube then the value of x, y
and z are given by. + Smallest value that
mm Vernier Screw n-1
=
Scale Scale Gauge 1 VSD MSD

+ LC = n-1 =
LMSD
1 MSD MSD n
1mm O.1mm O.01m n
Vernier calipers: Total = +
1 MSR coinciding xLC
Reading
1MSD - 1VSD
VSR
+ L C. =
+ If nVsD Coincides with (n-1) MSD then: MSD Main Scale division
(n-1) MSD =
nVSD |V.S.D Vernier scale devision

Vernier Screw
Jaws Scale clamp
for measuring
outer
dimensions
mmnnlm
Main scale Stem for measuring
depths
6 9 10
Jaws
for measuring
inner
dimensions
Screw gauge:
Measured length Used instrument
Stud Pitch Scale Circular Scale
Screw 1.56 Cm vernier calliper
Ratchet
6.8 Cm metre Scale
8.46 mm Screw gauge
LSR= Linear
Scale
9.812 Cm Screw gaye
Thimble
frame
Reading
8.3 mm vernier calliper
CSR= Circular
Scale
Sleeve Reading Accuracy: It is the measure of how close the
measured value is to the true value. Closness
MSR
+ Pitch= no. of measured and true value.
of rotation
Precision: It tells us to what resolution or
Pitch
+ L.C. = limit the quantity is measured.
Total no. of division on Circular Scale
Zero error:
+ Total = x LC
Reading 1 LSR +CSR Types:
+ Positive Zero Error: When the zero of the
MSR Main Scale division
lCSR
vernier scale is to the right of the zero of
Circular scale reading
the main scale.
 Negative Zero Error: When the zero of the So, Z -VC xO
- O
mm
vernier scale is to the left of the zero of .. L = MSR XVC -Z
the main scale. = + x
O.1) - (-0) =
S5.2 mna
55 (8
Calculation:
Q.14 In vernier caliper, when the jaws ave
a

+
Positive Zero Error: Number of divisions touchinq each other the zero mark
behind slightly
of the vernier scale (vS) that coincide the vernier scale is left
on the main scale. At
with the main scale (MS) multiplied by of
the zero mark
o
the least count (LC). that moment the sth division mark
vernier caliper matches perfectly with
Negative Zero Error: (Total divisions on
- a division on the main Scale. When tho
vernier scale Number of divisions of VS
zero marks in both the scale coincides
that coincide with MS) multiplied by LC.
10 vernier scale divisions matches
Correction: with 9 main scale divisions (in mm). A
+ Correct Reading for Positive Zero Error: rod of length | is measured with this

+ Reading=Observed Reading vernier caliper. It shows S5 in main

Correct
scale reading and in the vernier scale
Positive Zero Error
8th mark matches with a main scale
+ Correct Reading for Negative Zero Error: division. What is the value of L?
=
Correct Reading Observed Reading
Negative Zero Error
Sol. The verniner constat,

Q.13. In a vernier caliper, when the jaws are

vC
=(2-)
10/
mm = 0.1 Mm
touching each other the zero marks
in both the scale coincides, 10 vernier Here the zero mark in verniner scale is
Scale divisions matches with 9 main left behind the zero mark in main scale.
scale divisions (in wmm). A rod of length So, a negative zero error exists.
Lis measured with this vernier caliper. So, Z =
-VC x5= -0.5 mm
if It shows 55 in main scale reading and .. +
xVC -Z
in the vernier scale 8th mark matches L= MSR
with a main scale division. What is the
=
55
+
(8 x
0.1) -(-0.5)
=
S6.3 mm
value of L?
Q.15. If true value of lengqth is 6.57 m then
Sol. The verniner constat, which of the following reading is most
accurate and most precise.
mm =
0.1 mm
10/ (a) 6.52 m (b) 6.61 m
Here the zero mark in vernier scale
(c) 6.513 m (d) 6.68 m
matches with the zero mark in main
Scale. So, no zero error exists. Sol. Most accurate (b), most precise (c)
8 Error in Measurement
Difference between true value
& measured value of a quantity

Systematic Errors Random Errors

Errors which tend to Occur Irregular and at random
only in one direction, either in magnitude & direction
positive or negative

Instrumental Experimental Personal

Due to inbuilt defect Limitation in Due to individual bias,
of measuring experimental Lack of proper setting
instrument technique of apparatus

Absolute Error: o Unit and dimension less

Aa= a, - amean o lt tell about accuracy of measurment

ay t ag
amean O Random error can be decreased by

O Always
increasing no of obserbation.
positive
o Unit and dimension same as physical n= costh, n = no. of obserbation,
quantity
X= Random error
O Least count error can be taken as
absolute error
O It can
not tel about accuracy of
measurment
Mean Absolute error
+ .... +
Aa, Aa, Aa,
Aamean

Relative Error: O in S reading random error is 3% and

A amean systematicerror is 4%. If we increased no.

amean of observation to 30 then random error
Aaynean 1/2% and systematic error remains 4%.
= x
Percentage Error amean
100
Combination of errors

Operations Formula Absolute error Relative error Percentage error

AZ AZ/Z 100 x AZ/Z
Sum A +
B +
AA AB AA + AB AA + AB
x 100
+ B
A + B A
Difference A - B AA + AB AA + AB AA + AB
x
A - B A -B 100
Multiplication A x B
AAB + BAA AA AB AA AB
+ + x
A
B A B 100
Division <lo
A BAA + AAB AA AB AA AB
x
B B
A B A B 100
Power A" nAn AA AA AA
n x 100
A A
Root 1 1 AA 1 AA
A(/n)-)AA x 100
n n A A

General Rule: Q.16. In an experiment the angles ar

B
AP
required to be wmeasured using an
instrumnent. 29 divisions of the main
Then max. frac relative error in Z will be:
scale exactly coincide with the 30
AZ = AA AB AC divisions of the vernier scale. If the
P + 4
A
Smallest division of the main scale is

MR half-a-degree (= 0.s) then the least

O Addition/Substration me pahle absolute
error nikalenge phir relative. count of the instrument is:
o
Power/multiplication/division me pahle (a) one minute (b) half minute
relative error nikalenge phir absolute. (c) one degree (a) half degree
Example: y= 3A" + Power hai to direct
relative error likho, constant kO remove Sol. MSD = 0.5°
karo, power ko aage multiply kar do. 30 VSD =
29 MSD
Ay- 2 AA Least Count
A = No.

Example:
Length of 1 main scale division /
of divisions of Vernier scale
y= 2A"VB
=
0.5°/30
=
Ay AA ,4B 0.5 x 6Omin / 30
4xA Ž B
+ 3x
=1 min
Q17 A vernier callirers has 1
mnn marks
on the man scale
has 20 cqual It
Sol. A 4n?
dvison on the Verier scale which AA Ar
match with l6 main scale divisions 2
A
For ths Vermier callipers, the least AV Ar
Count 3
V

(a) O02 imm (b)Oos mm AV AA 3

A 2
(a) 0.2 mM
AV 3 AA 3
Sol. MSD =
1 mm x
100= x
100 = x
3
V 2 A 2
=
20 VSD 16 MSD = 4.57%,

=
VSD 16/20 MSD
Q.19. If T: 2rt then find percentage
=0.8 MSD =
0.S mm
error in measurement of acceleration
Least Count =
MSp-vSD due to gravity.
- 1-0.8 =
0.2 mm Sol. lgnore constant
Q.18. If the crror inthe mncasurement of area
of sphere is 37% then find percentage
error in measurement of voluwme of Ag AT
sphere
+2

MRS
 MT-'A-I

MLT-"A

M-L-TA MO
MT

M-T-1 MI-1T-1

+E-aT8-}M'T
B=4

SHLT
MK

L=

qE BIL
maT
G F= F=
Q=ml
KX
SH=

F= F=l

F=6nrV
Resistance)

Tnductance

Meld Capacity
Capacitence) Specific
Self Heat
Magnetle

Electrle Fleld
Latent
Purmitivity
Constant
Heat
Spring

Constant
Planck's

manConstant

Grvltatlonal
Boltz
Conttat
Coefficlent Vlscoaity

FORCE
of
MRE
Energy

Force Permeablty

Surfece Tenlon
Pretsur
F=a Potential
Coefficant
Friction Electric
Gravitational

Stres Potentiol

of Condactivity

(hermal Constant

Wiens
Constart

bergConstant
Conslant
Gas
k
MLT Selar Ryd
mg
PA V=Um

F= F=
H_KAT

S=t F
MCrA
PU=nRT

HsEnerY
AT
AT
b=
P=4

MIT-A
MT-2

MT
MCT}HR=
less

dimension
T-2
ML-IT-2

ML

Ior

Physics
 4 Motion in 1-D

Motion + IF we know only initial and final position

1 then we can't calculate distance but can
Motion in one dimension, also known as find displacement.
linear motion, is the movement of an object + If initial position (X4, Y, Z,) and final
along a straight line. In this type of motion, position (Kgs Y2s Z) then displacement
only one coordinate out of three is needed to
describe the position of the object.
Observer & Frame of Reference distance 2 displacement|
+ Observer who takes observation and
2 Distance & Displacement on
from where it takes is called frame of Circular Path
reference.
+ Observer always assume + =
to be at rest. Disp 2RSin
(x) 2 R
+ Nothing is at absolute rest or in absolute
motion.
+ Arc = disth = RO Arc
Agar koi Gadhe pr baitha hai toh
Gadha:- Frame of Ref. Uske upar joh Displace-| Dispm Disp |If disIf disp"
baitha hoga woh observer! ment must may or is zero is not
(2nd be may equal
Distance Displacement floor) zero not be to zero
+ Total Path + Shortest Path b/w zero then:
length initial and final If disth Disth
Distance If Disth
position
+ Scalar, Struggle|t Always straight line
(1st disth s not may or must
floor) is equal may not
+ Can't decreasel+ Vector, success zero to zero not be equal
with time then zero to zero
+ Always positive+ Direction From Challenger Question
initial to final position
There is a cubical room. One insect is moving
+ Depends on path Can decrease with
from one corner to other body. Diagonal,
taken time
+ then find minimum distance
Both havel+ May be +ve or -ve
same unit and| The lnsect Can Fly:
+ When the insect can fly,
dimension it can take the
Does not depends on
shortest possible path, which is the direct
diagonal across the cube from one corner
path
to the opposite corner.
 VI For Uniform motion
Body iagonal L'VsL
Note:
By substituting the box (O) with
function, you can calculate the
The lnsect Cannot Fly:
• When and apply it to find a quantity
the insect cannot fly, it has to travel velocity.
ike arers
along the surfaces of the cube.
S VELOCITY (How
fast and where)7
Hum kitna Tez bhag rahe hai and
kis directi,
2L
me bhag rhe hai!
The inscct will move along one face
and then Inst. Average
another. The shortest path on the surface of
the cube dk v.dt
=
JL+ (2Ly²
Js L inst.
dt
=
3 Average Speed (How fast in Rate of change in position
an interval not at - Slope of position time graph
instant) =
lnst. speed x direction
= How fast x where
Vavg Total distance
Total time Vsin (e/2)
On circular path, V,
avg
Same (e/2)
|Avg speed2|Avg Velocity
Tine interval Inst speed - \(nst Velocity
Distance interval
Uniform motion
X, + X2
Vavg Body moving with constant speed in
V, t, + V, t fixe
Vavg direction
t +
t V V
+
=
Uniform velocity, i.e., body travels equ
When t, =
t, = When x4 X=
t X
displacement in equal interval of time.
V, + V, 2V, Va + Acceleration zero
Vavg Vavg +
2 V, V,
+ Avg. velocity = Inst. velocity
4 SPEED (How Fast) Scalar,
+ Must be straight line
unit: m/s, only magnitude.)
O lnstantaneous O Average Non-Uniform motion
dx Ss. dt + Velocity non-uniform: i.e., Body trav
Vinst
dt Vavg
Sdt different displacements in equal interv
of time, or the same displacement
dt different intervals of time.
Jdt Acceleration non-zero
 Velocity can be change by changing speed
only or direction only or both V-V, dt
+ In non-uniform speed may constant At Sat
Dimag ne set feel ke sath. dt = å= The rate of change in velocity
+ If velocity is uniform then speed must dt
be uniform. d
= =
=a =
Magnitude of acc", = Rate
O
Velocity Speed + Direction Constant dt dt
+ If velocity is variable Speed may or may of change in speed.
not be variable
o
Velocity ko sirf direction change kar ke Pao
vary kar sakte hai -a
+ If speed is uniform then velocity may a.= -ve a.v= +Ve
=
q0
uniform speedy speedt
o Direction ka nahi pata. retardation at this instant
Tangential Tangential only direction
+ If speed is variable then velocity must acc" acc will change
be variable
normal or
+ If avg. velocity is zero
then avg. speed may centripetal
or may not be zero. acc
MR*
+ If avg. speed is zero, then avg. velocity
must be zero. Bade aaram se
Uniform or constant non-zero acceleration.
6Acceleration Position (x) t
Velocity () « t
Ye Motion Ka Feel Nai Hai ! Ye velocity me Velocity vc VR
change ka feel hai. Ifacceleration zero then velocity must be
O Acc opposite to motion is retardation. non zero constant
O Negative acceleration does not mean approach to solve question
retardation, retardation may be positive d=
or negative. á= nOn variable
zero
O Per-sec velocity inject to body or per constant
Sec velocity extract from body ka feel
hai.
Equation Eq" of
O Vector direction of acceleration along cOnstant of motion motion is not
change in velocity. uniform applicable applicable do
motion integration or
dv v.dv d'x S = vt differentiation
dt dx dt
 = Av = fadt
MR Ax fvdt = Area of a/t graph
= Area of v/t
Area of x/t

da
dt Jerk
Slope of x/t Slope of v/t
dx dv
Vinst. ainst.
dt dt

Q.1. Which of the following is correct for

Sol. MR* question me acc^ Constant ther
velocity and acceleration? option me acceleration cOnstant optio

(a) Velocity increasing, acceleration (b) i.e.,

decreasing dx =
constand
(b) Velocity decreasing, acceleration dt ct dt
increasing E
(c) Both increasing Q4. Ifacceleration a = Bt then find velocit P
after tine t if intialvelocity is u. d
(a) Both decreasing
Sol. Equation of motion is not valid f
(e) All of these d
dv
Sol. (e) a = = Bt3/2
dt
Q.2. If position x =
at - zero
bt. Find the time
?
=
S dv Brt2 dt t

when acceleration is
Sol. x = at - bt V-u =
S/2
dx
=
V= d+ 2at -3bt? Q.5. If acceleration of object a = B ther
t

dv = find velocity after x displacement, i

2a - 6bt =O initial velocity was zero.
dt
2a = Gbt dv
a Sol. Bx? S
a=V dk
t= 36
Q.3. If velocity v « Vk then which of the
following function is correct for position
time relation.
2
(a) xt (b) x« 2Bx
(c) x« Vt (a) x« t52 V= S
3
 Mrspecial V= 25 - 2%
+
2a%

Majduri se duri MR" hai jaruri u'= 2.5

-8X 2ax
=
Position Ke Formula Mein Time ke dono u5m/s 2a -2
term ko dekho agar dono term a = -4 m/
+ve/-ve ya -ve/-ve sign rakhta hai toh Note:
woh U-turn Nailenge ya dist"= disp"
agar sign +ve/-ve Rahi toh U-turn lenge mid
aur distance = disp" +
S
# yaad rahe 1-D mein U-turn keliye
= +
rukhna hoga (v o).:. dist", disp"
Vmid
Note: To calculate dist, disp™ from x-t eg':
+ Moving Frame se body ko drop/release Stopping Distance:
karne pr frame ka velocity share hojata
hai but acc" nai!
+ U
Ex. x =
t -
4t +
then take v-t graph,
8

plot it using "y eq" which we"ll get by

"x" eqh & then put time given
(-d, t
differentiating
from t, & ta & see graph calculate dist"/
dispm.
= =
d Stopping disance(S)
7 Motion with constant acceleration 2a
Reaction time
7=+ t
v² -u =
203 Rest To Rest Motion:
the motion of an object
Thisconcept explains
1
3=-, =
üt + ät that starts from rest, accelerates () to a
maximum speed, and then decelerates (B)
back to rest.
S= xt
2 2

(2n - 1) U=0 max V=0

2
S,tk Time relationship: Maximum velocity:
2n-1 =
2
at, Bt,
means that the Ymax =
+ This
- 8X
product of acceleration + This equation
= showS
Q.6. If velocity of object V V25 then and the time taken to
accelerate equals the
that the maximum
find velocity and acceleration. velocity depends on
product of deceleration
the acceleration,
Sol. Acceleration is constant then compare and the time taken to
deceleration, and total
decelerate.
velocity with zrd equation of motion time of the motion.
 Q.8. Object starts from rest
and Constor
Total Distance (S): acceleration moves 80 m in 7 sec
Distance relationship
ser
a x, = Bx, find displacement in next 7
This indicates that the
product of acceleration equation sec = 3y
Ans. Displacement in next 7
+ This
and the distance
covered combines the effects
during acceleration of acceleration,
=3x 80
=
240 m
cquals the product of deceleration, and total
deceleration and the time to determine the 8 Motion Under Gravity
distance covered during total distance.
deceleration.
(a = const")
Example: U= 0
Sm 1s 4x
U= 0 a =consth U= 0

H/2 T/2 15m

S S S
H,T
25m
- H/2 T 35m
Ratio of time for equal disth interval: V2
45m
: t, : t =
I: V2-1: V3- V2
I
Ratio of disp for equal time interval:
:
Ssç:S i: Sz X: 4x 9x
S1st : S2nd i
Ssd=1:3:5 Note:
S1s
:Sac : Ss= 1:4:9 1. Time of Fight (T;)
=/ 2H
2. Velocity at ground i- v= V2gH
S, : Snet t = 1:3 or x: 3x
Ratio of displacewment in time t and next Graphs:
same time intraval t, where motion starts
from rest and constant acceleration
V= gt
S, : S = 1 :4 orx: 4X
displacewment in time t total time (2t) a =g
Q.7. Object starts from rest and constant
acceleration attained velocity 32 m/s in
10 sec. then find displacement in next
t
10 seC.

Sol. S = -x O+ 32 x v=V2gH
t
S: 10
2 2
S= 16O m in 1 10 sec.

Hence in next 10 sec.

x =
it is 3 160 480 m H
Motion Under Gravity from ground to ground 6. Distance in qth sec. downward journey
+ Non-uniform motion (velocity = variable) ka 3' sec = 25 m. Use ratio.
with constant acceleration (a). 7.Distance in last sec of upward journey
+ At maximum height velocity zero and a =g.
=
distance in 1* secof downward journey
=5 m (always)
20 Q9. A stone with weight W is thrown
Hmax
2g vertically upward into the air with initial
velocity Vo Ifa constant force, due to air
Tdown? drag acts on the stone throughout the
Tupg ffight & if the maximum height attain
find by stone is h and velocity when it strikes
tothe ground is u. Which one is correct?
1. Time of flight
2. Maximum height (a) h=vi2+ 29. v =Vo

3. Velocity at t =7 sec
4. Displacement in 8 sec
(6) A=v;/ 2g W)
V = zero
5. Distance in 8 sec
() h-vj/2g = W-f
6. Distance in 9th sec. downward journey V= Vow+ f
7. Distance in last sec of upward journey f W+f
v=Vow-f
Sol.
MR*

u= 60 wws If f=o then,

H= and v = Vo
Sol. 29
2u 2x60 The MR*
1. Total time of flight T =
10 and v <
=
12 Sec. fo
If H<
2g
Vo

u = Kam karne ke liye niche +ve hoga.

2. Maxiwmum Height H= 180 m
29 MR TABLE
3. Velocity at t = 7 sec.
V=u t gt
=
60 - 10x7 =
-10 mWs
In dono ko add krke
4. Displacement in 8 sec. t
t; nikal sakte !

at = 160 m
= +
S ut 2

5. Distance in 8 sec.
at t = 6 sec. body comes to at rest and
takes u-turn hence calculate distance o Object is at same height at t, and t
to 6 sec. then 6 to 8 sec
That height|h=gt,t2
+
200 m
=
S= 18O 20
 Ball is projected up with speed "U" graphs: MR*
If u =
0 then it is like drop from heiaht.
v(Speed) then
Highest 2H
t=
point
t If
H =
then it is like ground to ground
motion
20 2u
t=

v(Velocity) dispm Q.10. Ball is projected up with speed "u

highest from height H. Then time of fight T.
highest point point With same speed "u" it is projected
2V/9 v
downward then time of fight is
find time of fight "t" when object is
t
t
dropped from same height.
t
T2
disth

V=0
10 Graph
highest point
Position - Time Graph:

+ If air friction in not ignored then: + For a bdoy at rest + Body moving with
Tup fonst velocity
tiown gta At Rest V= +Ve
cOnsth
+ tun < tdown

+ Vprojection > Vcollision

q t
MOTION UNDER GRAVITY
¡ from height to ground: motion with Motion with
constant negative cOnstant
velocity acceleration

V=-Ve
consth
V=+ Ve

2H a =+Ve
H t=

t t
 +
+
Motion with constant retation Motion with
decreasing (a)

t
t

Velocity - Velocity - Position Graph:

Tine Graph:
slope, m = a
constant increasing
|velocity at
a
+A
a = + ve
t

t Acceleration time graph:

= =
O
Area displacement A, -A, 4a
O
slope =
acceleration Constant increasing accleration
o but distance = A, + Ag Çonstant decreasing accleration
+A4
+ Motion with + Motion with constant
constant velocity retrodation with non -Ag
zero initial velocity
V= consth
V=+ ve
+ Slope =
e (Jerk)
a =0
a = -ve + Area =
Change in velocity =
A, - A2

4v
t t
20 mWs
+ Motion with + Motion with
increasing (a) increasing 45 6s
retordation t
v -10 m/s 2s -Az

Distance = total area = 4O+ 20+ 20= 80 m

a Displacement = 40+ 20- 20 = 40 m
Q.11. If initial velocity of object is 10 ws
t then find velocity at 10 sec
 Xan Position of A
w.r.t. B =
x.
B
=
Position of W.r.t.
X BA

differentiation w.r.t. time

8 10
A

2 t(s) a BA
-10
a AB
-aBA
Sol. Area =
change in velocity A B

x x x VA
10-12 10 x 2
- =
2 =
2
V; V
60- 10 S0
+ = A
V,=50+ V,= 5O 10 60 m/s
Relative Motion in 1-D
+ Time taken to overtake =
+ Observer khud ko hamesa rest me assume VA- VB

karta hai, or uska pas jo bhi velocity, + If they are moving opposite to each other
acceleration hota hai, ulta kar ke jisko
dekhta hai usme chipka deta hai.

|A & B moving in Relative velocity Relative position Graphical

same direction
representation
() If VA = VB
XAR = costh A

(A & B apper at rest

with one another)

(i) If VA Vg
AB XAB =
decrease then
VBA = -ve increase

(nitially, the relative

position decreases as A
catches up to B.

After A overtakes B, it
increases.)
(in) If VA Vg

VRA = +ve
XAB = Increasing B
 A & B
moving in + If A is moving in the
opposite direction positive direction and
with Va * Vg B in the negative B
Depending On the t
direction: VAB VAinitial
positions and
-(-Vg) = VAt Vs directions, the relative
+ If A is moving in the position AB Can
negative direction increase or decrease
and B in the positiverapidly.
direction:

Motion of
Object on
the Moving Surface Sol. Velatie = 40 m/s
80
1. Man is running on the surface of train Arelative t= =2 seC
40
with Vy in the direction of train (V) VMG relative =
80
Q.13. A ball thrown downward with speed 20
If man is running in opposite direction m/s and 30 m/s simultaneously, then
find relative velocity and separation
then, Vma = V,- V b/w them after 4 sec
2. River is flowing with Ve and man is Sol. aaB =0 VBA 10 m/s (const W.r.t bus)
=

swimming with Vy in downstream then SBA = VBAt = 10 x 4

=
4O m
VMG = Velocity of man w.rt ground or
Q.14. A bus starts from rest moving with an
effective velocity of man = Vy + VR acceleration of 2 m/s. A cyclist, 96 m
behind the bus starts simultaneously
In upstream VMG = VR - VM towards the bus at 20 m/s. After
3. Same as above in stair case. what time will he be able to overtake
O Motion under gravity of one object w.rt the bus:
Sol.
other which is also in motion under
gravity is uniform relative motion. Uo = 20 w's
aAB
O
VAB = Costh
aa = 2 m/s 96 m>
SAB = lncreasing or decreasing linear
=
SAB
S= ut
+

2
at (cyclist w.rt bus)
Time of collision =
AB 46 20t -* 2

Q.12. A ball is drop from 8o m height and - 20t + 962= o t= 12s and t = 8 sec
another ball is projected with speed at 8 sec cyclist overtake bus and at 12
40 m/s then they will collide. sec bus will again cross cyclist.

MR

47,
Motion in 1-D
 Motion a
in Plane
5
a
Equation of Motion in plane
1 2-D Motion
a =
consth
In this type of motion, two coordinates out
of three needed to describe the position of
the object.
+ V, = u + a, t +X=ut+ 1

» [1-D],-axis + [1-Dly-axis
+ y=u,t + 1
MR* feel
+ Displacement, velocity and acceleration

along X-axis Independent upon

+v=+ 2
a,9
+ X-axis and y-axis ka
displacewment, velocity and acceleration motion independen
hota hai. Acceleration along x only chana
of y-axis velocity of x-axis
pComponent of vector (ag) dx dy
+ Vector Magnitude of vector
(ieT) dt dt
Velocity dv,
ay =
dt dt
O Only time is same in both co-ordinate
Acceleration Q. 1. lnitial velocity of object u = 31+ ans
4
acceleration a O.41 + O.3 then fine
=

a'= af+ a a,, + ay2 velocity after t =

10sec.
Displacewment
Sol. V, = U, + ajt =
3 +
0.4 x
10t = 7
r=[x,-X,] +[y,-9,] . V, = U, + a,t = 4 + O.3 x 10Í
=
7Í
V= +
here, r= AX + Ay is position vector. 7 7Í
M= 7/2
Direction of motion
Q. 2. If initial velocity of object u = 3i + 4
after some time V= 4+ 3Í then find
() Change in Magnitude of velocity.
tan
(i) Magnitude of change in velocity.
Sol. = =
() Av V
-V 5-5:0
 (i) AV = V,-V= 4i + 3j - 3i - 4j + Motion starts from rest and constant
AV=-j acceleration then path straight line
+ If Angle between velocity and acc^ is
always q0° then path > circle
Q. 3. X and y of the particle are x = 5t - 2t
and y = 10t, acceleration of particle + IF Angle between initial velocity and
at t=2. accelerationisbetweeno°or180° thenpath
Sol. V, ddt S- 4t Parabolic.

V,=10
dt 3 Projectile motion

a, = a, =0 Non uniform motion with uniform

dt-4,
acceleration
ja-4m/s
=
with y
Q. 4. Initial velocity of bus is Sm/s east after Horizontal ucose
2sec its velocity becomes Sm/s north
e= with
then find acceleration. usino
Vertical Hmax
ucose
Sol. a = V- -st E
sab change
except range ucos
At 2 usinb
Singr cose R

s22 (North-west) Time of Flight (T)

2 usino 2uy
2 Equatiorn of Trajectory T=
Relation between h and yh co-ordinate
which are derived with the help of time. Range (R):

2 usin
Equation of
Position Vector R= u, Tp= ucos 9
Trajectory
(1) F=A sin (wt) ++y
? =
A (Circle)
A cos (wt)
R=
u'sin20 2uy
=
(2) F=A sin (wt) î +*/A + y/B 1
B cos (wt) |(Ellipse)
Maximum Height (H max):
line) Y
(3) 7=A
sin (wt) + |(Straight
=
(B/A) x u'sinto Uy
2
B sin (wt)
Hat
(4) =2tî+ 4t
sY=* (Parabola) 2g 29
 Speed at any point
X-axis (Horizontaly-axis (Vertical
components) components) Magnitude,
+ At t= 0, u, = Ucos+ u, = sin f U

+ At 't, V, = u cos f|+ V,

=
(usine-gt) )
V=(Ucos' + (Usin@-gt

+ a, = o
V= Ucos
+ Usin -gt
(througout| + y =u sin e t -
motion) 2 Usine-gt
gt Direction, tan a =
=
+ X= u,t u cos
t + AP = (2 wmu
sin e) Ucos
(Vavg) ucose Speed at point Hmax ;

The vertical
+ The horizontal component of the 2
component of initial velocity is
2
velocity (ucose) usinb. The vertical (Ucose)?
remains COnstant velocity changes
throughout the Over time due
motion because to the constant Condition of Max. horizontal Range
there isnohorizontal acceleration
acceleration (a, = o) acting downward. Rmax =
+ "H"=same = Vertical velocity same = Tp
same
+ V collision with ground= ucose - usine f
+ in projectile motion speed
=
45o iske upar R|
(and kinetic
energy) is minimum at the highest point. =
H
+ speed = ucos e 4g
+ in projectile motion H=R When u, = or 4u,
tanb =
4
Elevation angle of Max. Point frowm point of
s Complementary Angle
projection + Two angles are complementary if their
sum is 40°. In the context of projectil
Hmax tan motion, if a and B are complementary
tan a=
! Hmax 2 angles, then:
2
a+ B =
40° ; t
R
2

4 Relation between Range

& Hmax
B

Rtanb
H=
4
Range:
o Eq" of Trajectory in
Projectile Motion
+ When a projectile is launched at two
complementary angles with the same
initial speed, the horizontal ranges -X
y = x tano 1
(R, and R) will be equal. i.e., R

= 2u'cosb.sin
R, Ra
R=
Heights Ratio:

-
y=X tan
H, =
tan*
2 u'cose
Time at which particle moving r to

Times of Flight Ratio: initial velocity

T,
-= tan a t:
gsinb

Product of Heights:
Note:

R?
H,H, = (vLu)
16 <
Only valid when 45°. For 45° kabhi
2R
for same range, T,T, = nai hoga!

(x, y) Q. 5. Equation of trajectory y J3 x -

3

then find range and angle of projectile.

B
tane
Sol. Y = xtan =3
R= 60°

tan e =
tan a +
tanß, tan
= y When y =0 then x=R
+ Ball is projected with same speed at 42° 3x=
and 47° then Range Ry and R, respectively
then Ry<R2 3
X=R: m.
hint :- Angle 45° ke jitna pas range utna 10
jyada.
+
The minimum velocity of the ball lands at a
9 Relative Motion in Plane
least on the nth step,

(n-1) b'g
2a If Angle between V, and Vn is then.
+
The exact velocity for the ball to land
precisely on the nth step:
+ Relation between
nbg A
U= V, and Va so that
2a A always moving
along y-axis.
=
V, cos
8 Projectile Motion from
some height at angle 0,
Va

Q. 7. Bus is moving in east with 3Om/s and

u Ssin S car in north with speed 40's then
velocity of Car w.rt bus.

Sol. Veg V-v=4o - 3oî

u cos

Veal= sOmws
=
37° west of north
H
u Sin u sin A
\ 2H
T = + + b= tan-1 = tan -1

2H
MR* If B = 0; Te =
10 River man Problem

2u sin VMR = Velocity of Man w.r.t River

MR* If H=0 = Velocity of Man w.rt still water
Q. 6. Ball is projected in Horizontal direction = Velocity by which man can swim
u
with speed then find time when
MR** River apne dam pe cross kiya jata
distance moved in horizontal and
hai
vertical direction is same.
Ramlal puri jan apne jan ki taraf lagayga
Sol. x = ut & river minimum time me cross karne ke
liye. (Man will swim perpendicular to
since, x =y therefore, flow of river.)

ut = gt t= 2u D
= Drift along =
tmin
VMR
river Vax
 :
Condition of Collision Position of A and B MRM
are ra and rg moving with velocity V
and Component of their velocity perpendicular
to line joining will be same.
V, then find condition of collision

AB
Condition of collision = V, sin a= Vy sin B

Direction of relative velocity opposite to

t=
relative position. Hence relative velocity V, cos a+ Va cos B

perpendicular to line joining of particle is zero. Two object moving perpendicular to

each other with same speed V; having
Q. 11. Rain is falling vertically with a speed initial separation d then
of 30ms. A wOman rides a bicycle
d d
with a speed of 1Oms in the north -time =
l2 2V
to south direction. What is the
n-person is standing On the cornor of
direction in which she should hold her
n-side polygon starts moving towards each
umbrella?
other with same speed, then time when
Sol. Here, v, =
Velocity of the cyclist they will meet.
d
v,=Velocity of falling rain t=
ln order to protect herself from V-Vcos )
the rain, the woman must hold her n = d
2
umbrella in the direction of the relative t:
2V
velocity (v) of the rain with respect to n=3 (Triangle) 2d
n =
3V
the woman. n =
4 (Square) n=d/V
tan e =
v, =
1o/30 2d
9= 18o
n=6 (Hexagon) t=

MRS
Main kisi se behtar banu kya fark padta
hai.,. Main kisi ka behtar karu usse se bahut
fark padta hai. )
 Newton's Laws of Motion
6
Tension:
1 State of a body: inertia
Tension is a force that is always present in
We define physical state of a body with the rope, string, or cable when it is pulled tight.
help of velocity. It is a reactive force, meaning rt resp0nds t
1> State of rest (v'=0) other forces acting on the rope.
2> State of uniform motion (v= const)
Inertia -Property of object, not a physical
quantity, does not have unit and dimension.
lnertia a Mass
2 Force
Force is anything that causes an object to
start moving, stop moving, change direction,
or change its shape. M
Types of
force

+ Contact Forces: Require physical touch Key Points about tension

+ Tension always pulls along the length of
(friction, tension, spring, normal force).
+ Distant Forces: Act over a distance without
the rope or string.
touching (electrostatic force, gravitational + Tension is not an active force; it exists
force, magnetic force). because other forces are acting.

Weight + Whena rope passes over a massless (ideal)

or frictionless pulley, the tension in the
Weight is how strongy gravity pulls on an rope remains the same throughout its
object. It's why things fall to the ground
when dropped formula of weight: length.
W = mg + If the tension force drops to zero, the rope
Where, where m is the mass of the object, becomes slack and no longer pulls.
and g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Normal Reaction
3 Newton's Ist Law
When you place a book on a table, the table
pushes up on the book with a force equal and Law of inertia: No external net force required
opposite to the weight of the book. This push to keep the body in same physical state, Net
is the normal reaction. force required to change physical state.
N(on book)
For Constant velocity, a =0,

(on table) N
mg Rest
Inertia of a body depends on its mass. The
larger the mass, the larger is the inertia of
the body.
F,
4 Reading of spring Sina sinß siny
For ideal spring replace it by string & find
tension that will be equivalent tospring force.
ldeal Spring:- Force is same at all Points! F2 Fz

string Note: -
5 For

ifastring is massless, the tension in it is the same When,

every where. however, if a sting has a mass, F

tension at different points will be different. Sina Sinß Siny

+
Equilibrium of a body +F, =0
F,
6 Then,
Q.1. Find Tension in wire?
+ A body is in equilibrium when the combined
effect of all the forces acting on it is zero.
This means that the body will stay at rest 30
or move with constant velocity.
T,
+ Mathematically, if you add up all the
forces acting on the body and their sumn is skg
zero, the body is in equilibrium.
Example:
+ Consider two forces, F, and Fz acting on
a particle. mg
Sol.
+ For the particle to be in equilibrium, these
two forces must cancel each other out.
This means that the sum of these forces
must be zero:
120°
F +
Fone=O 150°
+ If F, is pointing in direction, F must
be equal in magnitude but pointing in the
opposite direction. mg = O

7 Lamis Theorem T, SO
Sin120° Sin150° Sina0
If three forces act on a particle and keep it
in equilibrium, each force is proportional to
the sine of the angle between the other two
forces.
T, = 25 N
2
 = FB.D. of Man + Plank
Q.2.T. 20ON
=
T, 5OON Make FB.D.
|40kg
F
of (20+30) together
= 2T
T, 9OON make F.B.D. 3Okg
of (40+3O+20) m+M
m+M T=
together 20kg 2

Bkg T
Q.3.
10kg (m+M)g

20kg
Q.6. Release from rest
then falling dou
Contact force b/w 10k. and 2okg. find Normal reation b/w them
Make F.B.D. of (3+10) kg.
10kg
TN= 130N
20kg
13kg
Ans. N=O

mg =
130N 8 Newton's 2nd law
Q.4. A uniform rope of mass m and length L Momentum Quantity of motion contained A

is fixed at one end and vertically from in a body.

rigid support then tension in rope at
distance x from rigid support.
mg L+X Vector, Kg m/sec, parallel to velocity
(a) (b) mg frame dependent.
L+*
AP =/Fdt Area
(c) mg (a) mg
L

mg
(e) (L-x)
L
MR*
dP =
Slope
If x=o T=m and If x=L then T=O dt
Q.5. A man of mass m is standing on a plank + Newton's Second Law of Motion states that
of mass M. A light string Passing over a the rate of change of linear momentum
fixed smooth pulley connect man and
Plank. find tension force exterted by of an object is equal to the applied forel
man on string to keep block at rest. and occurs in the direction of the appliea
force.
 over
Fasg| Favg + lmpulse the result of a force acting
is
a certain period of time. It represents the

change in momentum of an object.

+ The Sl unit of impulse is the newton
second (N-s)or kilogram meter per second
At AP (kg.m/s)
+ The total impulse for a force applied over
a time interval from t, to t, can be found
AP
Pavs
by calculating the area under the force
At
time (F-t) qraph for that interval.
mdi + V
dm
Force (N)
F=
dt dt
A

=
Impulse
m cOnst V= consth
(variable mass)
Fma
dm Time (s)
F=v
dt
AP=2mvcos
Ex:- Rocket Propulsion
AP_ 2mvcose
Note: AT AT
+ Ball Rebounds With Same Speed Find
Change ln Momentum:

AP
= V= Velocity
2mV T
to Surface

+ Ball change direction perpendicular with 10 newton's 3rd law

same speed then, AP =
J2 mv [Action-Reaction]
+ BuLLet + Action-Reaction pair acts on two diff.
plate question
VV body but they should be of same nature.
mo
2nmu
111111

AP =
F=
At
2nmu. 1 F2 21
Mathematically, F2
9 Impulse 11 conservation of momentum
Change in momentum If noexternal forces act on a system, the total
T-F. dt = AP = Favt linear momentum of the system remains
At COnstant.
 Rocket Problem:
(2 law)
dt
time t time t dt
Fupthrust
P= const"
uf dm
Gun-Bullet System:

in a gurn-bullet system: m,= mo-t/ dm

The gun has mass M and recoils with V
dt
velocity Va

+ The bullet has mass m and is fired with

velocity Ug Udm/dt
a=
Mo
Forces lnvolved:
Recoil Force (R): The force exerted by the
me dme
gun on the shooter due to the bullet being dt dt
fired.
Action and Reaction: According to
Newton's third law, the force on the
bullet (action) and the force on the gun
(reaction) are equal in magnitude and U.dm
opposite in direction. dt
M,
Recoil on qun Force on bullet
R+ (Reaction) (Action) \dt
V

UB
Remaining
Bullet =
Gun M, Mo"
-dm(t) Mass
M (f= R) dt

mug NmUg
Xoun
F=nmug At 12connected body dynamics
M bullet
Recoil speed of qun
gun

N =
No. of bullet fired per sec. F A
B
At

(KE)qun m
N Front X
Co m MOn
(KE)bulet
MkoKa Mass Acclh
 LIFT SAWAAL:

When lift accelerates upward

1) N = M (g + a)
=
Accl" up.
= x Common
Tension Backside When lift accelerates downwoard
Mass Accl
(g - a)
=
2) N
=
M Accl down
Ramlal a
Lift at rest or moving with
Q7. Find
constant speed
acceleration and normal reaction. = =
Mg 3) N= Mg Acclh 0
V= const

F=78N 13 Pulley Block System-l

8kg 13kg
skg + In pulley block system, we have two
a
masses,
+ M, and M,, connected by a rope over a
pulley. Here's a breakdown of how the
cOmmon acceleration a
= net 78 ws? system works and the key cOncepts:
Total mass 26 =3 + *The acceleration of the system can
be determined by the difference in the
gravitational forces acting on the two
masses divided by the total mass of the
MR* System:
Normal on 13 kg
N, =
13kg x a = 13×3 = 34N M,g-M,g
Normal on 8 kg by s kg (asystem
+
M, M,
N, =
(8+13)a =
21x3 =63N T
+ The tension in the
front mass a
rope connecting the M,
Q. find T, and T, two wmasses: M
2 a
T,
F=90N 7kg Fz=6ON T= 2M,Ma M,g
3kg Skg
M,g
Mt Ma
Sol.
Net Pulling force 90-60 MR*

Net Mass 15
=
2m/s IF

If
M, =
M, =
M, a
O or M,
=0
=g
=0a
90-T,=3x2 T=90-6=84N Think MR* for tension 9
For 7kg. T-T2 =7x2; 84-14=T,
If M,=o M,-o check also dimension of
=
7ON acc* and tension
T, T-o |T=0
 For hanging mass.
14 Pulley Block System-ll {
T- m9acc= m,g m

In this type of pulley block system, we have of

two masses, m, and m,, connected by a rope m,gsinb -m,g
over a pulley, with one mass hanging and the
m,tmy
other on a horizontal surface.
a tension in the rope is given by:
m,mg 1 + sine)
m,
m,ty
Acceleration of system
+ ln following arrangment, we have thre
a =
masses, ng and my Connected
m
b

Tension in the rope ropes and pulleys.

m, ma
O Mass m, is on a horizontal surface.
T= on the right
m, + m

O Mass m, hangs vertically P

Think MR* for
side.
'a' and Tension
O Mass m, hangs vertically on the lef fr

1s Inclined Plane Pulley side.

N
fr
Block System a wau
O The system will move in Such +
masses
In this system, we have two
masses, m, that the heavier of the hanging
and m,, connected by a rope
over a pulley. (m, or will determine the direction
m)
Mass m, is on an inclined plane making
an of the acceleration.
angle with the horizontal, while
mass m,
is hanging vertically.
T

mg P
agsine
For mgi
m,g mg mza = m,g - T2
m, cos
For my
m_a = T, - myg
Newton's second law along the incline for
For m,i
M,i
m,g sinb - T= m,a
After solving all equation:
Sin =
(Mg -My)g
Acceleration: a = Vatg
mytmg +my R.L
Tnesion in the Rope connecting my and mgi

m,+ 2mz Tcose

m, t t my/
wM

+ Tension in the Rope Connecting m, and

T
mag Tsine
my + 2m
m, + m, + m,/
mg
16 Pseudo force concept
Pseudo force, also known as fictitious force, is
an apparent force that arises when observing + Angle made by pendulum with the verticle
motion from a non-inertial (accelerating) e =
frame of reference. It is used to apply tan (a9)
Newton's laws of motion in non-inertial + Tension pendulum
in the string,
frames by introducing an additional force. T= m atg
+ Used to valid Laws of Motion in non
inertial frame (Accelerated frame).
Accl^ of incline plane so that block over it
does not slip:
pseudo= - maframe

+ The pseudo force acts in the direction N

opposite to the acceleration of the Ncog
reference frame. M

Apparent weight (Normal) and weight m

NSin
change nai hoga inertial/non inertial = ma
frame ho
F
F
Pendulum in Car
mgcose
mg

Mg
N= cos

=
(a gtan ) f= (M + m)g tan
 Acc of incline plane so that block over it
can free fall: =
Vacose Vgsine
,N+ masin B VA=Vg tane
M

Ma Vgsine
a
macos
mgcose 90-0
mg

a=
gcote (F =Mgcote A

N =m [gcosb -asin] VAcosb

17 Constraint Relation +
Component of velocity along the length o
Rod will be same.
Velocity relation
a

=
T,V, TzV2 |m,

Acceleration relation 2T
2Ta, = a, T
a =0
T,a, = T2ag 2a, = a,
M,g Displacenment relation
Mg = TzX2
Tx,
+ The system's combined acceleration can
be found by averaging the individual
accelerations:
Vecose
aytag =
a= U
2
cost
2m,ma B
T= (g+a) Vgsine
T m,tmg
A
o. s. Block is sliding on smooth inclined = gsinb.cose
ay
plane, then component of acceleration Sol.
vertical direction?

a-gsino a-gsine
a, = (gsin)sin
=
gsin?0
 7 Friction

Q. 1. Find the acceleration and the frictior

1 Friction
force involved
Friction Component of contact force acts
parallel to contact surface. M=8kg F app 60|
Oppose relative motion or tendency of
relative motion. By=O.3
Type of Friction 4
Flimiting = uN= L0 = 32N
80
(f) + Object is
Friction Kinetic sliding Fapp > Fin object will move

Static
(F) Limiting (6) a = 60-N
M
Object. is at rest, t Object about to
not sliding move fkinetie
=24N
Self adjusting Friction Q. 2. Find the acceleration and the friction
f.= Fapp force.
fric"
robject about to move M=8kg >FappSON
fi -Kinetic friction

atic iobject is sliding Fli =

pN= .7x80
=
56N
tricti
Object will not move
Rolling Friction static = 5ON
Fapplied a =O
+ Ramlal is walking in east then friction on Object is thrown with velocity V, on rough
Ramlal is static and direction along east.
surface of coeficient of friction "u" then
MR stopping distance and time is: -
For question solving
V
i» Find liniting friction Force. S= t=
2ug g
ii> Compare it with Fapp Object is moving with constant velocity a
Fin > Fopp [Rest] lapp = fstatied shown in figure then find a contact forct
Flin Fapp [move]
between ground and block
 pAngle b/w N & F,
(F) net
app wMg
F N

m
tanb =

)=umg
mg
Emin require to move an object:

+
Since the object is moving at a constant Fsina
dec
velocity, the net force acting on it in interlocking
the hoizontal direction must be zero
m Couse of
(Newton's first law of motion). This means motion
the applied force Fapp is balanced by the mg
frictional force f.
Net force along horizontal
+ The contact force between the ground and
Fcos =
uN
the block is a combination of the normal
force N and the frictional force f Net force along vertical

N= mq - Fsin
Example: Max. & Min value of FMp Such that
block wont slide: Sdving for F
Pgiven FMR=? umg
M kg umg Fmin
(F=
cose + usine

Minimum force
To prevent the block fromn sliding, the net
Table chain Question
force on the block must be within the limits
of static friction. This gives us the following Mu
two conditions:
uN00000Q00e (806000S

(FMR)min z Fgiven- Fim frictional froce

Flim uN |MH
(FMR)mar = Fgivent Flim M

Tension,
2 Angle of friction
T= Mug = uN
+ =
The angle of friction is the angle between N Mg
the normal force N and the resultant My = =
Hanging Mass. M, Upper Mass
contact force Fo
 Angle of repose
friction acting will be static
Maximum angle () on a rough inclined plane f. = fapplied f, = mgsine

with horizontal such that the block kept on 1

x =
it remains at rest 5x 10 25N
2
45 tane Just about to slide V3 =
N= mgcose =
S x
10 x
2 25/3N
MR F, e²+N² =(2s +
(25/3
When object is placed on rough inclined
plane. 25 (143)
Object chalega ki nai?? =
=2x 25 5ON
u= tan Just slide
Max &
Min Force req. to move an object
u< tan Motion
on incline:
f,= up a =gsinb-
(Down)
ugcose
When moving the object up the incline,
= down a = + pgcose you need to overcome both the gravitational
f, gsinb
(Up) force puling it down the incline and the
REST frictional force resisting the wmotion.
+ The maximum force required to move the
object up:
F= Mg
F.max = mgsine + pmgcos (up)
Q. 5. Find acceleration friction and contact force.

mgsinb f,
30°
30° cose
Sinb
mg + When moving the object down the incline,
mg the frictional force acts up the incline and
mg you need to apply a force to overcome it.
=
3O°
Sol. To
Fmin umgcose - mgsino (down)
determine if the block will slide,
compare the parallel component of the adown

gravitational force to the maximum Fmin

frictional force.
Since u = 0.7 and tan 30° mgsinek

V3O.S77: +
If(u < tane) then force required to keep
p> tan the object at rest
Since, a = o (itina > mgsint) F=mgsine - umgcos8
 Object is moving up to inclined plane rest atthe top of the plane willagain
a
(downward) = gsinb ngcose to rest at the bottom if the coefficient
friction between the block and lower ;
of the plane is given by:

Ssine

Rest to Rest
2g
gsinb
4o
Motion
S (Stoping distance V(intial) a.s. = COnst
Vnax
a=
on inclined) S
2(ngcose*gsine)

Note: arough Tgcose -gsine.

1> Friction kishika saga nai hai uska koi fix

di nai h
2> Uska ekhi udeesh hai woh relative motion
nai hone dega!
MR*
If object sliding downward then
max -2 arough (using kinematic equ
acceleration, a =g sin b ug cos - gsine. s
=S. (ugcose - gsine)
If object is sliding upward then 2sinb. = pcose
acceleration, a =g sin + ug cos
p 52 tan Vimp
Note:
+
When Ramlal applies break: Block over block system
f. will be backward on front tyres. =
1>F (M, +
M,)g (14- HA)
=
1ON 1kgwt
Ramlal amax So that
move
they'
M, together

Force M, Fmax
sliding Smooth
Tendeney sliding +
Tendency
The maximum acceleration (aoo) at which
M2 can be moved without slipping over M,
+
The upper half of incline plane of the
inclination is perfectly smooth and the is given by the maimum frictional force

lower half is rough. A block starting from divided by M,:

 Friction t maX app
3it51A Iss Accl^
Mnet
À
Chalane Ki
Note:
The force required to move both blocks
IF Fapp On upper block: -
together is
Faapp
-
tmax (M, + M,)a,max M,

+ If the applied force Fapp exceeds the

M,
maximum frictional force, M, will start
sliding over M, Smooth

For M, to slide over M,, the force F.

app must F They'" move
be greater than the maximum frictional M, + Ma together
force that can be applied:
MR*
Fapp (m, t m,) ng
|Upar wala mass
(amax Hg
Niche wala mass
M,
* An insect crawls up a hemispherical surface
M, Fapp very slowly as shown in figure. The coefficient
of friction between the insect and the surface
Smooth
M,i- Iska maximum ace" ng hi hoga. Isse
If the line joining the centre of the
hemispherical surface to the insect makes
jayada nahi ho sakta hai.
an angle a with the vertical, the maximum
"a," Ki value "F depend karegi "a,", ka koi
possible value of a is given?
limit nai hai!

Upar wala issi

ag g accl à jayega

Kyuki isko friction hi leke jaane wala hai! mgcosa mgsina

mg
a< amax a= amax a amax Sol. For insectto be in equilibrium, frictional
force should balance the parallel
Move About to slip!
component of the gravitational force.
Together slip!
=
f, = mgsina
= =
limiting f, kinetic
f, static f, emgcosa = mgsinoa = 1
Coto =3
diff. acc(" u= tana tand
Q.6. If object is at rest then find friction Q. 7. Find acc" so
that block does
not
force acting on this object? slids,
down?
Sol. Object at rest hence static friction
is a=??
force willact on object
fi 2 mg
M m uN 2 ng
uma 2 mg

9
M
F
fr

ma m

mg
m
F MR* Sawal

mg

(Frstatie = applied force which create

m
tendency
of motion = mg
If Angle of lnclination increase from o
fimitina = uN =
pF this will act when object then contact force remains constant
about to move then
decreases.

MR
 8 Circular Motion

Circular motion 4. Tangential acceleration:

1
when a particle moves in a plane such that
a, =
its distance from a fixed point (the center) dt
remains constant, this motion is called Ye sirf varying speed Ke samay.
circular motion. The constant distance from
at
the center is called the radius.

2 General Formula
Displacement
1. S (distance)
= RO
=
Arc length
=
Displacement 2R sin R
2
=
Tangential acceleration is the acceleration
Angular displacement
that occurs when the speed of an object
always in Radian moving along a circular path changes
+Anti-clockwise O (positive e) (i.e.,the object speeds up or slows down).
Clockwise (negative e) alpha is the angular acceleration, and
Angular disp™ in rotation, R is the radius of the circle.
=
B= (2) 2c
Net accleration.
Note: =
2r sin
One complete rotation around a circle S.
2
corresponds to an angular displacement of
MR**
2Tt radians.

=
2. V (speed) Rw

V = w x R R
=
|Av 2v sin
Accl"; 2
3. Certripetal
do
6.
= =
dt At
Rw wV
R axial vector
Ye always lagega agar wAnti) O
circular motion hai toh.
w(clock) ©
 If Tangential acc, a, 0
7 Time. reriod. T
Then, a a, =
towards Centre
Freency t3 2t
Angular acceleration (o)

Sin
Avg
At (a) Avg = 2
(Axial Vector) R

dw 2 a
dw d'e V
dt de dt?
+
Di of centripetal acc™ is variable but it:
w O Anti = cost magnitude is constant
4
Centripetal Force
wO increase

w Anti , decreases Fcp = =

mRu?
a
Clock
a R
/+ Work done = O, =
Power 0
w
Two Car moving with
different speed v, &
V, on circular path of radius
same time period r, & r, with
then ratio of angular speed
a, W, : =
W, 1:1
a, =
Ro a, = V/R a = a, t ae
s Non-uniform circular
motion
w, - w, dw
|a|=Ja + a Cavg
dt
3 Uniform Circular Motion dt

Constant anet
• Zero • Variable
Speed (V) Velocity
Angular
Speed (w) direction

KE. Work = o acc a,et a? +a?

L(Angular
Force
Momentum) a,t Xx R +
w x
Momentum
= a, + a,
 MR**
anet Motion starts from rest with constant
Angular acceleration then Angle rotated
are in ratio 1 :
4: 9 & in
in 1s, 2s & 3s : sec =
sec:2 sec 1:3: 5.
1 3

Stopping Angle, e = (a = Angular

anet 20 retardation)
Speed up 90° <
18O°
<

E. to validate
" is used
pseudo
tan = Speed down
MR**J Newton's law in Non-inertial
If e = 0° b/w
Qnet a,“2 + a,? frame.
= COS
V
& a then
a anet
=
a= anet Sin Speed Costh
FRAME
Q.1 Object starts circular motion from rest
and tangential acceleration 4 ws?
find acceleration of object at t= 3 sec
if radius is 48 m. Non-inertial Inertial
Sol. Non uniform circular motion a =0

4m/s V=u + at Newton Law:- X Newton Law:

x =
V=4 3 12 w/s
Fpseudo' FReal
i
12x12
a= FCPE -Acts here!
R 48
+ =
Sm/ss MR*
a= a,?
/a 1. Semi spherical bowl: -
Q.2 A particle moves on circle of Scm with
constant time period o.2s then find N
Sin my² R
acceleration. N cos
4Tc
r mg R
=
a,=w'R R = Sm/s
T²
tan 8
6 Circular Motion
Kinematical Equation: - N cos
N
w =
wt at V=U + at
=
wt + a tS= Ut + at?
N
sin mr r=R sin

2 2
w- w =
2ae v²-= 2a5 Mg tan =
R sin@g

Oth = 2n-1 2n-1

n S=U+a
2 2
MR

2 Cone: M g
|Neonev
A smooth cone is rotated with an R
argular velocity w as shown. A block
is placed at height h. The block has no Concave Nconvex
motion rclative to the cone. then find
valu of h.
Max. Speed of a vehicle
5. to move
On a
R convex bridge: -

tano = Vmax =
Rg
Mg

=
Cot
rg
>h=
w'R 7 Banking of
Roads

3. Death well:- Or Rotor Case-I:- Rough horizontal Road:

(Sirf Friction)
N= mwR (2)
Vmax =uRg W.
= wmg =
max
(t)s N
R
mg =
w'Rm Case-ll: - Smooth Banked Road:
NE w'Rm (Sirf Banking)
w= V|mg
Vmar =Rg tan
Case-lll:- Rough Banked Road:
(Banking + Friction)
4. Car moving on a convex & concave
bridge with uniforwm speed:
max = Rg tant +
1 - ptane
Convex
Vmin tano
a, VMg Rg
|1 +
utant
Safe Ride:- V
<V<V,max'
Concave =
Bending of cyclist: tane
R 'Mg Rg
O =
Angle bend by cyclist from vertical
V= velocity of cyclist, R = Radius ol
circular path.
s Conical Pendulum Tp = mg cos +
M2
R
V= V 2 + 2gR (cos - 1)
tan = MV
rg
-
2mg +3 mg cos
R
MV
Max T(O =
o) = + mg
R
MR* Special
MVo
+ value of acceleration due to gravity of a Ta(0 =
90) = - 2mg
planet using Conical Pendulum: R
MV
4er Min =
180) =
V=Rg tanl
= 2Tr Te R
Smg
T 9T tano
MVo
+ Time period of Conical Pendulum:
T = - 2mg
R
l cos Ta -T= 6mg
Tp = 2Tt
T - Tg = 3mg
Ta - = Tp 3mg
h -
Tp = 2r T Tp
=0
+ If reference is at 'A' for potential then

total M.E= MgR.

=
Tp 2rt 2
+ Work done by tension is zero.
=
+ ln case of critical condition V J5qR
9 Vertical Circular Motion
+
Ifo<Vs J2gR oscillate
ay S
0° At extremne T#o;V=o
=
Ex: V, JgR
=
V
J2gR ma90°
+
IfJ2gR <VosJsgR Parabolic path at
D = < s
V#0, T
0, 90 0.max 180°.
+
R IfV, =J 5gR Critical velocity to complete
vertical circle.
Mgcoso
+ If object (bob) connected with massless
A Mg rod, then Vo=J4gR to complete vertical
Mgsine circular motion.
 Q3. Tuwo blocks of mass m
connccted
string of length I then. Find T,
vit,
T

T,

Vo = J4gR
FBD of A
and Bw.r.t. Non inertial fram
= muw

1O Particle Leaving Contact T, (2)

|with HEMIsphere T,
=
T, +
mw' () = mw (2) + mu

T, =3 mwl
Q4. Object is given velocity V= J3gh
P
at mean position where it will leav
h|R
h circular path.
cos =
R Sol. V (given) hence>
J2gR
will leave
circular path where tension becomes
t
V, =2gR[1- cose] zero.
+ find minimum height h, so that body may T= 2mg + 3mg cose
succesfully completethe loop of radius R.
Put value of V and T find e
COS =
3
Smooth >
Q.s. If V
(given) V JgR then itwill leave
"COME" circular path where velocity becomes
zero
V=sgR V=V+ 2gl (cose-1)
SR
Put value of Vg = J gR and V=0 then find
1
e=60°
Concept of motion of light rigid rod. 2

V3Rg )For String

Highest Ps: MRS
T

3Mg
=0V#0
For Rod:

oMg Highest Ps:

JSRg T#oV=0
 9 Work, Energy, and Power

1 Effects of force Nature of work

Force How the angle between the force and the
displacement affects the work done, and the
How long (time) How Far (disp, S) corresponding effects on speed and kinetic
FAt =
AP energy (KE) are shown in following table:
F-As = Work

When force (F) Work = We Work =O Work =-Ve

When force (F)
isapplied over is applied over a
=
40° 90° <
s180°
a period of time
=0
W

(At), it changes the displacenment (4S), Speed t = consth

Speed
Speed
momentum (AP) of it does work.
(Increase) K.E. = consth (Decrease)
an object.
KE KE
2 Work Done
(lncrease) (Decrease)
By Constant Force:

W= FS = FS cos tegrate
(Area)
where,
=
AAT Work Force IM
F= Force, Angle b/w Force and the
displacement,
(slope)
S= displacement of point of application
of force
* Man is moving up or down on stairs then
work done by normal force iszero.
Scalar, unt (Joule), Dinmension, (ML’r
depends on Frame (vary based on 3 Work done by different forces
the observer's point of view.) Work done By Gravity:

Wotal Scalar sum of all the work by

= + WDqravity = Fyertical

individual force. (Sverticai) = mg H

By Variable Force: z mg (S sin b)

Jaw = fFds H=S sin

+ Path independent. mg
Wrotal = +
FA, ) F,d, +) Fd,
 Work Done By Friction: Q.2. Force acting on object F 2v
WD = fivd work when object displace
-f,. S
frow
(-vesign indicates force acting (o. 2, 3) to (2, 2, o)
opposite to the direction of motion) Sol. = +
dw Fdx f, dy
Path dependent

+0=4J

H
Q.3. IfF =yi tx then find work when objeet
displace from (1, 2, 3) to(4, 6, 7).

mg Sol. dW =
Fdx + Fdy
Hint: yd + xdy = d(xy)
Work Done By Spring Force:
MP
Sdw = fydx + xdy)
work = =
1 Jd(xy) (xy)2
W=
2 x =
=6x 4 -1 2
22J
here, x = compression
or elongation F.
Pext
4 Kinetics energy and Momentum
dk
p2
KE =
+ For a spring that is compressed or P= MV, =m²
2 2m
elongated between two positions x, and
P= magnitude of momentum
KE = Energy stored due to motion (Scalar)
1 =
oW= -Kx-x?] P
J2m (K.E)
2
The spring either stores energy (when Statement-1: Two object having same mass
cOmpressed or stretched) or releases and momentum having same K.E. True
energy (when returning to its equilibrium Statement-2: Two object having sawne mass
position).
and K.E. having same momentum False
Q.2. Object ismoving on a straight line o Graphs: -
4y = 3x + 4 and force acting on object is KE KE
F= 3i - 4i then work done by this force. V=consth. P=consth

Sol. Work=o because disp" is perpendicular

to force. Product of slope of force and
displacement is -1 m
 v=consth,
+
Normal Forces (W,): Perpendicular forces
KE= consth
that do not work in the direction of
motion.
Tension Forces (W,): Forces in strings or
ropes.
+ Pseudo Forces (Wpseudo): Apparent forces
KE KE
m=consth m=consth in non-inertial reference frames.
+
Other Forces (W.): Any other forces
acting on the object.
Special Case:
p
p
% Change Calculation:

Large Change:
F= constant
S= constant a Mass.
KE independent of

Small Change: A KE oc m°.

TAKE.
AKE x =.
100 %AKE -x100
KE

2AP x 100
P
Q.4. IfKE. of a body is increased by 44%, what
+ For smallchanges, the percentage change Is the percentage increase in momentum?
in kinetic energy can be approximated
by twice the percentage change in Sol. Let initial K.E. is 100% and intial P is 100%
momentum.
Given in question K.E = 144%
s Work Energy Theorem K.E, = 144 P= J2m (K.E)
100
Wall Force = AKE. All meansall no lgnore const term
except" at all
P= JK.E,
WeE + WNCE + Wy t+
W,+ Wpseudo + Wete
144 12
= P;=
AKE. 100 10
The total work done by all forces includes:
for % change

Conservative Forces (Weg): Forces like 12 x =

P = 100 120%
gravity and spring force, which have
Hence increase by 20%
potential energy associated with them.
+ Non-Conservative Forces (WCe): Forces Q.5. If momentum of a body is decreased to
like friction and air resistance, which 25% then find % change in K.E.
dissipate energy. Sol. Let initial K.E. and momentum is 1O0
 =
Now decrease to 2S% hence P, 25%
25 1
P
10O 4
2
= 1
K.E,
P;= 16 B

1
for % change x
100= 6.25%
16
decreased to 6.25% Sol. Work - Energy therom
=
and decreased by 93.75% W +
W + W AK.E
Q.6. Position of object of mass 2kg x =
mgH +
O- umgs = O
3
H =
us
then find work done in first three sec.
H
dx 2t S=
Sol. V=
dt 3

6 Conservative and
x non-conservative force
V= 3 =2 m/s
1
W= AK.E = Force
2

W=
1
2 [(2) - o] : 4J
CONSERVATIVE
FORCE (CF)
|NON-CONSERVATIVE
2 FORCE (NCF)
Q.7. Smooth hemispherical surface find + Path independent + Path dependent
velocity of ball at bottom point. + Concept of Potential+ Concept of potential
dropped is defined here! is not defined.
Ball R + + W= lrreversible.
W= Reversible
+
W= =o
dr + W=F
dr o

V=
V=? For a Conservative Force:
Sol. J2gR
Q.8. Speed of mass m?
du Potential Energy gradient
dr (Vector)
(Potential Energy is scalar)
AU= -Weg = -Fog- d?
Change in potential energy does not
>V=
J2gl (1-cose)
Q.9. Bll is droped from A and comes to depends upon reference, and path.
at
rest at B find horizontal distance moved Potential Energy depends upon reference
by Ball on rough surface
not have unique/absolute value.
 If potential enerqy U yyz y
Fi)-() yaze const"
Q.10.
then find force acting on it
x& const" x
l&y const"
du\
AU =- SF4.-Sed, -fF4, Sol.
dx
y and z constart = 224 +

• Apne-Aap Joh Kaam Hota hai Usmein

PE Hamesha Ghatega! du
dy
K and z constant
=
K +2yz
MR*
Very Important! du\
dz y
and z constant y+22x
+ WET:- [Heart of Physics]

WeF + WNCE =AKE Baap

F =(2x y +
)i - (« + 2y2)j - (
+ 22x)k

- Mother Q.s1. Work done in bringing object from A

AU = WeF
always to B is 40J then find potential energy
Woe -AU valid at B if potential energy at A is -30J

Sol. WNcE = AU
Conservation of wmechanical energy
40 J= Ug -(-30)
Cond" = Ug
Compulsory 40 -0

If WNcE
=0 Ug = 1OJ
NCF may be
or not actingacting
but 7 Potential Energy

Energy due to shape, size and position.

(KE + PE), = (KE + PE); Beta
MR + Potential energy of Point Objects: -
aNCF
U= mgh
* JahaHum Waha COME nai!
* Jaha COME, Waha hum nai = mg S sin
* Hum kisi se kam nai
: h= s
sin..
+ KE =
Const" [Slow - Slow]
NCF = Acting against C. Force.

AU= WNCF Beti

 • Potential eneray of Extended Objects: Q.12. A
chain on a frictionless ttable
of it'slength hanging over
Solid Splhere edge
M,L has length L Mass then workM
tf
dore
pullback hanging part on table
Me Sol. ref taken on the table then

U=Mg U=Mg
sint
2 2 m
Chain Problem: - (PE of hanging U; = -
part) 10
-MgL Table W= AU = U, - U;
2n
-{
Mgl
Spced of chain when it becomes vertical! SO
Q.13. Surface is Smooth
= Initial hanging length then maximu
compression in spring.
JL= Length of Chain.
K
Spring Force Encrgy:
Sol. Conservation
of energy
AU = U
-x, (K.E + U); = (K.E + U):
1
1 1
2 2 mV+O= 2
KX +0
k= Force const mV
1 K
U=Kx*
2
[PE Store]
Q.14. Initially mass m is held such
tha:
+ For a Spring: spring is in relaxed condition then
find elongation in spring, wmass is
if im

() Suddenly released
X = C.O.M.E applicable
costh
1 loss in gravitational P.E. =
U= Gain in
spring P.E
X k 1
U mgx =
kx' andx= 2mg
2 K
F= costh
U=
2k -Fx
F
2 K
k m
 (i) Slowly released 8 Equilibrium! and stability
Non-conservative force (HI) is
working to released slowly hence Max
COME not applicable

F= mg = Kx
mg C
X =
K BMininma
0.15. Find minimum Imass hanged fromn spring X
so that it can At A At B At C
just pull up 20 kg object?
F=0 F=0 F=0
Unstable Stable Neutral
Maxima Minima
du ve du =+Ve
d²u
d
dk' dk'
|20 kg Slope

R
Sol. mtini 10 kg dF Stable Unstable
dx?
dr
Spring me suddenly elongation
hm=+ve hmE-ve
2mg P
X= hoga.
K
+ Ball of mass m, is released with an angle + Stable Eqm = Q dF Slope
=-ve
from vertical where itll loose contact! dr
+ Unstable = dF Slope
Eq P =+Ve
*V=/2gR (1-cos9) | dr
9 Power
* cose = 2 + Power is the rate at which work is done
3
or energy is transferred over time.
U-x graphs: - Area of w/t W=Pdt = Area of P/t graph
graph

F=0 Work Power

-Ve dp \re
dt
slope (p/t)
slope of (w/t) graph
X
dw
U P=
dU) dt
F= +ve Slope = -F
dxJ Pavg
Wotal dw
Fv
total
Pinst
=dt
 =
fPdt Pint mav Fvcos0 OP= Fv pAV'
-
Unit:- Watt aJ/s
O
When Power Const":

=
1 Hp 746 Watt -K Watt. Ball projected with speed u at ange s
Q.16.
then power at maximum height and a
Emicicncy (1) =
Output time 't' by gravitational force
Input Sol. Pinst = mg u,
90 =0 COS
For a = coSnt"
at maximum height velocity and
Poct Voct force is perpendicular
F= consth at time 't P= mg (u sin - qt)
NOTE:
Q.17. An engine pumps 80O kg water throuah
OF= pAV (Pump)
height 10 m in 80 sec. Find the power
o Power of pumnp = pAV
of engine if its efficiency is 757%
O
Rate at which K.E Provided to liquid
1 PAV mgh 4
22
Sol. 75% P:
t
P= 3
kw

MR
GNEET - JEE preparation
is not just
about being a doctor or engineer. Its always
about time management and pressure handling.d
10 Center of Mass

of Mass
Centre
1
-A point where whole mass of the System m, =0
can be assumed there. COM lies near to
heavier obj. r
cm
it can be inside or outside the body. 2
- It always on the axis of symmetry and
where two axis of symmetry will cut each
*COM is Closer to Massive body.
other.
- Position of COM depends upon frame of * Internal Force Aa âa
reference and choice of co-ordinates. COM Á V change
hz!
Centre of mass does not depend on choice Com of two Particle System:
of co-ordinate
cOM of discrete particle: m

=
m,r, + wmrg d
r(Position of C.O.M.)
m, + m

m,d m,d
=
d, m, + m

Q.1. Find position of C.O.M.?

m,y, + my2 20 20
(a), 8 (b) 8,
3 3
motion of the centre of mass (c)
20 20
(d) 8, 4
Velocity of C.O.M 3 3

Vam
(0, 10) (10, 10)
8 kg 16 kg |
Acceleration of C.O.M
m,a, + m,ag (0.
o)
2 kg 4 kg
cm (10, O)

Moment of Mass: Sol: (a)

For two objects MR = constant. 2x0+4 (10) +

16(10f +
10) +s x 10f
+ This means
that the product of mass and 2 + 4 + 8 + 16
distance remains the Same even if the 40f + L60f + 160J + sof
individual values of mass and distance
change. 30
 Q.2.n particles of masses m, 2in, 3m.. 4m 2 Centre of mass offContinuous
grams are placed on the same line at
distances I, 21, 3I,
... c.m.
4l from a fixed
System
point. The distance of centre of mass Surface Mass Volume
of the particles fronm the fixed point in Linear Mass
Density () for Density (o) for Density Mass
centimeters is 1-Dinensional 2-Dimensional 3-Dimensiong
(2n + 1)! Systems: Systems: Systems:
(a)
3
A =
dm dm dm
(6) + | p
dL dA
dv
finite swmall =
(c) dm dA dm = pdv
mass dm =
2
AdL
(a)
n
-I
2-D 3-D
m 2m 3m 4m........
2
loo) 3| 4l... + To find the center of mass (Xcn)
for t
Sol: continuous system, we use
(a) the followig A

integral formula:
m+4ml+9ml+16ml+
m+2m+3m+4m+.... dm
,
I(2+4+9+16+..)
dm =
a. dx
(1+2+3+4+5+...) MR** C.0.M of Rod: -
MR*
Xen = A =
Ifn = 1 If n = L/2 consth
2
m
+ Sml XoM > 2
4m
3m 3m 3 XcM = 3L/4 oc

# If external force

## Iff,
[Vem =
is zero then location
centre of mass will not

=0 then state
cost"]
change False
of
of

COM will not change.

MR*

# If density of rod varies

then position L/2 < Xm <L
linearly = ,
# If density of rod A = a + Bx then COM
# Shift in C.O.M. will be at x =
W2 if B =0
m,aY, + m,ar
AYcm Q.3. Half of the uniform rectangular
m, +
of Length 'L' is made up platt
If C.O.M. does not shift of material
its position then of density 'd,' and the
other half with
density d The perpendicular
distanc
of center of mass
from AB is
 B
Sol. (b)

d,
A D

2d,+3d, L
(a) X

d, +d, 4
d,+3d, L
(6)
d,+d, 4
X4
3d,
(c) Trick for Com:
d,+d, 4
Com of continuous mass system
L
(d) X
d,+d, 4 Semi cirular Ring \ 2R/r
MR* Sol. If d,=d,
L
Solid Hemi sphere 3R)8
C.0.M. at then option (b) correct.
2
If we break cricket bat from c.o.m. then
Semi cirular Disc \ 4R/3r
bottom part will have large mass, because
C.o.m. divide systewm in two equal moment Hollow Hemi sphere R|2
of mass.
JHollow
MR = cOnst.
Triangle
Cone. /3
C.O.m.
Cone Solid. A k/4
Q4.A cricket bat is cut at the location of its
COM of Circular ARC:
centre of mass as shown. Then
(a) The Two pieces will have the same
mass M
R sin /2
YcM
(b) The bottom picece will have large /2 JCM
mass R
(c) The handle piece will have larger Shift in COM:
mass m,ar, +myar,
(d) Mass of handle piece is double the Ar,Cm
mass of bottom piece m, + mg
 -
MR Note:
For COM of Remaining Portion: Agar FtEO.
A Disc of radius R/4 is removed State of COM will not change.
from a disc of mass M and radius R. Q.s. Two ball of mass and m, projectes
then find its com
4 with u, and u, in upward and
Rn=Solid Sphere
A
M 30° from horizontal respectively the
acceleration of c.o.m. will be?
CM
Sol. a,. = g (downward) because both ho
R M M same acc" g downward.
= m'
16 Aag lage chahe basti mein COM Rahe
apr
=
M 15M masti mein
M-M M

Conservation of Lincar Momentum of Syster

|Disc
16 16
Condition:
X = Fxt O.
P.. = Same.
A stationary object explodes in two unequal
X =
R R
part then :
4x S 20 + External force is zero, hence momentum
find the acceleration of com of both the will be conserved.
blocks as shown in fig. 1 and 2 Neglect
Both part will have equal momentum in
friction everywhere
opposite direction.
+ Smallar mass will have greater
|M, kinetic energu
+ Work done by
internal force = change in
m,ai -naj K.E. of system = K.E. of both part.
m,+ mg + For same mOmentum both have unequal
Put a = velocity in opposite direction.
+ lnternal force can
m,tmg change kinetic energy
Fig-1 of system True
+ Internal force can change momentum o

MR Ratta system -
false.
+ A body falling vertically downward under

gravity breaks in two unequal part then

M,-M,
C.o.m. will continoue to do vertical motion
M,-M, does not shift horizontal.
+ A shell
following parabolic path explodi
M,
sOmewhere in nany part but c.o.m. wil
continue parabolic path.
M Q.o. A body of mass (4m) is lying in x-y plane
Fig-2 at rest. It suddenly explodes into thre
pieces. Two pieces, each of mass (m
 move perpendicular to cach other with
Q.8. A bomb explodes into two parts G kg
equal specds (u). The total kinetic enerqy
and e kg if velocity of Gkg is 10m/s
generated due to explosion is
then find K.E. of ekg will be
Sol.:
P p? 6x6x1Ox10
=
MR** Sol. K-E
m
2m 2x8
=
225J
(2m m Q9. A vertical rod placed on smooth ground
is
and released then path of C.OM will be

C.M
V
Ans straight line in vertical

/1 2m
KEgen = Q.10. Object is projected with u at angle & at
maximum height it breaks into two equal
3my2 part, if one just fall below maximum
height then range of other from point
2
of projection.
Q.7. A man of mass M stands at one end of
a plank of length L which lies at rest on Sol.
a frictionless surface. The man walks to
C.OM ka range A REEU
other end of the plank. If the mass of the
plank is M/3, then the distance that the
man moves relative to ground is : m,r, + m,r
Sol. If x = distance moved by Planck, then m, + m

M(L-x) =, ML =+Mx
R=
m Rl + mr,
ML ML 3L 2m
X=
M+Ms 4M/3 R
2R=
Displacement of man relative to ground = L-x 2
3L L 3R
4 4 2
m

C.M. Frictionless
L M
MR
6Jaldi karo
L-x
jaldbazi nahid
m
 11 Collision

• In all Colisions, F =
0, the linear
1 Restitution (
Coefficientof
momentum of Sutem will be conserved
P= Consenved.
Momentum of individual mass i's not
conserved but Psten = Conserved!
Vopprsch

Elastic Collision Inelastic Perfectly lnelastic

KE = Conserved Not Conserved. MU, M,U, =

(M,-M,j
e = 1 O<e 1 <
e =o

(m,- m,)U, 2my U,

(n, -em,)U, (e2)ayU, V=
m,+m

2m, U.
V, =
m,+mg

AKE 1 (AKE
loss m,+ma
-(wie-e) max)os 2 m,ma
2

Elastic collision b/w moving (m) and (nm) Note:

at rest Elastic collsion of two object in which one i

at rest.
Neet MR** Ek Soch
=Kitna bada hai
KErers 4n ye matter Krta hai Q2. A ball of mass 2 kg moving with a speed of
KEit (2+n) Kon bada hai ye nai. S wscollides directy with another ballcf
mass 3 kg moving in the same direction with
=
/1-n|2 a speed of 4 ms. The coefficient of vestitutior
Fraction of retained KE.
is 2/3. Find the velocities after collision.
1+n/
 .Formula ek bar he lagana hai dusre Case -1.
object Ki vlocity tum direct nikal dena RL (n )
Momentum Conservation after collision u (M)

MR

V,= bade ka double Khud ka velocity

V,
4 ms
4
m/s = +
V, 20, U,

P, = P 10 +
12 2+ 3V
(M)
V= 14/3
MR
Tum Heavy

2 Elastic Collision B/N TWo Object of m =

00
bade Ka
object Ko
Kahise
V,
Same Mass Collide
double
- Khudka Karo us Ka
mm) Dash Farak
Nai Padhta'
before collision after collision
Woh dono apni velocity interchange Krlenge V, =
20, - U,
i.e.
MR-Wala Sawaal: -
1> In given figure if collision is perfectly

inelastic then find maximum height

Elastic Collision B/N Two Object in Which attain by ball just after collision frowm

one Having Mass very Much mean position.

Greater then
other:- (M>»>m)
Case -l.
Perfectly
inelastic
R.L (m) Collide!
(M) U,

MR

h
Velocity of Ramlal after Collision M
VNc
=
bade ka double - Khud ka velocity Rest
by conservation of linear mOmentun by
V, =
2U, - U,
come P, = P
 H:

Ball is Drop From Height

K, u, K 4

mVO (Mim)ye m(drop) For n" Collision:

24 U0
Vwc =en H
Hnh
2> In given figure if collision is elastic then Uprc

find maximum height attain by ball just H HoH

after collision from mean position. H GycT

111,11
Elastic Collision
of same mass

Ball is Dropped H
from Height Then Total Tie
to
of Flight and total Distance before coming
Rest.
M (M) M

Rest Rest
2H /1+e
by conservation of linear momentun by t=
U

come P;= P eH
*e = 1
H t:
*e =

h= coME. t=
2g

Q.2. A neutron makes a head on elastic 1+ e

= H
collision with a stationary deutron.
Total distance

The fraction of energy transferred

to the deutron and retained K.E. in 3 Oblique Inelastic Collision

neutron.
K.E.
eU cos
Sol. Fraction of transferred
U

4n 4x2 (m)
sin
(1+n' (2+2)'
SmU Sinb
-Ucos
(1-2|2
Fraction of retained K.E. =
\2+2| 7
 V: (U siné@)y' (Uecose) Sol. According to the law of conservation of
AP = mucos (1
+
e) lincar momentum,

Pconened V
x-axis
Now, (v; = (Vpr +
y-axis X v) Vop

Usine tan
tan a =
tan a=
eUcose
Using conservation of kinetic energy, we
get
+
Sawaal mein agar "e" horizontal se liye
1 1 1
toh:
= +
*AP musinb emusin
=
musine (1 + e)
On comparing () and (i), we get
1d Head on Collision: -
cos =
0= 40°
O

(b= o)
2d Oblique Collision:
Wait for MR*
(b> o)
Jis direction me collision hoga velocity
FAs
interchange ho jayega.

a Usine Usino
B

System Ki
Momentum har
dir" mein conserve
Ucose (rest)
hai!
Force jiss line Ke Elastic Collision F
along lagega uske 1er
Ucos
body Ka
P Conserved hoga!
Note:
Q.3. A sphere of mass m and velocity
P v + 2-D Elastic Colision wale sawaal mein:
undergoes an oblique and perfectly elastic
KE = Conservation lagao.
collision with an identical Q initially at
+ Perfectly Inelastic wale sSawaal mein:
rest. The angle between the velocities
of the spheres after the collision shall be P=Conservation lagao.
 of masses im, and m, Sol.
Q4 Twe sphere A and B
Just after collsion (elastic collsion of san
respecticly collide. A is at rest initially
and noving with velocity v along
B is mass)
X-axiS After collision B has a velocity A (rest) rest
direction perpendicular to the
in a m 2m
criginal direction. The mass A movcs after (conservation of
(K.E.)loss =
K

collision in the direction. (AIPMT-2012) M.E. in COM frame

2
Sol. 1 m (2m) u =
2 m + 2m ;K
= m, V% sine
2

im, m,U= m,V, cose 1

IN
mu?

m
1 =
tanb 2mu?
2 X =
Vo 3K
= tan
Vsinb
Q7. Smooth horizontal circular track, a
B= tan the x-axis shown in Fig. then find timne taken b/w
s and 2na collision if collsion is elastic,
Q.5.Two identical block of mass m moving
before collision m is at rest and 2m is
u
with speed perpendicular toeach other
moving with Vo
then find their velocity when they stick
Sol.
after collsion.
2Tcr
Sol. K.E. Not consered t=
Vo
=
P P;
MR*
mui r mu 2mv
=
2 In elastic collision Vsep = Vapp

((2m)) Vo
2

A C
Q.6.mu moooo 2mifcollision
b/w A
B is elastic then maximum (m)
rest
compresion in spring is?
 identical ball placed on horizontal| Q.10. Two ldenticallobject moving with velocity
Qs Four
each other
table then find their velocity after 4Ws and 1Ows towards = 0.5.
find their velocit after collsion ife
collsien. x
(0.5 + 1)
m
10
Sol. V,= m-O.5m
2m
4
2m
- 1.5 x 10
4 2
rest rest - =
=
+1 7.5 -6.5 Ws
Q9. Find'e' Now Conserved momentum of system

(m,j2m/s m)iws (m)4Ws 4m - 10m =

-6.5m + MV
1O/s
+
V
B/C A/C -6=-6.5
3
V=6.5 -6
4 -1 =
Sol. e =10 +2 12= 4 V= 0.5 m/s

MR$

GDusro ke liye kab tak taali bajaoge?

Ab aisa karo ki duniya tumhare liye
taali bajaye.
 12 Rotational Motion

Graphs I v/s r Graph:

1Monnent of Inertia
I
Ghumane ka qh

M =
constant r= constart
Property of otject by which object oppose
M
Cause of change in rotational state.
Mass &
M.o.l:
• Unit kKe m²
• Dimension [ML’T°] Point Mass:
+ For a
single point mass a
at distance,
from the axis of rotation, the nOment of
inertia
depends more on distance rather than AOR
aist from
mass I= Ma
System of Masses:
2M, L + For multiple masses at different distances
from the axis of rotation
M, 2L

I=M,r + M,r t..

M.O.1. about C.o.M. & 1to line:

Tensor and Axis of Rotation
+ For two masses M1 and M2 connected by
Tensor. Calculated from Axis of
a riqid rod with a total length 1: Here, r
Rotation
is the distance from the axis to one of the
Tensor. Tensor relates to the property
masses.
that describes the moment of inertia in
different directions.
Cm
+ M.
Axis of Rotation (AOR): This is the M,M,
(|=
inaginary line around which an object M, +
M,
rotates.
 object of mass m is placed at (x, y, z) then The moment of inertia about an axis passing
moment of through one of the masses and perpendicular
to the plane of the triangle.
Inertia about x
axis = m (y+
ma? Sma
about y axis = m (x* +
# l,
=
ma?+
4 4
about z axis I,, = m (y+ **

The moment of inertia about an axis passing

A
Three identical mass placed on the corner
through the centroid of the triangle and
of equilateral triangle of side (a).
perpendicular to the plane of the triangle.

a =
ma'/4

4-Point mass placed on the corner of

Square:
B

The moment of inertia about an axis passing

A (m)O, (1 to plane)
through one of the sides of the triangle.

Let The coordinate of mass placed at

Moment of inertia about an axis passing
position A is the origin (0,0), then the
through the the diagonal of the square:
cOordinate of other two masses are at
+ Moment of inertia due to mass at A and
a
(a, o) and 3a respectively. C would be zero, as they are at axis of
2 rotation.
The moment of inertia of masses at A and B
For masses at B and D:
would be zero about the line AB. + The distance from the axis to the mass
The mowment of inertia of mass m at C about
diagonally opposite s Therefore
the line AB; moment of inertia;

1, = m (3a 3ma?
# I, =
2
=
ma'
4
 Rod:
Monent of lnertia about an axis passing |
Moi of

through one of the vertex of square and

+ Moment of lnertia about
the Center of Mass:
perpendicular to the plane of the square. ML²

12
Moment of Inertia
2
Theorems about one end o
(M.L) the Rod
ML²
Parallel axis valid Perpendicular
for all type of body axis valid for 3
- Ma² planer object Moment of Inertia
'o=cm abou
an inclined axis (O)
d = distance b/w
ML²
axis passing through Sin
C.O.M. and '0 parallel to plane 12
|, to plane

3 M.O.1.
4 M.O.l. of Ring
of Continuous body
Cm
The monent of inertia Iof an object about
an axis is given by the integral times ofx
dm, where is the distance from the axis to
the small element dm.

AoR Method 'Cm

=
2rt ApR

ahy
dx A
=
cross -Section area
(Linear mass density) = Ap
dm (p volumetric density)
7=
dx
S. No. Axis of Rotation Moment of
Non Uniform body. Inertia
(a) About an axis passing 'c =MR?
through its center and
Adx perpendicular to its
plane
(6) About a tangent I, = 2MR*
Here, A
(linear mass density) is not
perpendicular to its
constant but, a function of x.
lplane
 About a tangent in the 3MR M.O.. of hollow cylinder
plane of the ring 6
2.
MR
(d) About a diameter MR² (a) 'm
= MR
I, 2
2
M.O.1. of half ring about centre perpendicular
to plane:

ML' MR
Cm

(b)
l= MR? Rod Ring

s M.O.l. of Disc
MR
ML
CIm Cm

TR'pt
2 7 M.O.l. of
solid cylinder
M.O.I.About an axis MR²
(a) passing through
t= thickness
its center and 2
perpendicular to its
S. No. Axis of Rotation Moment of plane
Inertia M.O.l about atangent BMR*
a About an axis passing MR2 perpendicular to its I,
plane 2
through its center and 2 M.O.l about a tangent in
perpendicular to its Cm the plane of the ring
ML MR?
plane
(6) About a tangent 3MR?
12 4
(b)
perpendicular to its
plane
2

Rod
)
|(C) About a tangent in the SMR Disc
=
I,
plane of the ring 4
MR? Cm ML? MR
About a diameter
+

4 3 4
M.O.! about a diameter
 sM.OL of solid sphere 11 M.O.I. of cube
About any diameter
Cm
Ma?
2
InMR?
5 42.1..
About any tangent 2Ma?
7 3
MR?
I,=- SMa?
T I,=
12
9M.O.l. of hollowsphere
About any diameter cone
2
12 M.O.. of

+ MR?
ln= 3 CM 3
R About any tangent -MR2
SMR? 10

h *Triangular Plate.
3
R Ma?
Cm T

10 M.O.I. of rectangular plate

(a) Ii to Plane: - Ma?
13 M.O.. of semicircular disc
12 MR?
M,R

Cm Ma CMe 2

3
4R
3T
16
*em = MR?
Iwahi distance Kaam
ka hoga joh AOR T
1 hoga.

14Concept of M.O.l. of Cutting Section

(b) 1" to Plane:
M
+ =
(a' b') M'
For Area M/n?
12
Cm lb "Square Plane R S For Volume = M/n
Sheet:- a =b. (Solid Sphere)

Ma
remain = 'eomplete -removed
 15M.O.. of Annular disc +
l= MK2 *
Yaad rakhna
Mass dyan H lena.
+ 3 SPHERICAL SHELL (M,R)
M
+
(R R?)
2
2 MR + x
2
R
| 3

12 MR² =
4 MR?
3
16Radius of Gyration

+ Radius of gyration is denoted by K and Q.2. Two identical disc placed perpendicular
qives an equivalentdistance at which the to each other then find radius of gyration
entire mass of the body can be thought about axis passing through centre of
to be concentrated to produce the same disc parallel to one disc.
moment of inertia.
MR? MR? 3MRZ
Sol. = 2MK?
The radius of gyration K
is defined as: +
2 4 4

K=
r+ rt ...+
r 1 3R
K=
n 2 2
where r,, rgy
are the distances of the
K,
particles of the body from the axis of rotation, 17 Torque
and n is the number of particles. Torque -
Cause of change in rotational state
COM : not valid. So we use it. of the body
The moment of inertia I of a body can be Torque oppose rotational motion - false
expressed in terms of its radius of gyration Axial vector
K and its mass M:
Unit Nm

|= MK“or K= Dim" [ML²T]

wNegative
Q.2. Find the Radius of Gyration K, of a thin
Rod about an End:
T= rx F= rF sin

Thumb Four ACW

Sol.
Fingers
slap O Positive

ML
K=

M
So, the radius of qyration K for the thin rod
L
about an axis through one end is
dt
 Statement: Mechanical Advantage
+ = d (MA1,
o then T., must Balancing a beam:
If Enc =
be zero False
If E
then T.., must be nonzero -> False
O

If -
=o then net force must be zero False
If ,e O then net force must be non-zero - False d, 4T,

MR Mg
Torque hamesha hinge point about lagega Force balance
aur who ck toh body Ko Ghumayega ya
T, mg
+
T, =
toh Ghumte huye object Ka state change
Torque balance
Karega.
Eq".
T,d, = Tzd,
Tnei O Rotational
+ Concept of
Rigid body: - 14 Rotational Kinematics
B A uniform circular motion
+ w= const"
Imp Que:- in given figure find torque about +
Speed =
Const" a=
point 'o' + 0= wt.
t= Mg (Ucos0)t non uniform circularmotion
At hightest Point
Mg U sin20 When, o =
const", Eqn. of Motion:
U
V 2g t W, - W, = t
YMg
at Hmax + O= uw,t +t2
U
cose t

w - w? =
18 Rotational Equilibrium
+ 2ob
W, + w,
+
Rotational equilibrium occurs when the 2
t= n2rc.
net torque acting on an object is zero.
When o= Variable
This means that there is no unbalanced =
Ae = Aw fodt
rotational effect on the object, and it w.dt
remains in a state of constant rotational
motion (either at rest or rotating with
constant angular velocity). dus
dt

F
de dw
+ =
Fzd, Fzd,
dt de
 -
+ Rest to Rest Motion:

,(+) x,(-) dt
PmV
P, P, t
W F.
W

1
, = wt
KE
KE
2 PFv.
Pat .)
m.V.
Impulse
=
| Impulse lw
+
The time at which two particle with
difrerent speed, start moving from same 22Analog9
position Meet? Rotational
Translation
2rcR 1
Velative
T S= ut +
at 0= wt +

2. 2.

+ Pure Motion: -
- V=U+ at w =
W, t at
1> Rotational Motion:

1
-U= 2as w- w, 2 =
20e

=
S,th U+
1 2 3 2
2> Translational Motion:
(2n-1) (2n-1)

MR* w, +w,
S = T
2 2

1
20Analogy S= 2
Translation Rotational
=
dx do
Stoping dist". *=
2a 2a
V=
dt dt
dv dw T T
=
V MAK
dt max
dt
 Q3. A solid sphere (M. R) hinged about 1
centre and frec to rotate then find W=
2 (w- w)
angular ace". =
Here 2rt revolution
Sol. =
2Tt x 2Te = 4c rad

2Tt
W; = 3x rad/s

1 1
-t =

2
X
2
mro -w)
2 SF
2FR =
MR'a =a= MR X
1
-x2x(4x10 -3x
2 2
Q.4. solid cylinder of mass 2 kg and radius
A

4r?
4 cim rotating about its axis at the rate T=2 x
10°Nm
of 3 rpm. The torque required to stop Note:
after 2t revolution is
= Roa = =
a, a Rw²
Sol. Using Work Energy Theorem R
+ a2
Q.5. A rod PQ of mass M and length L is hinged
at end P. The rod is kept horizontal by a
massless string tied to point Q as shown in figure. When
string is cut, the initial angular
acceleration of the rod is (NEET 2013, AIP MT -
O7/11/ IIT-4 X).
hinged point/axis of Roth

(a) C.m
L
NXO + mg
2g 2 3 NMg)
(b)
2L Angular acc™
of Rod (every
(c) point La Find liner acc" of C.O.M.??
2L of Rod)
about 'p 2 3 a, =
r<a) diff for all Points
()
Cc.m
4
2L
(Ask 4X in iIT) (Most lmp. Que.)
 find the acceleration
in given figure of block.
Rod release from vertical position
MR
vertical position Find
Rod is released from
w when rod becomes horizontal.
= Fnet
acc^ Applying Energy conseration
Trans/" Rotath
+
Mass Mass Mgl
+ 0 = lw +0
2 2

m m CM
m + I/R 3
a mg

L
Vcm
+ Relation b/n w, & w,: 2

* w,R = w,r 23 Rolling Motion

2
2
= wL
* a,R 0a,r 4
4
Vn=O
+ Two bodies of masses m and m are wL
attached to the two ends of a string. The 4 4
wL
string passes overa pulley of mass m and 2 2
radius R. If m,<m,, the acceleration of the Trans/n Rotath Rolling
be
System will
1 1
Sufficient friction *KE
2
mV+ 2
lw.*
(M,L,R)
m,g-m9
Q= Rw Rw Rw V+Rw
m, tm, + /R?
CM CM CM
T, T, T,
We can find T, &
T, by F.B.D. Rw Rw Rw
V
Rw
Trans" Rotat^ Rolling

22 Application of Com in Pure,

CM CM CM
Rotational Motion
1 L2
= =
KE lw
2 2| Rw Rw Rw V Cm
Cm
 Forward Backward No Thara bhai
Sliping sliping Sliping
Translation
Vcns > =
Rw Vem < Rw Vcm Rw Motion itni
jagah "v'
= =
Lowest
f Back f Front point at dedega
rest Kishine sochi
nai hogi!
Not:
Rolling motion is a combination of Note:
translational and otational motion. Let's For a point P on the object at an anlge 9
explore the different cases shown:
1. Pure Translational Motion:
o The object moves in a straight line
without rotating.
o Velocity (V) is constant for all points on
the object.
2. Pure Rotational Motion:
O The object rotates about its axis without
translating. =
V, 2V cos V, =
2V sin
2
2
O The velocity at the center of mass (V)
(V.) is zero. MR*
KETotal = KETrans + KERot.
3. Rolling Motion:
O The object both rotates and translates. 1 1
KETota! mv 2
Cm
2 2
O The velocity of the center of mass (Ve)
and the rotational velocity combine.
1
O The speed at the top of the rolling object KETotal =
mVcm
2
1 +
Is V
+ Rw.
O The speed at the bottom (contact point)
Rw.
is V-
"V, <V,< V, <V,<v,"
MR*
2 MR*
KETrans 1
KETotal K
1 +
R²
3 4
w
Speed.
 MR TABLE (THE PRO VERSION)

Physical Ring hollow Hollow Solid

quantity cylinder Disc, solid cylinder
sphere sphere
1

2
2 O.6 O.66 z
O.71
7
/KEtal 0.5 =
KEsrans 50% = =
71
O.66 667 O.71
O.5 = SO% = 407%
KE/KETetal 0.4 0.33 =
33% 0.28 = 227,
(1/2) (2/5) (1/3) (2/7)
KETrans/KERot
1:1
3:2 2:1 S:2
Acc on inclined
g sine
g sine 2 g sin
g Sin
2
3 7

Time req. to come 2S

down g sineß

Velocity at
bottom of inclined
V= 6gH 4gH
V= 10gH
v=2g48 S
V=
7

V2
cm
H=
Hmay attained by 2gß SVCm2 3V. 2 2
particle H=
Cm
H= H=
H= 49 10g

= Mg sine
f,
Friction on inclined (1-B) 2 Mg sin
f, = Mg sine/2.
Mg sin f, =
f, = 2
Mg sine
3

Hmin to start pure

rolling 4= (1-B) tanb
=
2
tane tan
B tan/2 2
3
7 tan
Jahan "g'" wahi "B'" Konse bhi sawaal mein
Rolling aayega toh ß lagado."
Rotet:.
 2VCM
Rolling on Smooth inclined plane:
VCM
+ a = q sine independent of Mass, 2
Shape, Size.
+
V=J 2gh Velocity at bottom.

+ H= "H,o a VCM 0

2g |Hmax (Rest)

Rolling Motion on Rough inclined plane:

FB (2) FB3G)
a, =

V:2ghß a = Basino
FB (2) FB1
2
Vcm a =
m
H=
2gß
Hollow
Object Upar jaye ya niche eg.i spr
F am =

*f, always acts upwards!

F, (let)
24Pure rolling on a horizontal plane F+f,= maçM

3F 2F
F, R, I

>F
=-Fz (backward)

>acm Note:

R * Pure rolling motion can start on smooth

Ra
horizontal surface
f, (AGT)
25Angular Momentum
1

+
K The moment of linear momentum is called
1
angular momentum. It is denoted by L.

MR** + Depends on Frame of Ref.

FB
açm = x (Coefficient of velocity
m where force acts) L= rmV Sin
L= rP sino
 (Axial Vector) + rolling without slipping
7:rxP A rolling body
on a moving plank.
is

B = Angle b/n r &P

CM
On V, - Rw = v Rw
,When object is moving straight line
velocity then:- L= same.
with const. V,-V= Rw.

Relation to Torque: + Angular momentum of object w.r.t.

origin: -
(t) is the rate
of
Torque change of angular
momentum. 4V
V

dL
m

Example: Object is projected with speed "u

at an angle ""
with horizontal then find
momentum in projectile about point (0,0)
angular
o (orrin): - L=mVgb

H.
Q.6. A solid sphere is rotating with angular

H, speed w then angular momentum

about given axis: -
Hmay

Hs 2
R L=–MRw

mu cose.
'sin2e
L,
=
mu cos B x H.o
2g Q.7. in given figure find angular momentum
2U'sinte about point A „B and origin.
Ly = 4L, = mu cos.
w
L when objects about to Collide = 4 L at Ha B

General point T=Mg Ucoset

Cm

mg Ucosbt
afgucoslt.át b

+ Pure Rotational Motion: (0.0)

L2 = wmVgo + emw
1 =
La= L(o,o)
L =
lw KE = lw
2 21
 Conservation of circular path of radiw,
26 r with specd vo
Angular Momentum then find its speea
if there is no eNternal torzue then thtangular when radius becomesbu increasing
monnentunt is conseved. T.
L= const^= law
cos
Therefore. Sol. L

Ifw=Const"

Tine Period T
will incrcase

r 1
=
mv,r = mv
2
K.E,

2> what happen when ice on pole will melt V= 2Vo K.E, =
2mv
Imp:
lce on Body rotating in Same dir" =.
pole
will
melt,
then. =
Same

1
oOppo
= 2
AKE
loss 2 1, + I, w
3> A
girtsitting on a rotating table with
is
his arws fold as shown in figure. When he
Suddenly stretched outwards his arms, then lmp. Model Problems MR
1> A hcavy body is thrown on a horizontal
rough surface with initial velocity "U'
without rolling. Find " when it start
pure rolling: -

MR*
1
V= BU B =
(Dancing
girl) R²
 Rotating body with
3)
A R
"w" Placed on Q.10. What will be the value of maximum
surface then find Angular velocity
rough acceleration of the truck in the forward
when it starts pure rolling motion: - direction so that the block kept on the
back does not topple: -
-(w= (2-B)wo

AN A body rolls on horizontal floor. Find W

(work) to stop it:

KErand!
-= K.ETotal
W= B

Sol. matruck
27 Toppling

MR*
L
F
a/2 mg
CM L
Block will not topple if
Mg = Fk
2 matruck
Mg
Don't take Tou = O maruckh a
take
S mg
2 2
Toppling Shift Krke
Normal Ko
ag
Object apne appko palatne se bachata
hai!

ag
Q4. ln which case probability of toppling is .".
atruck
high: h
F F
Q.11. Ring, solid sphere and disc of mass
A M and adius R rotating with same
b
angular speed w, then work to stop it
is :

Sol. Wring > Wpise Wsolid sphere

Sol. In A probability of toppling is high

MR
kam Sahi galat nahi hota, bas ush kam
ko
Koi samay hota hai.
krne ka sahi galat
 Gravitation
13
and opposite in direction and
hence doey

1 Gravitation Newton's third law of motion.

on every + It is a central force as it acts along the
line
Every object in the universe pulls
other object. This pulling
force is called joining the centres of the two bodies.
gravitation. + It is conservative in nature.
Gravity: Neutral point:
Gravity is the force by which the Earth pulls m.

objects towards its center. It's what makes

things fall when you drop them.
d m,cm
2 Newton's law of gravitation
d
Valid for point and spherical object. X=

Gm,ma G= 6.67
x
1011 k m's2
F= Where, x: Distance from the smaller mass
=
MLT2 to the neutral point.
Gm,ma d: Total distance between the two masses.
F = Y n: Ratio of the larger mass to the smaller

F^ mass.
Q.1. Find x so that field at that point will be
1
Zero

m -Y 4m

Properties of Gravitational Force:

Sol. x=
+ It 3
is always attractive.
+ It is independent of nature of intervening
medium.
3 Superposition Theorem

+ It is independent of the presence or + Net force On one object is a vector sum ot

absence of other bodies. all other forces acting on it due to other
+ Forms action and reaction pair, i.e., the masses.
gravitational forces are equal in magnitude =
È
È, +, +, +...,
 Given figure find net force on
Q2. In mass
m placed at corner. Gravitational Field
A gravitational field is a region around a
mass where other masses experience a force
of attraction.
J3F,
Gravitational Field intensity
This is how strong the gravitational field is
at a certain point.
Sol. Ft F+ F+ 2FFcos6o
It is represented by E or l.
= V3F
V3Gm²
Fnet F
a -Unit =N/Kg,
Q.3. In Given figure find net force on wmass

m placed at corner.
Intensity due to a Point Mass:

At a distance r from the center of a

body with mass M, the intensity of the
J2F+ F
a GM
gravitational field is given by: l=

Here, G is the gravitational constant, M is

r
Sol. Each side of the square is of length a. the mass of the body (like Earth), and is
the distance from the center of the mass.
The net force on One mass (Fnet) due to
Note:
the other two masses is
The intensity of the gravitational field is
Gm²2V2+1)
a?
2 a vector quantity, meaning it has both
+ A particle with mass m is located a magnitude and direction.
distance d from one end of a rod with + The direction of the gravitational field

mass M and length L. intensity is always towards the center of

The gravitational force exerted by the rod the mass creating the field (e.g., towards
on the particle is
the center of the Earth).
GMm Gravitational filed intensity due to ring:
Fnet =
d(d+L)
due to rod on particle

dm dx M

med Gmx
(R² +
x2
 + HOLLOW SPHERE. + SOLID SPHERE.
Lin Val
GM GM abt
out =

in gef
GM A GM A

R 'suy - R
R2 R?
Vinside = O
GMr
R
GMmr
R

5 Acceleration due to gravity Variation of "g" due to shape of Earth: (

On Surface of Shape of the Earth: R

earth:
+ The
Earth is not a perfect sphere; it i 3S
M = x slightly flattened at the poles and bulging
Pearth 4 5.5 10 kg/m
at the equator. This shape is called an
oblate spheroid.
M =
1
consth + The radius at the equator (R,) is greater
R²
GM, 4
go = TRGP than the radius at the poles (R) by about
R? 3 21 km. Therefore, g is minimum at equator
p= consth 9o aR and maximum at pole
Above the Surface of the earth: Effect on Gravity (g):
Gravity at the poles (9,) is greater than
1- 2h| gravity at the equator (g).
(R+h)² R + This is because
gravity is inversely
proportional to the square of the radius
Below the Surface of the earth: Since the radius at the equator is larger,
the gravity there is slightly weaker
compared to the poles.
i.e. R = Ry + 21 km,g, 9.
-2h
change in g at height h Note: -
% =
-x1007
R For
Small Mass = properties of matter, remains same
= -d change
+ % change in g at depth d -x100 everywhere.
R
W(weight) increases as we move from equator
to pole.
 Variation of "g" due to rotation of earth Direction of Earth's Rotation and Rocket
own axis:
about its Launch
+ The Earth rotates from west to east,
-Rw'cos Equator pr acc" due to
gravity O.347% kam hoti which means if a rocket is launched in the
hai pole se! E), it benefits from
Same direction (W
+ At pole, B= 90°,9ef = 9, (maximum) the Earth's rotational speed.
+
Atequator, b = 0°,9eft=go-rw (minimum) + Launching a rocket in the direction of the
Earth's rotation (west to east) provides it
Where,
=
standard gravitational acceleration with additional velocity due to the Earth's

(9.8 m/s,). rotational speed.

+ Thiscan be beneficial for launching rockets
Risthe radius of
the Earth.
into orbit as it reduces the amount of fuel
w, is the angular velocity of Earth's
needed to reach the equired orbital speed.
rotation.
e is the latitude (measured from the Sw sense of rotation
equator).
Special Points:

Rotational speed and weightlessness

T= 84.6 min This inticates that If earth Q.4. The depth 'd' at which the value of
rotates 17 times its present rotational speed acceleration due to gravity becomes
so body at equator feels weightless. times the value at the earth's
n
Increase in Angular Velocity (w) surface is (R radius of earth)
+ With increased angular velocity, the Sol. Acceleration due to gravity at depth d
centrifugal force acting on objects On
under the surface g'
Earth's surface increases.
+ This would lead to a decrease in the =
Given :
g' 9s
effective gravity (g) experienced by objects n
at all places except the poles.
.".

t At the poles, the centrifugal force is

zero because the poles are on the axis of
rotation, so gravity remains unaffected or(
there.
- 1
+ If wt. then g=
decrease at all place except d = R /n
n
pole
 Q.5. The height from carth's surface at which 8
Gravitational potential due to point marg
acceleration due to gravity becomes at a distn "y

(where
g
is acceleration due to GMm, U
4 GM
gravity on the surface of earth and R is & V=
radius of carth).
+
Since, work Wis
,
negative, the gravitatior,
Sol. gh =go R²
+ h)?
(R potential isalways negative.
R²
+ Note: -
4 (R h)
R Gravitational potential energy per unit n

R+

2R = R + h V= du
M M dr dr
h= R

6 Gravitational Potential
Sy
Gravitational potential at any point in
gravitational field is equal to the work
done per unit mass in bringing a very AV=
idr AU =YF. dr
light body from infinity to that point.
W
Gravitational potential, V, =
9 Gravitational potential due to
m combination of point mass
+ Sl unit is J/kg and it is a scalar quantity.

+ Dimensional forwmula is [L’T1.

7 Gravitational PE

Gravitational potential energy is the energy

possessed by an object due to its position in
a gravitational field. It is the work done to
move an object from one point to another
in the field.

WeF =-AU V,=

Gm, Gmy Gm,

+ Here, Woe represents the work done by

GMm Total no. of N(N-2)
the conservative force. J,= - pairs 2
+ AU is the change in gravitational potential
energy. N is the total no. of mnasses.
4o Gravitationalpotential dueto

a> Uniform
thin shell b> Uniform Solid Sphere

GM
Vout - GM
Out

Vin
GM GM
V
surface
Surface =
R R

GM GM
Vin [3R? -
R 2R Vo

Vcentre =
3 GM
Y 2 R

GM
Va 1/R
R 3GM
2R vaR?

11 Gravitational potential due Ex.: find potential energy of the given system
to uniform ring m Ex:
At a axial point:
a
GM

At center (x =
o) m
4qm? 2Gm²
GM U=-
V= -
R
Q.o. Four point mass m placed at cornor
of square of side a, find work done in
- -X bringing sth mass m from infinity to
centre of square.

Sol.
GM m m

At centre of half ring Vo =

R

R m
 =
U,
U, (Let) 14 velocity of object at when projected
with vg > Vea
4Gm?
W= AU= U, - U,

4Gm 2 Q.2. Object is projected with double veloct.,

of escape then itsvelocity in space

Jv-v² /4v;
Vypae
Sol. -
12G. p.E. of carth-mass system

From = mgh GMmh If Vg < Ve THEN hmax = ?

Surface to AU
height "h": (1 + R
R
- 1
Q7. Object of ass
m raiscd to height h =

2R from carth surface change in its Q.9. Object is projected with one-fourt
potential energy. of escape velocity then maximu
height attained?
mgh mg2R 2 R R R
Sol. AU=
h 2R
mgR Sol. h= 16-1 15
1 + 1 +

R R -1

13 Escape Velocity ( 1s Escape velocity from

height "h" from surface
Escape velocity is the minimum velocity an
object must have to escape the gravitational For earth to become
V= 2GM
pull of a celestial body without any further V R+ h a black hole
propulsion.
R= 1.48 mn
2GM V, = ,V, =
2gR V
GprR?
R
If object is projected with speed V, then,
Escape velocity interns of density. = +
V,, Hyperbolic
V, >
VME
ME = o
p= consth V, aR V, =
Vparabolic,
=
-V,
V,< V,cVElliptical close, ME
M= Const -
V= V, >Circular TE: ve
Note: V<V, Eliptical TE =- ve
upon angle Projectile open path
Escape velocity does not depend V<<<<< V,
ofprojection de mass of object.
 orbital velocity

GM
Rh
Satellite surface of carth:- * BE. of a
particle placed on tarth

=
GMm
BE
R

Nete 18 Time period of satellite

V2 times or 41.4
%
# Vtelit inc. by
T P.a (i-ny2
oo
then itll escape to A3ndeperdent
massof
o10.The radii ot the circular orbits of 2ry ofsatellite
two satcllites A and B of the carth T=
V, GM,
are 4R and R, respcctively. If the
peed of satellite A is Bv, then the
specd of satellite B will be 42 GM
T=
K=
sol. Va

R
19 Keplers law
V 4R
= Law of Orbits:
V= 3Vx
2
6V
+ Planets move in elliptical orbits with the
17 Energies of satellite Sun at one focus.

max a (1 + e)
GMm Vmax
Potential energy, U= a (1 - e)
R+h min
min
GMm Ymax tYmin
Kinetic energy K =
2(R + h) 2
Vas
GMm
=
Total energy TE
2(R + h) 2b| P A

GMm
Binding energy BE
=
Vin
2r
2a
+1
:= -1: t Ymin - 2a
U:K:T: BE Ymax
 Lew of Areas
20 Satellite on cireular path
• A line segentjoining a planet and the
Sun sweeps cut equal areas during cqual
e
inteval of time This can written as:
Earth
dA
dt
V
const"

consth
Irl const"
Allenergies = const'"

P L= const

P= variable
P (planet)
V= variable (due to dir")

V= consth
Sun
dL dP
F=
dt dt
Law of Periods:
Note: -
Tne square of the orbital period
() of a + GMm
planet directly proportional to the cube
is Total energy =
of the semi-major axis (a) of its orbit. (Ymax t Ymind

escape energy = +
Taa'a Ymax t Ymin
GMm
2
Semi major axis Re
Law of Periods: The square of the time 29> V, =
KV,
period
of revolution of a planet proportional to
is RK²
the cube of the semi-major axis of the ellipse ha from Surface of
Earth=
traced out by the planet. 1-K*
If Fa
T°a (Avg rate) Sun
.:.
a 1
V,
2a
a
:TP Yh/2
 of mass
Q.11.A satellite moving around
m

Imajor axis and SB is perpendicular to AC

planet of mass M
in circular path radius S as
at the position of the sun shown in the
r, then energy required to shift this path
figure. Then
to radius r
= Etotal
Sol. Egiven finalEtotal initial
<
(i) Kp Ky <
kc
GMm GMm
Sol. (i)
2rs
B
GMm
2
YME
Q.12.The time period of a satellite in a
circular orbit of radius R isT. The period
of another satellite in a
circular orbit of
aish (A>VgC)
radius 4R is

T Speed /
() 4T (i)
2
Q.14.The figure shows elliptical orbit of a
(ii) 8T planet m about the sun S. The shaded
8 area SCD twice the shaded area SAB.
is
Sol. (iü) T°
aR If t, is the time for the planet to move

R
3 from C to D and t, is the time to move
from A to B then
=
1 () t, 4t, () t, = 2t,
64
T T
(in) t, = t, (iv) t, > 4t,
sol. (i)
(8T = T
Q13.The kinetic energies of a planet in an elliptical
orbit about the Sun, at positions A, B and C
are KA, KB and KC respectively. AC is the (2t,= t)

MR

6Question krte time Galat option ko

dhoondo, sahi apne aap mil jayenge
 14 Elasticity

1
Deforming Force
+
Ex. Quartz is near approach to perfect
elastic body.
A deforming force is any force that changes
the shape or configuration of an object when e= 0.

applied. Perfectly Plastic Bodies:

For example:- bending a rod or compressing
+ These materials do not regain their
a spring involves applying a deforming force.
Elasticity: original shape at all after the deforming
+ Elasticity is the property of a material force is removed. They remain deformed
to resist deformation. This implies that Examples include putty, paraffin, and
materials which are more elastic can
Wax.
withstand deformation better without
undergoing apermanent change in shape. 2 Stress
Example:- Steel is more elastic than rubber.
This means steel returns to its original shape Frestoring
= stress
more efficiently after the deforming force is Area
removed compared to rubber. Stress is not a vector quantity unlike a
Elastic Limit
force, the stress cannot be assigned a specific
+ The elastic limit is the maximum extent direction. Force acting on the portion of
to whicha material can be deformed and a body on a specified side of a section has
still return to its original shape once the definite direction.
force is removed. Beyond this limit, the Types of Stress
material will be permanently deformed.
Normal Stress
For example, stretching a spring too far + Deals with forces
may cause it to lose its ability to return to applied perpendicular to
its original shape. the surface, causing changes in length.

Perfectly Elastic Bodies Volumetric Stress

+ Deals with forces
applied uniformly over
These are ideal materials that can the entire surface, causing changes in
completely return to their original shape volume.
inmediately after the deforming force is
Tangential Stress
removed. Examples include quartz and + Deals
with forces applied parallel to tht
phosphor bronze.
Surface, causing changes in shape.
 Stress L.e..
Shear or Stress o Strain
Normal "tangential
/stress E

Longitudinal Volume Shear stress Where,Emodulus of elasticity, depends on

=

Stress stress
the nature of the wmaterial of the body and
FR
is independent of its dimensions(ie. length,
A A A volume etc.)
Volume Stress = AP
Material
Strain
3. pro Modulus of Elasticity (E)
= Stress

s the fractional change in configuration

applied force.
Strain
due to an
Change in size the body
=
Strain
Original size of the body Young's modulus Bulk modulus of
type of strain modules rigidity
s Young's Modulus

Young's modulus is the ratio of normal stress

Longitudinal Volumetric Shear to the longitudinal strain.
strain strain strain Longitudinal Stress
AL AV Y =
= Longitudinal Strain
L

Strain unitless and dimensionless

is
FL
+
Longitudinal Strain occurs when there is Y=
AAL
a change in length.
+ Hooke's law is valid only in the linear part
+
Volumetric Strain occurs when there is a
of stress -strain curve.
change in volume.
+ The Young's modulus and shear modulus
Shearing Strain occurs when there is a
are relevant only for solids since only solids
change in shape due to layers sliding over
have lengths and shapes.
each other.
+ Metals have larger values of Young's
4 Hooke's Laws
modulus than aloys and elastomners.
Within the elastic limit, the stress applied material with large value of Young's
A

to a material is directly proportional to the modulus requires a large force to produce

strain it produces. Small changes in its length.
 Slope of stress strain graph is Young's
+
Bulk modulus is velevant

modulus. liquidand gases. It refers to the

chor
in volume when every part of
the
Q1 Find ratio of young's modulus
is under the uniform stress 50 that
Sol. Slope of stress-strain graph is young's
shape of the body remains unchanged
modules.
Stress
A

-V AP
B=
B AV
300 15°

Isothermal Adiabatic Isobaric

(T=const) (Q=const) (P=const)
Strain
B=P B=Pr B=o
(Slope) A
tanooo Isochori
Y= (V=const
(slope) s tan4so Cy B

=V3 :1 + Bsoild <

Bliguidgas
1 Compressibility
+ Young Modulus a Temprature
Compressibility is a measure of how muc
e.g. a
material can be compressed (reduced in

Stress Y, >Y4
So, volume) under pressure. lt indicates the

relative volume change of a material in

response to a pressure change.

T, T,T, Compressibility (C) of a material is
o the

reciprocal of its bulk modulus of elasticit,

(K)
Strain
o Mathematically, it isexpressed as

6Bulk's Modulus 1 AV
C=
+
The bulk modulus is the ratio of volumetric -V AP
o Density of Compressed Liq.
stress to the volumetric strain.
volume Stress AP
=p [1 + CAP]
volume strain K
 Modulus
Shear + For a Particular Material:- B.Force aA
7
or modulus of Stress-strain curve
+ Shear modulus rigidity is the
ratio of tangential stress to the shearing
iStrain
strain. hardeningi Necking i
Stress,G
modulus of Ultimate Kfracture
rigidity strength Plastic limit (PL)
F Yield strength
Rise P.L1
Strain, F
h Run ductile
Rise
Young's modulus = Slope =
F Run
Stress, Strain, E Brittle
A
F Elastic region, O-a:
n= Coefficient of rigidity =
A

+ Hooke's law Valid. (Stress a Strain)

Potential Energy Stored in Wire:
Pelastie Conservative.
Completely regain its shape.
X
DF 1
(WD =5Fx O-b:
+ Conservative limit.
X= elongation
work done in elongation x Stress # Strain
W= Fx Almost Regain its shape.
Felastie Conservative.
U
O Energy stored =Fx=
2 Plastic region
b-c;
1 Ap
U= + Felastice iS not Conservative
2 L
using Hooks chacha ka law Non-linear region where permanent
Potential Energy Stored in wire unit deformation occurs.
volume: Fracture Point (D)
+ The point where the material breaks.
<|G
1 = 1 (Stress
=
-Y (Strain) Q2. If the longitudinal strain of a iron rod
V 2 2 is O.01 and its poisson's ratio of 0.2,
1 x then the lateral strain will be
Stress Strain.
2 Sol. Since,
:- Breaking stress does Lateral Strain
Breaking Stress (P) Poisson's ratio =
not depends upon area. Longitudinal Strain
# Material Property. Lateral strain =
(Poisson's ratio) x

Breaking Force (Longitudinal strain)

Lateral strain = =
P= (0.2) (0.01) O.002
Area
 Q3 Awire elonaates y L m
whn a load
,A,

ht at the tee nás. th tlongation of AY

the wirY wl be (in )

Sol Due to the arranatent of tiht rulley.

mass M.
V2 on cach side
+
the lenth of wire is Rod have

ant se the eloncation will be 2. For

= L
beth sides, clonaation
Feisson's Retie MgL M,
elongation =
m A.L,Y
Lateral Strain 2 AY
Longitudinal Strain

AD/D
+ Elongation due to own weight: -
AVL
Volunme strain =2x lateral strain Mg(4)
=
AL
lonaitudinal strain L,M AY
O.S V= constant.
Mg =
AL
G4 if thc clastic potential energy density 2 Y
store in a
material 1oJ/m is 3 x

due to the application of longitudinal +

Ly of a wire which can hang under his

own weight:
stress of 1 x 10N/mi then, the strain
developed in it would be P
1 P9
x
Sol. U,=Stress strain
2 + =
&AT
Linear Strain
2Ue Y.aAT
Linear Stress =
Stran=
stress Q.5. Two wires are made of the sawd
2×3x10t material and have the same volune
However, wire 1 has a cross-secticnd
strain
=

10446x 107 area A and wire 2 has cross- sectioni

Special Case: area 3A. If the length of the wire
increases by ax on applying force
• Elongation in massless rod due to attatched how much force is necded to stret
block of mass m: wire 2 by the sawme aimount?
Sol For
the same material, Young's
modulus is the same and it is qiven

that the volume is the same and the

cross-section for
Arca of tthe the wire 3K- 2

L is and that of L, is 3A

+ If length of wire I, ot tensior T, and , at

V=Ax L, =
3A x
L2 Ly L,/3 tension T,, then find original lergth T, --
,
Y = (F/AV(AVL)
F, = YA(AL,/L,) Tl, -Tzl,
L:
T
-T, T, -T,
Given AL, =
AL, =
Ax (for the same
extension) Q.6. When a
block of mass M is suspended

F, =
Y3A(Ax/(L,/3)) =
9. (YAAX/L) = by a long wire of length L. the length

of the wire becomes (L+). The elastic

Fractional Change in Radius of Sphere: - potential energy stored in the extended
dR Mg wire is:
B = Bulk Modulus.
R 3AB 3AB Sol. Using Formula
L/2 L/2
1
U=x stress x
strain x
volume
2
Mg Force Mg
stress =
Mg ]/3 Area A

= = WL
strain AL/L
+ Relation between shear angle and angle of
volume = area x
length =
A x L
twist.
Mg
=
Twist Angle
Hence, U=
2 A LxAxL
=
Shear Angle
U
=Mgl
= CO² = Ke² 2
PE
2 2.
ro =
lo Stress-Strain graph for Elastomer -
eg,
Tissue of Aorta,
 Stress
Stress Area a Shock
absorver
Area a Energy
absorb
Strain
+ Parallel & Series Conbination of Young's Strain
Modulus: -
Special Type Questions: -
1> Parallel Conbination:
In both wire have same elongation but F,F,
different stress 2 AY

Y,-Y,
F,-F,
2 2 AY

F
3F 2F Felongation?

2> Series Combination: -

In bothwire have same stress but
different elongation. 3F 4
3F F
2Y;2 Al, Al,
F Yea 3Fl Fl 4Fl
Y, Yz Y,+Yz = =
Al, +
Al Al, AY
+
AY AY

NOTE: eL, A, yY> Fl

Al(elongation)=
+ On removing deforming Force Solid regain 2AY
its shape by this graph.

MRS
GPush Yourself, because No One Else
is going todo
it for you.
 Ploss
3h a body
> Scalar Uit Fluid Mechanics
15
albnt -3 SpaePt
Objcct callod is
2 Fluid( Example 2: Mercury
PHg 13.6 g/cm
Substances that can flow when an external
=
R.D. = 13.6
applied. This includes both liquids Pw 1 g/cm
force is
gases. The relative density of mercury is 13.6,
and
Fluids meaning mercury is much denser than
Types of
water.
Liquids: Note:
O Have a definite volume but take the
+ Objects with a relative density less than 1
shape of their container.
will float in water.
O
Examples: Water, oil, and milk.
Objects with a relative density greater
Gases:
oDo
not have a definite volume or shape
than 1 will sink in water.
2
lineast maIss density
DensityAseal mass clensry
-n
and expand to fill their container. G=m
O Examples: Air, helium, and carbon Density of an object is the ratio of its mass
den siyt
mass
dioxide. to its volume. ie.. Volume
Mass
+ Relative density (RD):- SþecitHc govhy Density = Volume
O
Relative density is the ratio of the + it is a scalar quantity with dimensional
density of a substance (object) to the formula
density of water.
Pobj.
[ML]
R.D. = Unitless. + Density of water =
1 g/cm or 10 kg/m
Pwater
Pu = gwm Density of mixture:
1/cm² (Water)
Poil =O.8 gm/cm² (oil)
,Smix hoi+ m2
Mmix
PHg =
13.6 gm ycm° (Mercury) Pmix
Pmilk = 1.04 gm /cm grmer
Example 1: oit Pice = 03 Same Mass, Different Density
Poil. O.8 g/cm m
= Same p= different
R.D. = = 0.8
Pw 1 g/cn 2m 20,P2
Pmix m

The relative density of oil is O.8, meaning

oil is less dense than water.
 Note:
Same volune, different density

V= same p differnt
+
AP docs not depcnd upon amount
liquid,shape of container.
P,Vp,v P:P:
2V 2
+ The mean pressure is given by:

hpg
Hydrostatics or static Auid
3 2
+
This branch deals with fluids at rest.
This means that on average, the pressu,
+ It studies how fluids exert pressure and
exerted by the liquid on the walls of +
the effects of this pressure. container is half of the pressure at e

+ Example: Water in a tank or a swimming bottom of the container.

pool.
4 Pascal's Law
Thrust:
+ Static liquid, "p" on horizontal level
Thrust is the total normal force exerted
must be same.
by a liquid at rest on a given surface.
+ SI Unt: Newton (N).
*Pg= Po + pgh.
Pressure (P):

F
P=
A A
Relation between Absolute &
Gauge Pressure:
+ It is a scalar quantity
Pabsoluble net
+ Unit: N/m? P. = Pdue to liq. only.
gauge
Dimension: [MLT]
Pabsolute = Po + Pgauge
= x
+ 1 atm 1.01 10° N/m²
Moving Container "p" Calculation:
Variation of "p" with depth:

= pgh
(Be "9." lelena hai!)
AP
1. Lift is moving up:- (with "a")
p= density of
liquid.
Pnet = P(g + a)H
h= depth.
2. Lift is moving down: - (with "a")
Pnet Pg - a)H
3 Lift is in free fall:- (a = g)

net
 Pascal
Static fluid me MRA
pressure balance
to
kerte hai When air bubble oye fros brotto
Surface of lake then p F:Y:
F,
2) MR*
Agar Koi Cheez linearly vary
pressureis the same at any two points Krti hai toh uska Avg
•
at the
same level in the fluid. The shape
of the container does not matter

Pressure
S Measurement of atmospheric
-
F; 1 Barometer: "Torricilli"
Po Vacuum
A, A
cH
0 B
= PHg gH
Ps Po

A B , Mercury
PA =
Pg = Pc H= 76 cm 1 atm
of Hq =
The Garib Ramlal Exp:
G2. tn a hydraulic jack as shown, mass of Height of water column in Barometer: -
the car W = 80O kg, A, = 10 cm,
H = 10.1 m
A,, = 10m. The minimum force F
required to lift the car is
6 Horizontal Accelerating Lift

(a) 1N (b) o.8 N

A

(d) 16 N
H mAcose
Sol.

FMin = ?? W= 80O kg

A, = 1Om?
10 cm' = A
= - Sin@ =
tanb
 =
80y +27.2 33.6
U-Tube
7 8Qy =6.4

on same horizontal level,

Initialy One liquid is P.
arm of container
other liquid is put in left Important Case
initial
then 15t liquid moves x down from
U-tube is given horizontal ac
level in left arm of U-tube. 1> When

JPo (a) rise is liquid column:

a H =
xh=2x tan
(H = al/g
A

>a

PA = PB PugH =
Pg (2x) 2>

about "p"
ek aaise line select Karo jske
same hona chahiye.
g Cm1-3 is
Q.2.. A liquid X of density 3.36 L BV
contains Hg.
poured in a U-tube, which
arm
Another liquid Y is poured in left
upper levels of X and
with height 8 cm, Pe-PApL (a+g)
Y? (given
Y are same. What is density of
Pe-Pg=paL
- height of x=10cm) Pg-PAPgL
gce
(a)0.8 qcc-1 (b) 1.2 axis
gcc 3> A essel is rotated about vertical
(c) 2.4
gcc (d) 1.6 water "H";
Find rise in

Sol.

*******
H R´w
8cm 10cm
H=
2cm B
1tH 29

Hg
PA = PB
Pyg8Cm + Pmug2cm
= Po tPy 10 cm
Pot = x 10
P,8 + 13.6
x
2 3.36 Physio
 Open-Tube Manometer
8
" does not depends on density, location of
Container: object inside liquid.
Gas Volume of
Contains the gas whose pressure we want Volume of
meaSure. displaced liq. Solid in liq.
to
Tube: Volume of solid inside liquid
U-Shaped
One end is
cOnnected
to the gas container,
+
Reason
and the other end
is open to
the Fg = mg =p Vi9 is "P"
atmosphere. difference

Liquid Column: liquid

Theliquid
inside the U-shaped tube moves
+
-
Apparent Weight:
in response to the pressure differences.
G=object p= Liquid
|
JPo
Sink! Submerge Float on
& Float. Surface
Gas
N=0 N=0

Po=pgH + Pgas Object Vi

| Chota Remains
..Pgas=PPgH N=
bada where it's V
Placed!
AGas Vin Chota
1
1
N= mgef bada
RD

is released then find

*Object of density
-
"'
accl" of object inside liquid:
(o p)

a =g

=
Pgas t pgh Pg
*Aball of density "D" immersed in liquid
is
a
of density "d" to depth "h" below the
9 Archimedes Principle surface of liquid & then released. Upto
= Weight of displaced
what height will be ball jump out of the
(Buoyant Force)
liquid: -
Fa
liquid.

=
Condition d> D
>depends on density of liquid, volume
of solid submerged in liquid.
*A container is at rest then inside volume 11 Properties of Streamlines
is V, and when acc" up with a, the inside a
The tangent at any point
+ of streamline
volume is of an object then:
V,

gives the direction of flow

of
fluid particle
at that point.

Container Ke acclr se up/down volume

+ (n steady flow, no two streamlines Ca
a

cross each other, for if they do so,

emerged in liquid depend hi nai Krta. two
Buoyant Force with Cavity: tangents can be drawn at the point of
intersection. It means the oncoming fluid
matter = V, - V,
= - Velg - pVg particle can go either one way or the othe
*N o[V Thus, the flow would not be steady
To Find V cavity
streamline 1
1> N= mg - Fs
Problem
Solving
matter
Strategy

streamline 2
Rise / Fall of liq: + Fluid velocity remains constant at anu
When ICE placed on liquid will Melt. point of a streamline, but it may be
=
PL Po Rise different at different points of the same
PL < Po = Fall
streamline.
PL = Pw = Same.
+ Fluid velocity is greater at the
Po =
regions
density of water.
where streamlines are closely spaced.
PL = Surr. Liquid. This can be proved from the equation of
1o Hydrodynamics or fuid dynamics continuity that we discuss in the upcoming
+ This branch deals with fluids in motion. section.
Equation of Continuity:
Example: Water flowing in a river or air
flowing around an airplane wing. (Conserv of Mass)
x
ldeal Fluid: - *Area Velocity = Const^
Non-viscous Rate of Volume Flow
remains Consth.
+ Incompressible
+p= COnsth
Ay
+ Streamline &&
IRROTATIONAL Flow.
water flowing from the tap.
 inconypressible liquid is flowing
An
Q3
through a horizontal pipe as show in
12 Bernouli's equation
fiqure. Find the value of
y. + Bernoulli's Theorem states that for an
ideal fluid (non-viscous, incompressible,
= (AV)outgoing
(AV)nioming and irrotational) flowing in a streamline
manner,the total energy (pressure energy
/s
.8A: kinetic energy, and potential energy) per
unit volume of the fluid remains constant
A
along a streamline.
Az
SA: *****
Pa

A4
3 >
4A =
3(0-8A) +-Av P, P

2
+
h
4= 2:4 15v Ground

4 -2-4 =
1:5 PE/V KE/V
= 1 (Where:
1-6 1-5V =
P+ pgh +pV
2 wn Const")P is the static.
1.6
pressure.
=11 m/s tpisthe density
1.5 Divide by Pg. of the fluid.
Freely falling liquid: vis the velocity
of the fluid.
P
+ h+ = Consttg is the
2g acceleration
V=2gh due to gravity.
(+ h is the
height above
Pressure Gravith Velocity a reference
AVo head. head. head. level.

iA, V Ramlal House

Wind is flowing outside then pressure
inside
Rate of = AAo 2gh P, and outside house P2
Volume Flow <
A -A2 P, P,
Hence upthrust force will act on roof
F=(P, - P,) x Area
 + Another way to express this force using
2(P,-P)
the wind speed () and the density of air V= + 2gH
(p) is:

1. P, = PTop p= liquid
F=pVA
Po = atm P. AV, = ay

P2 Open Container (Torricilli l)

P+
+
Torricelli's Theorem states that theevvelocit
of efflux (the speed at which a
fluid
exit
through an orifice) is equivalent to
velocity that a freely falling object woul.

acquire if it fell from the same height

Bernoulli's equation in horizontal flow: =
P, P
-f v= /2gh h:- height of liquid
level from hole.
= costh
Pt Velocity of efflux does not
AV= consth depends on density of liquid.
Potential energy same on horizontal level
P 14 Range, Heights, Time of Flight of Effiu

dis"

13 Velocity of Efflux
a(r)
Closed container: (H-A)

Vimp:
R
H =
A height of
water column Rate of Volume Flow = a J2gh
from hole Time to reach base level:

H
a, Po 2(H-4) Take
T= Hyertical
 range:
Horizontal Force on Container due to efftuz:
2(H pa
RU,T, 2gh
-h) F

v
F
2p aqH 2gt
0 density of liq.

H Height of liquid column from Hole.

a =
Area of orifice.
Tank:
For massless container, " " to keep
Time to Empty the
container at rest: -

orifice is at the bottom of the tank,

I/the a =
+ hole
he time required to empty the tank is: pmg =
2pagh A
=
Container Area.

t=
A 2H 2a
Pmin
A

Maximum horizontal range

Time Taken to Move Liquid from Height H2
to H1
The horizontal range of the liquid stream
ik maximum when the orifice is located
at half the height of
the liquid columnie..

:-R= max?

Therefore,

Rmax = H

A
area
Just like Motion in 1-D
Angles and Range:
H,
+
At45°,the range is maximized, illustrating
the symmetry in projectile motion H

= Nichese
I|H Uparse
30° H H
Mid R= Same.
J45° Rma
Time to Fall down:
A 2H
|90
+ To bottom :- t=
+
Ratip fom h
.bottonn
B
2

1-D

Football without Football Spining

15 Venturimenter Spining about vertical azi;
• Mcasurt rate of Volume Flow V,=V+ Vo- R

V, =
V+ Vo + Ru
• Bascd on Bernoulli's Principl.
17 Viscocity
+
Viscosity is a measure of a fluid's resistart,
to flow. It describes how thick or sticku 1

fluid is.

+ = Poise.'"
A V, "1 Poissulle 10

- a
2g (H, H,)
A - a?
= =
*
aV, AV, V= Rate of Volume Flow:
1 1 o
P, +-pv +0= P, t-pV
+ o The diagram shows a fluid flowina
2 2
through a pipe.
16 Dynamic Lift & Magnus Eect O The arrows represent the velocity (u
Dynamic Lift: of the fluid particles at different layers
within the pipe.
Dynamic lift is the force that acts on an
object moving through a fluid (like ain) O Near the center of the pipe, the fluia
due to differences in pressure created by moves faster, while near the walls o
the object's motion. the pipe, the fluid moves slower due to
Magnus Effect: friction between the fluid and the wals
of the pipe.
+
The Magnus Effect is
the phenomenon
Cohesive Forces:
where a spinning object moving through
a fluid creates a force perpendicular to + Viscosity in liquids is primarily due ti
the direction of motion, due to pressure the cohesive forces between the liquid
differences caused by the spin. molecules.
 gasCs, viscosity
is due to the diffusion
+ Inmolecules. mgd2 10 6
1O
of AAv 2 17
100 10
Force between two liq:
10 100

n = 10 Pa -s
coeff. of viscocity.
Difference Viscosity and Solid Friction;

Shear Stress Viscosity (Solid Friction)

|av\ Velocity gradient NLM friction
Shear Stress |(a)The viscous force is (a) It is
|directly proportional |independent
Strain Rate
to the surface area of of the area of
A metal block of base area o,2m cOntact of fluid layers. cOntact.
Q.4. is
(b)The viscous force is (b)It is
Conected to a
O.02 kg mass via a string
|directly proportional independent
that passes over an ideal pulley as shown
to the relative of the relative
in fiqure. A liquid film of thickness O.6 mm
velocity between the velocity of the
placed between the block and the table
is
two layers in contact. contact surface.
When released the block moves to (c)The viscous force (c) It is directly
the
right with a constant speed of o.17 mWs. |does not depend on |proportional
The coefficient of viscosity of the liquid is: the normal reaction to the normal
between the twO reaction between
(2017-Gujarat)
x x
layers of the fluid. the surfaces in
(a) 3.45 10 Pa-s
COntact.
(b) 3.45 x 10 x
Pa-s (d) The viscous force on () t is independent
a solid moving in a of the shape and
x x Pa-s
(c) 3.45 10 fluid depends on the size of the bodies
(d)3.45 x x
10° Pa-s |shape and size of the in contact.
solid.
Sol. (c) F, =T= mg
Av -= 18 Stoke's Law
mg
Stoke's law describes the force of viscosity
0.17 Wa acting on a small spherical object moving
T
through a Fluid.
Film Only For Sphere.
o.02 kg Jab Force between Solid-liq:

mg F= 6TEYrv
 Where:
n coefficient of viscosity of the fluid.
r radius of the sphericat body.
V= terminal velocity of the body.
Terminal Velocity:
+
Coalesce of Drops: -
The maxinum constant velocity acquired
while falling through a viscous thesnalle,
a body +
by If V, is the terminal velocity of

medium is called its terminal velocity. It is drops and V, is the terminal velocity
usually denoted by V, the larger drop, then
mg = Fp +
f V=nV, R = n
r
2 P

-plg. Temperature dependence of n:

V,= -(o

Where, For liquid For gas

r= radius of object, o =
density of object,
p= density of liquid. T
Mgas
aT
Graph:
Accl" Poiseuille Equn:

L Used to calculate the flow rate o

Viscous liq.

Bernoulli's theorem is not valid

Woh sirf ideal liquid keliye.
X or t X or t Fluid Current:
+
V,ar;-The terminal velocity is directly
AP AP RAluig Of = 8l
proportional to the square of the radius of 8nl Reluidpipe
TL

the body. That is why

bigger rain drops
fall with a larger velocity as compared to
=
the smaller drop. AP Press difference

Ball isthrown down with velocity greater r= radius of pipe.

than terminal velocity in viscous liq. then |= length of pipe.

variation of "v vls "t"? (NEET-20O22) n =
coefficient of viscocity
 Parallel Q.5. A liquid filea is formed oer a
Series frame
Q= Diff.
ABCD as shown in fiqure. Wire CD can
AP=Dif. AP= same
slide without friction. The mass to be
AP
AP Q = hung fron CD to keep it in equilibrium
is
R,R2
2T1
=R, +
R R, + Rz (a)
TI
(b)
SP = P, -P
(d) T
1
2TI
Q P, R.
Sol. n = 2s
R mg = sl(2)

acch B

Surface Tension acc

19 mass = -liquid
mass C film
Excess force required for lift D

+ Surface Tension is a property of liquid at

rest by virtue of which a liquid surface Excess force required to lift: a

gets contracted to a minimum area and F

behaves like a
-Rod : 21
stretched membrane.
+
Surface Tension of a liquid is measured by F
-Disc :-S= 2Tr
force per unit length on either side of any
imaginary line drawn tangentially over F
-Ring : S= 2Tr + 2TcR
the liquid surface, force being normal to
-Annular Disc :
the imaginary line
Rod :
+ It is a scaler quantity and depends only on
nature of liquid but independent of area of
surface.

imaginary
lines
Fite = FT + Mg
= 2Sl + Mg
 V= Vol of
20 Surface Energy AE 3VT larger drop
*E SA.
Sphere. Pressure is always high in concave side
Surface area
=
4tR
Volume a
Py P,>P, >P:
=
Circum ference 2uR
P
21Splitting of Drops into Droplets
P,
Values of Excess Pressure :

Drop
=
25
AP Pn -Pout
R =
n/3r R
=
AA 4 [n-R1; AA 4cR? 2S
Pin = Pout +
[n-1] R
= Bubble
AA 4nR?
4S
AP = P - Pout =
R
Bubble Drop 4S
Pin = Pout t R
Radius of Coalesce :
R R
Two drops of radius r, &r, coalesce under
isothermal condition.
= x = 4TR?
A 4cR 2 A

Film:- Take Area double.

Energy Released when Droplets Combine to
Form a Drop i Angle of Contact :

AE = = Obtuse Acute
E(n-ny S4
(n-ny
E
E, 1|
x
100
= - 4rR?
n3
AE n4
Cohesion >
Adhes. Cohe. <
Adhes.
 Tube
Capillary
=
A2S cos
Fall M = pAh
Rise rg

"Mass of lig. in tube'"

insufficient length :
+ Rise of liq. in tube of
>
90° 1 don't
Meniscus Convex Meniscus overflow
Concave

Po Radius of Interface

Ps
"Pa=Po=Po ..(2)
Due to excess pressure
25 + Height/Depth of liquid a 1/r
Po
.(2)
R
liquid
+ Mass of liquid ar
to pressure variation in
Potential enerqy of liquid a
Due ro
+
Po-pgh = P=Po a freely
+ If container with capillary in
Putting value of P from (2) falling lift, liquid rise upto complete
length
2S + = Po and does not overflow.
Po pgh
R
2S ha cos a
25 = pgh > h=
R PgR r
+ For two different liquid if h, S and
Here, R is the radius of meniscus same then find relation b/w density and
r= radius of tub, then, r= R cose
If, contact angle.
2Scos 2Scose
Therefore, h= h= Pgr
Pgr
+ Height of liq. rising in Capillary Tube cos ap

2S cose
h=

MR
 Thermal Properties of Matter
16
For Fahrenheit scale
Tenperature
LEP 32., U.F.P=212.
=

• Measure of hotn¢ss and coldness. For kelvin scale

• Tivo ibvdu A at T, and
B
at T, put in LEP 273, U.F.P
=
373
contact. Relation in Fahrenheit & Celcius:
T
T,
A
B

>
If T, T, then
+
S-1 Sowme temp will flows from A to F= 32

False C

S-2 Some heat will flows from A to B SF 160 C.

S
True
S-3 Heat will increase in B False
S-4 Tempr of A will decrease True
Heat can not be stored it can flows from AC AF 160
Body A to B.

2 Measurement of temperature
Relation between Kelvin & Celcius:
Temp - LFP
=
Constant CA
U.F.P - LFP
C=K-273
°C-0 F-32 K-273 K

100-o 212-32 373-273

MR -LFP K
U.F.P-LF.P
Where
F273
K= C+273
O LFP = lower fixed point C

o
UFP = upper fixed point
+ Relation between °F & Kelvin :
Note:

For celcius scale =

=
F-32 (K-273)
LF.P 0, U.F.P=
100
 Temperature
Change in Thermal Expansion

AC AK=A Lintar expansion:

The freczing point on MR' scale is 20*

A
Areal expansion:
boiling point 1s. will temperature =
AA ABAe, A,
z
A, (1 BaE)
thermometer be read as.

reading at 60°C Volume expansion:

A-20
100- O Importantrelations:
150- 20 Bulk modulus and thermal coefficient of
volume expansion.
BConstruction of thermometer
=
AV =
AP B BYAe
Change in physical
quantity
= cOnstant
unit raise in temperature
B= Bulk Modulus of Elasticity

Resistance Thermometer:

R - Ro x 100
t= Ryoo-Ro
a:B:Y:1:2:3
+ For
Pressure thermoneter: anisotropic crystal
P - Po
100 For Isotropic a, = c, = a,
t=
Psoo-Po Y= 3

Volume Thermometer: For Two Rod

x 100
t=
Vs00-Vo
* difference in length of these two
If
Length Thermometer:
rod is independent of Temperature then
L- Lo
x Ramlal Ne socha winter me gold buy
t: 100
Luoo-ko karunga, Summer me sold karunga tab
Q2. Length of rod at 20°C is 10m and at length Increase ho Jayga
80°C m
40 then find temperature
is Ramalal ko koi benefit nahi hoga

Sol.
when its length is 30 m.
Change in length per unit raise
s Cavity Problems

temperature = const Photographie Enlargement.

40 m - 10 m e- m
1O L
I4
T!
80°C - 20°C - 2O
t
1 30 - 10

2 t- 2O
t 60°C
 -
Pendulum Clock:
6Bimetallic Strip
Note :
+
strip is composed of two
A bimnetallic
Temperture
=
Clock Slow = = Time los
different metals with different cocfficients Temperture|
=
Clock Fast Time Goin
of thernal expansion (a, and a,).
Loss or gain AT 1 4

in time, 2 2.

Convex Variation of density with temperature

Concave

High Temperature Anomalous Behaviour of Water:

Room Temperature Water shows unique behavior near 43,
Behavior at room temperature: where its volume decreases to a minimu
and density increases to a maximum.
At room temperature, the strip remains + Volume vs. Temperature:Minimum volus
straight because both metals expand or at 4°C.
contract equally. + Density VS. Temperature: Maximun
Behavior at High Temperature: density at 4°c.
+ When the temperature increases, the Max
metal with the higher coefficient of Min
thermal expansion (a,) expands more
than the metal with the lower coefficient
14°C I4°C
(a,). >T
This diferential expansion causes the
bimetallic strip to bend. 8 Apparent Coefficient of Volume
Expansion of Liquid
The side with the metal that has a higher
expansion coefficient (a,) becomes convex The apparent coefficient of volume expansion
(curves outward). of a liquid is the observed expansion when
the liquid is heated in a container.
+ The side with the metal that as
a lower
Formula
expansion coefficient (a,) becomes concave
(curves inward). Yapp = Yreal - Y
container
= Yiguid - Ysoild

7 Thermal Stress + If Y, = Ys
Level Unchanged
F
= + If Y, > Ys
TS.
A The liquid overflows because it expand
Y:- Young's Modulus more than the container.
rod of length e and area A placed on
A
Smooth surface then due to to increase
+ If
Y< Ys Y}= -e
The liquid level goes down because the
in temprature thermal stress is zero.
container expands more than the liqui
 Expansion on Apparent
Effict of. Liquid 10 Meter Scale
weightin +
The truc length of a rod can be deterwintd
an using a meter scale by accounting for any
weight (N) of object
a liquid is thhe weight of
cutmerea in the thermal expansion.
the buoyant force exerted by Only one
liguid type wil
the N=mg - oVg be asked

True length Reading + AL

of Rod taken

AL
=
L a Ae
+ where AL is the change in length due to
mg thermal expansion.
11 Calorimetry
Scenarios Based Coefficients
on of

Exparsion:
Calorimetry is the study of measuring the
amount of heat exchanged
Case 1: Yi = Y; Specific Heat Capacity:
olf the coefficient of volume expansion of
the liquid is equal to that of the solid, Heat required to raise the temperature by
the apparent weight remains unchanged unit deqree °C of unit mass
(N =
same). Q= mSAO
=
raise of "m'' Kg by Ae
T

Case 2: Y Y; Unit of S = J/kg kelvin

otf the coefficient of volume expansion
of the liguid is less than that of the
+ S=
solid, the apparent weight decreases mAT
(N = dec.), and the submerged volume o (isothermal)
If AT = o, S =
increases (V, ).
Case 3: Y > + S=
Yi
oIf the coefficient of volume expansion maT
of the liquid is greater than that of the If ¢ = 0, then S =o (for adiabatic
solid, the apparent weight increases process)
(N = inc.), and the submerged volume
Heat Capacity (C):
decreases (V).
Heat required to raise temperature by unit
Note:
of m wmass.
1> Effect of tempture on angular velocity C= mS (Ae = 1°C)
raise T' of object by 1°C
Tr temperature MR*
Joh Jaldi Garam hoga woh jaldi Thanda
w hoga. Uska specific heat capacity kam hai.
 Temp' MR feel
+
Water Can't exist below O°C. \ce cor't
exist above o°C. at o°C both can enist.
Mixture of (lce + water) only Possible
<
S, S, 0°C. Zero se upar gya natlb sab
ot.
pori
ho qya, zero se Niche sab lce.
+

Steam
+
water mixture only exist
Time 100C.
AIIMS de
Slope = -Rate of heating
at high dT
temperature de dT de
= mS =
S cOnstant
dt dt dt
dT
T
Molar heat Capacity [C: dt
=
Q nCA
Q.3. 1O gm ice at o°C mixed with 10
raise Tempof 1 mole Sub by 1°c water at 40°C then mass of wateri
Note : mixture?
1 cal/gm°C = 4200 J/Kgk
= Sol. Qe = mL 800 =
S, = =
Sice = O.5 cal/gm°C = 2100 J/Kgk Qwoter wt 10 x 4O= 400
Stear = O.5 callgm°C = 210O J/Kgk only 5 grm ice will melt
1 cal = 4.2 J m (water) =
15 gm.
Latent Heat:
=
13 Principle of Calorimetry
Q mL
+ The principle of calorimetry states tha:
heat req. to change state.
Lice = 80 cal/gm in an isolated system, the heat lost by h
objects is equal to the heat gained by co'
Lstea = S40 cal/qm
objects.
12 Temp.-time graph Heat L0SS =
Heat Gain
14 Mixture
T4 Final Temperature of Mixture:
MEe > MAg Mcp + When two liquids of different temperaturts
E
D are mixed, the final temperature of ti
W mhs mSA
mixture can be determined using ti
C S principle of calorimetry.
mbi msAe
W my
+ M,
A
mSAe M,
+
t T,
 Temperature of (Mixture when two
Final Mice = 8W
mass wM,
& m, of specific heat (Tmie = 0°C.
lauid off
capacity S, and at temperature T, and Mice

mked. Wsteam

+
m,S,T, mS,T,
Tmix
2> lce 8Om water 100m Water
0°C 0°C 100°C
& water:
Mixture of
ice S4OW Water
Steam
100C
MR*
100°C
m gram
(ce at o°C mixed with w
gram water at TC Miee 3
=
Bring both ice & water at common 180m S40W
W 1
Temp' and same phase.

MR*
Reguired mL (m gramn lce melt into
:-Q= Mice : Wsteawm

m gram water at O°C) 1

1 mix
Supply :- Q= WT= msAT (When gram W

100°C 2 1
water cool down from T to 0°C)
1> mL= WT
HH
Tmik 4
Tmix (amt);ce =0
S 1
(amt),, =
W+ m O° to 100°C
>
2> mL WT 9

= 7 1
(amt),, m-m'
(amt)w = W+m'
0

WT
m'
Q.4. 20O0 grm ice at -20°C is mixed with
S00 grm water it 20°C, then find
Amt. of ice converted to water. temperature of mixture and amount
3> mL< WT of water, ice in mixture
*Paani hi MR* Dono ko kisi ek phase me same
m

T= WT-
Sol.
m + W
Rahega. temperature par le ke aao.
Q, = ms AT + mL = 2000 cal + 16000 cal
Mixture of ice & steam heat given to ice to melt AC.
= = cal.
Required:-Q= mL = 80 m Q
mSAt 10000
Supply :- Q = WL + WSAe =
640 W Heat given by water when it fall from
1> Qsupply 20° to 0°C
 x
Q, >Q, hence complete ice will not meit, mSA Wx 1 AD
out of 10000 cal heat qiven by water ÇW= ms
2000 cal used to increase temperature =
and soOO cal wse to melt ice eg:-Water
: cquivalent 55g at 40°c
= x =
WT 55 40 220O cal.
n' =
1OO ice will melt
V. Imp Question :
*A bullet of mass "m" moving with "u":
Tmi, =
0 because (ice + water) mixture an ice block of "M" gm Kept on a frictionle
Mater =
6O0 grm floor & gets stuck in it. How muCh ice .
Mie 00 grm melt if X% of the lost KE goes to ice ? (initi
Q.s. S qn water at 3O°C and S gm ice at temp of block & bullet = 0°C).
-20°C mixed then temperature of
imixture. mMu?
X% = mL
=
Sol. T, 0° Requirement >
supply M+m

Water Equivalent:
+ lce Formation :
Woh liquid utnahi Heat lega aT Temp. Rise
X Cm ice
Keliye jitna W,gm water le raha hh!
form.
Toh Aapko uss Liquid Ko Na Assume Karke
Water Ko uss liquid Ki tarah Treat Karna hai!

Formation of ice :
Body
Water m, S
O
to x :x to 2x : 2x to 3x
Wgm t: t St
O to x :
0 to 2x :
O to 3x
t: 4t 4t
dQ dQ

MR

It's okay to feel up and down

Its normal and natural, don't
overthink, move forward and
work hard
17 Heat Transfer

Conduction Q KAAT
1 H =
Heat
flows,from hot end to
cold end, medium t L
of
reguired but particles medium simply K = Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity
oscillate but do not leave their position. (Material Property)
+ Slow process Q= Heat.
+ Takes places in solid
dT
KA
+
Path may be zig-zag
t dx
+ Temperature of wmedium increases.
Q.1. Three rods made of the same material
Convection
2 and having the same cross section have
+ Medium required, each particle of medium been joined as shown in the figure. Each
absorbs heat and moves from hot end to cold
rod is of the same length. The left and
end.
right ends are kept at 0°C and q0°
+ Slow process
respectively.
+ Occurs in fluid not in solid
The temperature of the junction of the
+
Temp of medium increases.
three rods will be
Radiation (a) 45°C (b) 60°C
3
(c) 30°c (d) 20°C
+ Heat flows in the form of electromagnetic
Waves. Sol.
Medium is not required 40°C
B
+
Path straight line
+ No change in temp of medium. A

4 Law of Thermal Conductivity

T, + Tz + Ts
T=

A= Area O+ 9O + 90 180
3 3
T,
 L L

S Heat Current Rea = R, +R, =

K,A,
AT
H= H AT T, -T,
=
R, KA
Rea
dt Ra
R,:- Thermal Resistance
+
L, by
6Combination of Rod
Series Combination: +
L
eluT
"R" add
Rea = Ri + Ry + Rg... = Ly
If L,

Then
Kea Kg
2K,K,
Junction Temp: Keq

Rate of heat flow same in series combination.

KA,T, K,A,T2
+
H, K H, K L L
, Tid
KyAs
H, =
H, K,A,

K, (T, - T) Ky (T - T)
Parallel:
Parallel Combination:
K,A T, >T,
1 1 Length Should
+ be same
Rea R, Rz Ry

K,A,
+
-
KAz
+
KyA,

1 1
K,A,
1

7 Combination of Conductor Re R, Ra
+ K,A
Series:
Kea [A, A] KyA,
+

T>T,
K,A, + KA
T,
K,A, Ly
A, +A
A, Ly
 A Stefan's Law -
,fA,A,
Then

vatt
6Sb7 10
Emissivity :
K,T, -T,)A, K,(T, -T,)A,
4 Emissive Power of Norwnaf body (e)
Emissive Power of Black body (E)
:
wheat stone Bridge
For Black Body (e) = 1.
Emissive Power of Normal Body (E):

=
P= AeGT
t
Radiation Stefan-Boltzmann's Law:

Black Body : Ploss =Pemit Pabsorb

Ploss =
Q= Q, t Q, t eA [T- TI
Qr+ a +
= =
To Surr. Temp, T body Temp'
t= 1
Q.2. Ifthe temperature of a boody is increased
by 50%, then the increase in the amount
POWER Qa
Absorptive a =
of radiation emitted by it will be

Sol. Percentage increase in the amount

Qr
Reflective r = of radiations emitted

Q
E, -E, 100 1.5Ti)4 -T*
X
x
Transmitive t = E, 100
T,
* Emissive E, -E,
Power [lntensity]
: x
100 =
[(2.5)* - 1] x 10o
E J E, -E,
=
At Watt/m²
m's E,
 Wien's LAw i +
Kirchoff's Law :
A
good absorber is a good emitter!
A, > ,, T= b
>
T, E,
E, (constant)

Solar Constant:
x
b= 2.9 10 mk Total Thermal Energy talling per unit
2= wavelength area per sec.
corresponding to which
Energy is maximum. e = evnissivity su,
of
G= Stephan's const
Newton's Law of Coolingi S= eoT T==Temp. of Sun.
R Radius of Sun.
+ Time t taken to fal temperature T, r= Dist of Sun i
to T, where To is the temperature of
S2]1/4 earth.
surrounding.
The surface temp of sun found to be
T,-Tk32-To)
t S742K
2
+ Rate of cooling Temperature difference Weisman-Fraz Law:

+ 90°C 20°C 70°C 60°C Ratio of thermal conductivity and

t ta t
Time t, <t, < electrical conductivity at a tem is same
t,
(Time taken to fall temp for every 10°C) for all body.

In (T-T)
in T-To -Kt
In (T-T) =-Kt+const =
Const K= Thermal
let C = O oT
T-T, =e -Kt Conductivity
T=T,tekt
To G = Electrical
Conductivity
t t

MRI
6
Jeet ke khatir junoon chahiye, ho ubal
ayesa khoon chahiye, Aasman bhi ayega
zameen par bas irado main jeet ki goonj
chahiye.
 KTG & Thermodynamics
18
Thermodynamics P-VGraph> Indicator Diagram
4
System: + This graph shows the work done in a cycliC
Open ->
Mass exchangel Energy energy process. The area enclosed by the loop in a
exhange
not exchange/Energy energy P-V graph represents the work done.
Closed -> Mass

exhange Work =
Area of Close loop in PV Graph
Kolated Mass/energy not exchange
PA
Thermal Equilibrium =
dA pdv
Heat transfer between 2 system is not in
process i.e. their temperature is same then
total area
=
pdv= work done
the 2-system are said to be in thermal
equalibrium.

Thermodynamics
2 Zeroth Law of Work
+ This law states that if two systems (A and
B) are each in thermal equilibrium with
Clock Wise Anti clock Wise
a
third system (C), then A and B are in
W= +Ve W= -ve
thermal equilibrium with each other. This
means that the temperature of A, B, and + Expansion AV= +ve W
C are equal:
AV= -ve
W

Compression

Q.1. In given fig. find workdone

P
T (They are in P,
=
'ATg thermal contact)
3 Work done in thermodynamics
=
W= P.AV fP.dV P1

1
Work done By gas On gas 1
+ Vol. increase, + Vol decrease Work=+ -V,-VP,-P)
cOmpression 2
expansion
+ W = +Ve + W= -Ve
 Where,
Q2 In the follevwing fqure two indicator of freedom
f degree
diaaranns are shown f tiht amounts of
N No of molecules
work done in thee are W, and W,
n No. of moles
reectvelu. then
mof
, <
N, 6.023 10
(a)w, (b) W, W,
R
(d) Wi W,/4 Kg Boltzmann Constant
NA
Sol (a) Kn = 1.38 x
1025 m'kas
JK
=
+
du nCvdT

B
+
Where, n = no. of mole, y =

C,
6 Degree of Freedom
s Internal Enerqy (
+ Degree of freedom is the number
o

Irternal Energy () the total energy

is
independent ways in which molecules is

contained within a system. free to move

It is path-independent, meaning it 1> Monoatomic Gas :- (Ne, He, Ar)
depends only on the state of the system, 3T +
OR
f=
not how it qot there. 2> Diatomic gas :- (Ng, Oz
H,)
U= KE+ PE. f=2R 3T +

• it 3> Triatomic Linear gas :- (CO,)

istemperature-dependent, meaning it
changes with the tenmperature. f= 3T +
2R
UaT 4> Polyatomic gas/Triatomic Non -linear
+
lnternal energy for one molecule gas: - (SO2, CH4, NH,)

f= 3T+ 3R
f (Due to 1 When Considering Vibrational Motion:
U=-2 KT= -KgT
2
molecule
+
No effect for Monoatomic gas
+
internal energy for N molecule +
Diatomic =
f =
3T +
2R +
2V =7
+
Triatomic
f R nfRTN
2 N
N
2
molecule
- Linearf =
31T
2R 2V= 7
Non-Linear f = 3T+ 3R+ 2V=8
 Capacities MR* Table
Heat

heat Capacity (S):- Gas DOF /RAC=(C+R)

Cy
Specihe ()
dQ
Monoatomic 3 3R SR
S= m dt = 1.66
3
Heat Capacity (C) : 2 2

Diatomic 7R 7
dQ
SR .= 1.44
2 2
C=
dt Triatomic 7
Molar heat Capacity : SR 7R
=1.4
Linear
2 2
dQ
Triatomic 3R 4R 4
Cn dt Non-linear
3
= 1.33
palationbetween Specific & Molar specific.
Diatomic 7R 9R
Heat capacity :
at high 7
W Temperature 2 2
=
C Mt S
C
=S
+ Cp &e
denote the Specific Heat per unit
Cy
Mass of an ideal gas of Mwt "M" then : 8 Gas Mixture
Cp - Cy = R Molar Sp. heat n,Cvy t n,Cve
=
(Cymik
R
(Specific heat per ng t

M unit mass)
Molar Heat Capacity: n,f, + nf,

Const p Consth V
dQ dQ = dU n,Cp t n,Cp2
(Cp)mik =
dt n fR
Cy = (Cp)mik
2
Note: (C.mik

Cp Cp - Cy= R n,f,T, +
n,fT,
Tmix
Cy n,f, + ngf,
R
Cy = 2
Y=1+ ng
Y-1
Ymix -1
91 Lawof Thermodynamics PV! Con

= dU + dW
dQ
Consth
T=
Based on Energy Conservation T

dQ du| |dw
W=0
by gas =+ =0
W

Given = + T=+
To gas of gas
Taken = T= On gas =
from gaS of gas T

laws and themodynamic Charles Law:

10 Gas
process Charles' Law states volume of a
that the
Gay-Lusaac Law: given mass of gas is directly proportional
At constant volume, the pressure
on a
to its absolute temperature, provided
given substance is directly proportional
constant.
to absolute temperature, ie,. the pressure remains
V= Const (P a T) i.e., P = Consth (Va)
Isochoric Process! Isobaric Process !

+ Work done =o When the presSure is constant, the

+ Heat added, Q
=
AU= nCy AT thermodynamic process is isobaric and
the work done by the gas in this process
+ For a monatomic ideal gas, the heat added
nfRAT is given by the
as Q =
can also be expressed
2 W= PAV= P(V, - V)
Graph: :
Fraction of Heat qoes in Work
P
heat
In an isobaric process, not all the
Vz
added to the system goes into doing

work. Some of it goes into increasing the

T T, T, T,
internal energy of the gas.
+ Fraction of Heat that qoes into Work done

W.
v,<V,<v,
V
=
1-2
1
 that goes into Internal | Characteristics:
Fnaction of Heat
Entrgy: process reversible, meaning it
is
This
dU happens very slowly to ensure equilibriurm
dQ
at all stages.
The heat added to the system is cntirely
Graph: used for doing work.
+ AU 0 Hum jitna Kam Karenge sab
W = PAV P
heat mein jayega!
Molar heat capacity for an isothermal
process is theoretically infinite because
T
any amount of heat can be added without
dQ
P =
changing the temperature. Cm
naT
P
Work done in Isothermal process

P,>P,>P,
T =
T, T Work nRT

|logso = dQ
W= 2.303 nRT

P,cP,<P, =
T logso dQ
W= 2.303 nRT
moT P
m
oc
Pt
Graph:
Boyle's Law:
Boyle's Law states that the pressure of a
given mass of gas is inversely proportional
to its volume, provided the temperature
T P
remains constant.
P
OT= Const PV= Consth
Isothermal Process ! P!
* An isothermal process is a thermodynamic V V
process in which the temperature of the T= inc
1

System remains constant. then dec.

 Vien Exanple: Tyrc burt
Expansion ;- V1 W ve UVe T

T Compression :- VW= -ve

dQ
M

naT
T,>T,>T,
=
PV nRT 4 Entropy, S =0

PV1 TI Note :

T,>T,>T,>T, nR (T, -T)

+
dW = - nCAT=
-T4 1-Y
P,V, - P,V,
+ =
dW
1-Y
V
+ PVY= TV = pr T =
Constant
11 Adiabatic Process + Graph :
In an adiabatic process, the system is
YP Y
m

perfectly insulated, so no heat enters or P P

V
leaves the systenm. le., isothermal
isothermnal
=
Triatomic
PVy Constn Diatomic
adiabatic Monoatomic
Cp
=
oY = Adiabatic Coefficient
vVimp
Process charecterstics: isochoric
Yadiabatic
W,
isobaric P Ws | W,
Sudden Process:
W, isotherm
+ Adiabatic processes are typically very
isothermal
-W
rapid, meaning the system does not adiabatic W4
have time to exchange heat with its isochoric W, isobaric
surroundings. Expansion Compression V

Work Done (dw): W, > W, > W,

W, >
W, >
W,
+ ln an adiabatic process, the work done W, =0 W, =0
by or on the system changes the internal
energy of the system. Note .

dw = - du Adiabatic Elasticity = Bulk Modulus =

yP
 A B = P = Const" V, TI
pT' Consth
Y-1 B C= V= Const" P Tt
T= P T
C D = P = Const" V T1

Power of
P< 1 - A =
D V= Const PL TU
P

With the help of P-Vdiagram draw P-T

T -Y
Rectangular B
ax
P
C
y
hyperbola B

V
A
Process
12 Polytropic
= consth
py= TV*= pT
A B P T V= Consth
nR(T, - T) R
BC V T P= Consth
Cm = Cy t
W=
1-*
1-* CA PI Vt T= Consth

With the help of P-V diagram draw P-T

R R
= +
C. P
Y-1
B

Graph Conversions : B

With the help of P-V diagram draw P-T

and T-V diagram
AA D D
D
P D TV

A B T= Consth P V
P =
B C Consth T Vt
B A

V C D T= Consth P V
A
B V
D A P= Consth TV
 13 Efficiency() Carnot Theorem:
Out put
Work = 1
lnput
Q
Qs
WD
-ve
Rgiven Tuam
TJyada
Areq jQ4=-verQ,=+ve
B
A Q,=+ve Heat Pump :
Areq
Output Heat
:

nCpT+ nCAT
BC
Input : Work
AB
Working
14 Heat Engine Gas
Source
+ It is a
device which conversts heat engine Sink
into mechanical energy.
Qy = W +Q,
(Punp Gngine Work
3
Working dei Kaam Kta
(GIven) (Reject) l

Gas (hai
Source Sink
(Heat at (Heat at 1
Higher Higher
temp) temp) W Mengine
Work

Refrigerator :
=
Q4 W+ Q, Output :- Heat
lnput :- Work
Carnot Engine: Same as Pump.
Output :- Work Working
lnput :- Heat Gas
P = Room Fridge
AB Isothermal Exp.
A =
B BC Adiabatic Exp.
CD =
Isothermal= Comp Electricity
=
DA Adiabatic = Comp Work

Q2 T2 Kam
D C B=
W T, - T, diff.
 750x6
Vime .Q=
-1.

=
400

Note: Q.S. A system is taken from state A to state

engines and refrigerator are deleted
Heat
syllabus B along two different paths 1 and 2.
from the If the heat absorbed and work done by
a Carnot
The efficiency of heat engine is
Q3. the system along these two paths are
Find the coefficient of performance Ra Qy and W,, W, respectively, then

of Carnot refrigerator when both heat (a) Q, = Q,

engine and refrigerator are working
between similar source and sink (b) W, = W

1 (c) Q, -W, =
n = Q2-Wa
cl Efficiency of heat engine is,
3
n when same W, = Q, t W
(d)Q, +
The relation between B &
Carnot engine is used, Sol. Internal energy does not depends On

path. Heat & work depends (c) Q,-W,

1-n
B=
=
Q,-W, is correct.
Q.6. In a given process, =
dw 0, dQ <O,
1

3 then for the gas:

-=2
(a) Temperature increases
Q4. A carnot engine works as a refrigerator
in between 250 K and 3OO K. If it
(b) Volumne decreases
acquires 750 calories from heat source (c) Pressure decreases
at low temperature, then what is the
heat generated at higher temperature. (d) Pressure increases
(in calories)? Sol. dw=0 dQ <o
T-T2 + =
Sol. n= dU dW dQ
T =
du dQ
300-25O Q-750
du <o
300 d
Temper decrese
SO 750
=1 Volume constant
300
PaT
7SO
1
Pressure decreases
 Sol. ldeal gas: V P: = constant
Q.7. If32 gm of O, at 27°C is mixed with
64 gm of O, at 327°C in an adiabatic Again PV= nRT from equation of stote.
vessel, then the final temperature of Hence, VP x
P= constant i.e. nRT
P:
the mixture will be: constant
Sol. For adiabatic process, gain of heat loss of nRT
heat = Again, P:
or, (nRT)?
m,
S(T-T) = m,s(T,-T) -= COnstant
or, m_(T-T) =
m,(T,-)
T =
or, 32 x (T-27) = 64 x
(327-7) constant
V
or, T-27=2(327-)
Thus volume V when expanded to 2y
or, T-27 654-2T temperature Tz
or, 3TE681
2V -= 2T,
or, T=227°C

Q.8. If W, is the work done in compressing

Q.10. A carnot engine having an efficiency
an ideal gas fromn a given initial state
1
through a certain volume isothermally of th of heat engine, is used as a

10
and W, is the work done in compressing
refrigerator. If the work done on the
the same qas from the same initial state System is 10 J, the amount of enera4
through the same volume adiabatically, absorbed from the reservoir at lower
then: temperature is:
(a) W, =
W, (b) W, <
W, Sol. Coefficient of performance of

>
refrigerator
(c) W, W, (a) W, 2W,
1-n
Sol. (6) B=

Q9. During an experiment and ideal gas 1

1-.
is found to obey an additional law
B= 10
= constant.
VP The gas is initially 1/10
at a temperature T and volume V.
Also B = work
(where W is the
When it expand to a volume 2V, the W
done)
temperature becomes.
 or =
1S Kinetic Theory of ldeal Gas
:W= 9 x
10 90J
411.Duringanaadiabaticprocess, Jmol'K
the pressure
to be
proportional to
of a gas is found
temperature. The ratio
cube of its ldeal gas
the
of C/Cy for the
gas is equal to:
T, T,>T,>T,

Sol. PaT
pV= nRT
Real gas approach ideal gas at
Paro Low P & High T.
Patm
Pa (PV Ideal Gas Behavior:
pv= constant + For an ideal gas, the relationship between
PV = constant pressure (P), volume (), and temperature
=
3 () is given by the ideal gas law: PV nRT
+ Inthe graph, this relationship is represented
PV
012.A mOnoatomicC gas at pressure p, and by a horizontal line where equals the
ideal gas constant.
V, is compressed adiabatically to th
Real Gas Behavior:
its original volume. What is the final
+ Real gases deviate from ideal gas behavior,
pressure of the gas?
especially at high pressures and low
Sol. Correct option is (a)
temperatures. This deviation is depicted
Cp by the red curves in the graph.
It is given that
Cy + The red curves show how real gases
For an adiabatic process, approach the behavior of an ideal gas
P,v,= P,V under different conditions.
S/3 + Kinetic theory of gases based on the
is
molecules picture of matter. According to
which :

S/3 (1) A given amount of gas is a mixture of

=
32 very large number of identical molecules
of the order of Avogadro's number.
 (2) The molecules are moving randomly in Sol. (a)
all directions.
(3) At ordinary temperature and presSure,
PV
the size of the molecules is very small nT
as compared to the distances between
them. Thus, the interaction between
them is negligible. Hence, they move
according to Newton's laws of motion.
(4) The molecules do not exert any force of
attraction or repulsion on each other, P

except during collisions. Mixing of gases

(5) The collisions of molecules agqainst each
other or with the walls of the container
are perfectly elastic. Such that the V
momentum and the kinetic energy of
Pa
the molecules are conserved during
collisions, though their velocities change.
The valve joining the two vessels is opened:
Q.13.Select the appropriate property of an
ideal gas Tmiy ?

(a) lts molecules are infinitesimally +

=
n,T, n,T P,V, P,V,
Small/ Tmix
ng R R
t n2
(b) There are no forces of interaction P,V,
P,V,
between imolecules/ +

RT RT,
(c) It strictly obeys the ideal gas laws/
+
(d)All of these (P,V, P,V) TT2
Tmix +
Sol. (d) P,V,T, P,V,T,
Q.14.The figure shows the plot of PnT Vs P,

Pressure of ideal gas -

for oxygen gas at two different nT
temperatures then
1 =
> P= nmv2rms n =no. density
(a) T, T2
3
(b) Ta >
T,
=
3P m= mass of each
(c) T, T, Vms molecule
nm
(a) May be (a) and (b)
 interpretation of temperature :- Q.15.Four molecules gas have speeds of a

The value of the

I, 2, 3 and km/s.
4

3RT r.m.s. speed of the gas molecules is

KE =
2 1.
(a)-J15 km/s (6)
density 2 2
Energy
15
(c) 2.5 km/s (d) km/s
KE 3P 2.

V 2 Sol.
Rotational KE : + + 4 + 4 + 9 + 16
1
22 +3 - 1
fKT 4 4
fRT
KE = KE =
2NA 2 .
30 15

4 2

Vrms
=/SRI Maxwell Distribution Curve i

no. of
Ny =
molecule
unit
per
velocity.

T,> T,

|(For a given Temp)

VMPavg Vrms Velocity

T P
= no. of molecules.
rArea = N, dv
Averge speed of the molecule of gas:
bTemp independent.

Vovg 8RT
Mean free path :
Vav
J M 3J N
1 =
n =
number density
0.92 Vms 2rtnd? V

Most proable speed of the molecule of gas:

1
VMP P
2RT
 R Tep' of liquid related to interel
RT
= enerqy. not to K.E. of liquid
d= diawmeter 2r
2rN,P
Sol.:- Both are true and correct
explanation.

AA mixture of petrol and air when

AaT iqnited is not in equlibrium state
R Its temperature and pressure not
Density of gas : uniform.

PM Pm Sol.:- Both are correct and correct

d= explanation.
RT KgT
A AQ is extensive.
Assertion and reason based questions:
R It is propotional to total mass of
A
-A liquid is filled in container which is System.
moving with high speed does not have
Sol.:- Both are true and correct
higher temperature.
explanation.
 Simple Harmonic Motion
19
Motion Equation of SHM:
Periodic
A motion which Repeat itself x =
A sin(wt +
¢)
a rcgular interval
of time)
after
dx = +
V= Aw cos(wt )
dt
(repeat about
mean) (repeat not
or back and forth) about mean) dv =-Aws sin(wt +
k Fro a =
dt
)
Oscillation Not Oscillation
Where,
Small amplitude A =
large
Energy cOnserved
Amplitude
Amglitude
•Fo-X w = Angular Frequency
NetSH.M
Simple harmonic Motion
= = 2Tcf
2Tt
. Vitration Oscillation with highfrequency.
=
+Periodic but not oscillation
¢= initial phase, x displacement
all uniform circular motion from mean position.
earth around sun Note:
+All SHM is oscillatory and periodic o for mean
+ = À
start
All oscillatory is periodic but need not
+ =
T/2 for extreme À
start
SHM
+ =
*All periodic need not to be oscillatory &
¢ /6 for half of extreme à start
S.HM. =
+ ¢ Te/4 forX= À start
2 SH.M

(Amplitude is small)
a
aa -nz = even =
Translational

K=tan a=-w'x -n =
0dd but not 1.
a - wx Fz-Kx tan=w
X "Oscillation but not SHM"

a
a- X
a«-x + SHM!
 Fire Concept MR MR
Mai tere piche, wwO nere piche hai
re kisn,
mai tun se na vnil pau, Wo mere
pay
ST
3T/4 2 Mai
Wo
Velocity
TT
Position
2

4 Graphs
X- t:
2
+A
A||2
2
4TN

2
+A Asinwst
Mean
Tl6
T
21 Aw coswt
2e +Aw

|H 3T/4|T
i -Aw'sinst
+Aus
3 Motion From Mean position

Position,
T/4/T2
+ x= A sinwt a
=- wK:

velocity,
+ v= Aw cos(wt) Aw = amax
v= Aw 1-sin?wt +A
-A
+ V= w JA
m
-Aw
Acceleration:
Note :
a
=- Aw'sinwt, a= -wx
Note: S A No
180° change
Mean Extreme
T
Vmay = Aw V=0
270°
a =0 Rmax = -w'A N
ChangeLcos k
 Potential energy:
-
+Aw
wA
1
=1 P.E + Uo = KA?sinwt + Uo
wA? A2 2 2

+A Totalenergy:
-A

(TE KA“ + = constant through

U,
-Aw 2 out the motion

4-Vi a
+ K= Force Consth =
mw
+Aw?
a Energy graphs:
= 1
(Auty (Aw)'
The graph visually represents how kinetic and

-Aw +Aw potential energies vary with displacement in

simple harmonic motion. The total energy
-Aw? of the system remains constant, and energy
oscillates between kinetic and potential forms
Important
as the particle mOves between the mean and
Tine period (TP) of a particle executing extreme positions.
SHM along
straight line with its velocity at E
position x, and x, from mean are V, and V,
TE =
& Then TP: TE PE

PE
T=2Tt
KE

s Energies
-A MP +A
PE = Max KE = max PE = Max
Kinetic energy, = 1 my? KE = O KE = O
2 + At the mean position (MP):
K
we knOW m =
o KE is at its maximum.
Kinetic energy:
O PE Is zero.

1 o Total Energy (TE) = Maximum Kinetic

K(A - ) +
2 =KA
2
Cos
(wt ) Energy.
 + At the extreme positions (tA): MR
O PE is at its maximum. 4+ Equilibrium t fgai Mass
d

O KE is zero. at t
= +
Fextra H4T ZaT Oscillate an
O Total Energy (TE) Maximum Potential Eq" likhkar Equilibrium
Energy.
MR*
Kitne bar Combination of Spring
time
Kitne Repeat given time t 6
lagega mein ST Pattern Series Combination:
Krne Repeat am,
Physical Time (requency F=same, elongation different
Quantity Period
Position
1 1
Velocity
Keg K4 K,
Speed. T/2 2f
Acceleration
KE T/2 2f Parallel Combination:
PE T/2 2f F= different, elongation = same
KE-PE T/2 2f
|KE-PE| T/4 4f 1 1 1
ME = KE + PF o Keg = Ky + Kg

Time period (T.P) of SHM:

Cutting of Spring:
Force Method Energy Method
du 1
F= - Spring constant Ka
F= - Kx dr Length of spring
Kx F = -
a = a = -w'x ,K
m
2Te 2Tt
cut in two equal part then
T T
TP of Spring Mass System:
2K 2K
F= consth
M
Q.1.Cut into three part of ratio 1:2:3 the
T=2Tt ratio of spring constant.
K.
tSHM 241
-,K
(THorizontal = Tyertica) independent of "g" &
shape of object
 :3X
7 Constrain Motion
1 1 1>
2X 3X
Since, forces are balancing.
2 therefore
:6:3:
K, =
2k B(2x) T
= 6K
K, = 3K T K(2x) =
K,
2
T
eg: 1 2 .:.
T: 4KX
K«
T =4K
X(: T Ma)
M M
=
= x :3x: Sx Comparing with a w'x
q
Ji M
M
9K 4K
= T=2rt
Parallel :- Kea 4K
1 3 M

+ + 69K
= K
3K
2> Kx
2T =
Reduced mass Concept : 2
Kx
K T=
2T 4
Ma 4m
T=21tk
M,M,
T= 2Tc M
(M,+M,)K
M
Rotation + Translation wale Que. i

3>
K
E(Electric field)
K
Mean
T=2TC
JK
M + I/R* = Moment
)T= 2Tt K
of inertia 4> K
K m

T=2 if p = O
T= 2rt
3K
 Car at Circular Track i

|3m
T= 2t ST= 2rt
2K

m
mv
R
8 Time Period of Simple Pendulum
mg
Pendulum in liquid :
T= 2rt
Sef.
Special Cases:
ST= 2t
Lift : pVg
g M
o Up :;-T= 2 g+a M

V= Vol. of bob.
O DoWn i-T= 2rt p= density of liquid.
M= Mass of bob.

O Free Fall :- T 0 =

Car : T= 2t o = density
of bob.
>V= consth
M
Mean T= 2
Pendulum

Angle made by pendulum with ceiling is

40°.
Ma
M mgsine
M released
Mg
M
T=2r gcose
a=gsine
mgcos®
mgsine
(T=21
mg
 Electric feld: T.P. when length of Simple Pendulum
is
very

large:
T= 2T
+ |>>> R
1
*T = 2T
M
R
M T= 2T
+ +
T= 84.6 min.
+ |<<« R
*=R
R T= 2t
T= 2r
T= 2TE
2g
g+
M
A mass
eleased inside a tunnel through the
Earth would oscillate back and forth through
simple harmonic motion with the time period.

•m released

T= 2L R
qE
T= 2Tc
M

Earth
EV

:
9> Second Pendulum
Tcose
length =
1m Time period =
2 sec
>E f= 0.5 Hz

M TP of Physical Pendulum :
TSin

mg T= 2Tt
mgd

|= M.O.! of object wrt point of

T= 2rt
9E)2 Suspension.

d =
dist of O
& CM!
 2> Oscillation of liquid column
(I):-
=
d SA Area

T= 2L
DA 20Ag

mgsine T= 2TC

Mg = L L
*2| l=
2
Vertical Rod hinged about one end
m = mass of liquid
ML?
I: p= density of liquid
3

ML² A = Area of liquid column.

C.M T= 2t
L
L = Total length of liquid column
2L
T= 2t Oscillation of liquid column
(II):
3g
+ Special Case :

1» T.P. of Solid Cylinder performing

SHM if it is slightly displaced
downward & released : B

A L= total length of water column

P

M 2L
T= 2t T=2Tt
pAg g(sina+sinB)

9 Superposition of SHM of two object

T= 21t Oscillating in Same Direction
Pg

+ Až +
2AA,cose
e =
initial phase difference.
T= 2TC
(= length of cylinder
inside liquid. A, sino
tan a=
A, + A,cose
 b/n Ac
& 1t SHM
WE Angle =

|X4 = Asin(wt)| k +
A coS
(wt /6) sin (wt+r/3)
aAnet X =
A Sin K, = A COS K =BA sin
(wt-/) (wt - /3) (wt)
Circle
x = Asin(wt) A2
A4 Acos (wt) + y1

diagram Straight line

Phasor X =
Asin (wt)
Asin(wt)
= wt +
coswt Sin
2 X, =A Sin
= A coS x=3A
cos(wt)
(wt + T/3) (wt + /6)
sin(wt+e)
4-oscillation
Q2.Amplitude becomes half in
-
+0 then find amplitude after 16
+/2 oscillation.
Sinwt
A, e6
- = e

=
Sol. A =
A, en A
-sinwt
-4x4
sin(wt-) -= A, e4 =
A, e
2
1 = Ao
e
-coswt 2
Equation of
Equation of
of Superimposed
Equation of
Equation
nd -4
1 A= Ao
SH.M of 1S.H.M of S.H.M 2 L6
X /2 A
ik, = Asin (wt) Acos(wt) sin (wtt/4)

MR
6
Failure is the
success.
first step of
 Wave and Sound Motion
20
Transverse waves travel in the forw
tumhara medium,
Tum wave si h0 main use krti crests and troughs).
Tieim aati ho meri zindagi
mein Mera
ke about
aage Crest
apne mean position
ho, main
hu tumhare liye,
piche oscillate krta rehjata
aage nikal jaati ho...
aur tum Mera use krke
WAVE
Trough
2> Longitudinal Wave :
Mechanical Non-Mech.
Wave
Wave + The particles Particle age -piche aur
wave aage.
Medium Medium X of the medium
Ex. :- Sound.
Wave # EM Wave vibrate in the
# Sound, i.e., Light
on string, wave
Wave.
same direction
On water.
in which the wave ispropagating.
Electromagnetic Matter
Waves: Waves: Rarefaction

Travel without needing Linked with

any material medium tiny particles
like electrons Compression
to move through They
Longitudinal waves travel in the form
of
can move through and protons. +
These waves are compressions and rarefactions.
a vacuum (empty
important in
space). Examples of understanding Equation of Propagating Harmonic
electromagnetic waves the behavior of 2 Wave
include light waves and these fundamental
radio waves. particles. wave
(SHMek particle Ka oscillation hai
1 Mechanical Waves ,
hazaro lakho particle Kaoscillation hai!,
1> Transverse Wave: Particle upar
± Kx ± )
niche wave aage. Y=A sin (wt
The particles of the =
Ex. :- String Wavef Where, A Amplitude of particle.
medium vibrate
w =
Angular frequency
at right angles to
¢= initial phase [t =0 x= 0]
the direction of propagation of wave.
 =
wave no.,
K
Estimation of Particle Whether
Angular ITLL GO UPZ
DOWN:

Vparticle x wave
Lgituainal Wave i- =-Vun Slope of

n Stn |Ky + wt + 7 MR*

A,y=A SParticle
Na Tumhe Formula likhna na
in "y" slope
DonoSame dhekhna direct answer bs wave
jis
fonsverse
Wave : direction mein travel Kr rahi hai uss
direction mein thoda shift Krdo !
PARTICLE + wt)
x=Asin (Ky WAVE
oscillates >+X
in "y B

Dono different
Tu =Asin 2Tc

Condition of Wave equation.:

Velocity of Wave :

dy w dy d'y d'y 1
w =
f dx dt2

Note:
+ "y' Finite hona chahiye at all position
of "x?
ek dusra !
+
y=A sin (Kx - wt) = + =
f
y f(ax bt)
(ax + bt)
Wave is moving in +X-axis.
Important Relation :
t y=Asin (Kx+ wt) dono
2Tt T
Wave is moving in -X-axis. Ax At
V = Aw cos (Kx + wt)
Q.L. The maximum particle velocity is 3
(Vp.mar Aw times the wave velocity of a progressive
Relation wave. If A is the amplitude of oscillating
Between wave Velocity &
maximum
Particle
Velocity: particle, find phase difference between
two particles of separation x.
"(Vplmay = AKV,
wave'
 Sol. The mavimum particle velocity 3 tine 3 Velocity of transverse Wave in
wave velocity |A String

Strain

a= cocfficient of linerexpansion
As we kngw
Y«AT
V Af

u =
M/L Y= Young Modulus

2tv T Stress Y.Strair

V=
3v pA
A

2TcA

Jaise-Jaise Upar jaoge

2Tc
=
=
phase difference x X

2Tc

2TA MR*

3x
m' = x
T,= m'g =
gx ,
General x M
A V= Point
Q.2. The velocity of waves in a string fixed
at both ends V& a
s. .:. wave
is 2 The string forms of at L/2:
standing waves with nodes S.O cm apart. gL
= Constn
The frequency of vibration of the string 2 2
in Hz is
+ Time taken to reach top point
Sol. Here the distance between the twO nodes

ishalf of the wavelength

=
5.0cm 7 =
10cn T=:
2.
200
Hence n= 20Hz
2 10
 5 Speed of Soundl
wave length of transvers wave
Rattio of
bottom to top
at Y
VG or
frequency same V:
ArVatension p= Density of gas.

m, Y=Young modules B= Bulk modules

2,
+ mg or speed of sound in gas
|m VG V=
or liquid.

Newton's Formula :- (isothermal Process)

Sound Wave
4
a type of energy that makes it
Sound is P
+
Va -,B= P
possible for us to hear things. It travels
Typical speed of sound
waves, and these waves move in
in of Laplace's Correction :- (Adiabatic Process)
pattern where particles the medium
(like air) vibrate back and forth the in
direction as the wave. This type of YP 2 B=Yp
Same +
Va&L= ,Y= 1
wave.
wave is called a longitudinal

+ Speed of :
YRT
:- V,> V=
1 Sound Via gas M
2> Light i- Vvacuum gas Via
Where,
Sound
waves can Reflect, Refract, Y: Adiabatic index.
Interfere and Diffract but cannot be R: Universal gas constant.
polarized. Polarization is a property T: Absolute temperature.
that only transverse waves (like light M: Molar mass of the gas.
waves) can have.
Note :
+
Range ; + Vmoist air Vdry air
O
lnfrasonic Sound :-f< 20 Hz, cannot + Pmoist air Pary air
hear + V.
rms >Vsound in gas'
O
Audible Sound :- 20 Hz s fs 20 KHz, can Speed ofsound in gasvaries with temperature.
hear Let speed of sound is Vo at oC. Speed of
sound is V, at T°C. Then find the elation
OUftrasonic Sound :-f> 20 KHz, can't
between them
hear
 Relation Between Pressure Amplitude
Sab °C mein Displacement Amplitude:
Chalega
= BAK)
AP
Vt >Angular wave no
AV= =
0.61t
S46 P.
amplitude >Disp amplitude
o Change in Velocity of Sound is
o.61 m/s Bulk Modulus

+ Per unit raise in temperature i.e. o.18% Measure medium

Sound Wave Travel Due to Pressure & Density resistance to compression.
Variation: Intensity of Wave :
+
Intensity () is the amount of energy (E
+ ln compressions, the pressure and density passing through
a
unit area (A) per
unit
of the air molecules are at their highest. In time (t).
rarefactions, the pressure and density are E 1 pVA°w?
at their lowest. This alternating pattern At 2
of compressions and rarefactions enables
Unit = watt
sound waves to propagate through a m'sec
medium. Where,
I: Intensity of the
medium
Compression Rarefaction Wave V: Velocity of the
Pressure (P) Maximum Minimum E: Energy wave
A: Area A: Amplitude of the
(high (low
t: Time Wave
pressure) pressure) p: Density of the w: Angular frequency
Density (p) Maximum Minimum Energy Density of Wave:

(high (low Energy density (u,) is the amount of energy

density) density) stored in a unit volume of the medium
through which the wave is propagating
Displacement Minimum Maximum
(S)
Energy_ I((ntensity) 1 pA?u'
Volume V(Velocity) 2
Note:
Where, I = pVA?w
between disp (s) & Pressure wave in 2

Sound wave is T/2.

MR* direction se feel karo
 Variation pue to Diff. Sources:- +
Resultant amplitude
Lincar Source Planar Source A* = A
A 2A,A, cos
+
Intensity of resultant wave.
A
ap
I=l, +,+ 2, JI, cos

(A, + A,
LOudness Sound Wave
in
(A, - A,)

reference intensity level, I,, is

the
fuitest sound that
the average human
typically: + 'may
ar can hear,
Wat
410-2 m?
+ The
sound level or loudness (-) in decibels
8 lnterference
(dB) is calculated using the following
Aaise doh wave Ka superposition jiska ^ & f
formula:
Same hai !

L= 10 log10 dB
Constructive Destructive
Amax = + - A,
1Bel = 1O dB A, A Ain A,

MR

Change in loudness: cos =

1 =
CoS
-1
= Tt,
(lma =0, 2r, 4rt, G6Te,
31t, Srt, 7rc,
AL =
10 logo = 10 logso = 2nTc
'min
[ (o = (2n+ 1)r

7 Principle of Superposition of Waves Ax =

0, , 27, 37, X =
2 2 2
=
+
(o) Between Resultant Ax nd
Angle and One of Ax =
(2n +
1)–
A, sin
the Components: tan a= +
A, A, cos TWo wave same amplitude Ao :

Constructive Destructive
A =
Amax 2A
 Rarer :
Q.3. The intensity ratioof the two interfering (b) Denser

beams of light is B. What is the value of

Reflected Transmited
Frequency, f f f
Speed (u) Same Increase
(a)/B (b) 2JB/ (1 + B) U
Wavelength Same lncrease
+ B)
(c) 2 / (1 + B) (a) (1 /2/B (2)

2/B Phase diff.

Sol. (4)
1 + B (No phase
change)
Apply MR*
Cmarmin Stationary Wave
If. B = 1, then =1
mart'min
When two waves with similar properties
q Reflection of Transverse Waves in String
(same frequency and amplitude) tral
+ Transverse waves can reflect (or refract) in opposite directions within a confined
when they encounter a boundary or a medium, their superposition creates
change in medium. This reflection can new type of wave. This resulting wave
OccUr when a wave travels from a rarer appears to stand still, rather than traveling

(less dense) medium to a denser medium through the medium. This phenomenon is

or vice versa. known as a stationary wave or standing

wave.
(String t Sound a Same hai)
(a) Rarer Denser :
Aaise doh wave ka superposition jiska
Reflected Transmited sab Kuch same hoga bs direction opposite
Frequency.
Speed (u) Same Decrease U General equation:

Wavelength Same Decrease y= 2A sin (Kx) cos (wt)

(2) SHM.
Amplitude
Phase diff.
(4) (No phase 27T 2T
Where, K=
change)
 (Antinode)
AN
T The wave
passes through
t=-and+3T| its equilibrium position,
4 4| of
N (Uncle) with maximum speed
particles at these points.
The wave returns
to a form
T
t: Similar to its initial form but
AN
2 inverted, with nodes and
antinodes remaining fixed in
position.

Node Antinode :
+ Different equation of Stationary Wave
Tt
= Kx =
(2n+1) Y= 2A sin (Kx). cos (wt)
nT 2 .
Y= 2A cos (KX) sin(wt)
Rosition: X = + Y= 2A sin (KX). sin (wt)
(2n 1), 4
2
Y=2A cos (KX). cos (wt)
integral odd multiples
Oeur at: | amplitude
multiples of quarter Q4. Ifnode is formed at origin then
of half wavelength antinode.
which is at between nodeand
wavelength
Sol. Midway between node and Anitnode
Tne evolution
of stationary wave:

t=T/2 2 2Tc
AN t=O (ii)
X= 2A sin
N N

=
AN 2A sin /2 A

Difference Between Stationary

&
Proqressive
() tT/4 (iv)| t=3T/4
Wave:
Stationary wave Progressive wave

1> Particle at 1> No Particle at

*A flat line, indicating that the
wave's rest.
Node rest
displacement is zero throughout the 2> Transfer of E &
2> No Transfer
medium of Energy and P occurs.
mOmentum.
Time Description 3) "A" same.
3> Sabka "A" diff.
t0 The wave has its initial same
All in 4> All are in diff.
4>
form with nodes and phase between phase
antinodes positioned as per N.
the general equation.
 or 2
(c) yrd harmonic overtone:-
Stationary wave Progressive wave
S> All particles 5> All particles
V 3V
cross mean cross MP with f=
position with same spced at 2L
diff. speed at diff. time. 3N2.
same time.
Vimp
11 Formation of Stationary Wave in / n- harmonics or (n-1) overtone
String Sonometre Wire
RIf, No. of antinode
Frequency: 2L No. of Node =
n+ 1
-n,then

V 1 1 Difference between any two consecutive

2L 2L 2L pA harmonics ;

= NEET
1 Stress Af =f
P = 2L
2L
:
Where,
+ Sonometer Wire
+ V: Wave speed u= linear mass density of wire.

+ L: Length of the string

+ T: Tension in the string
+ p: Linear mass density nV n mg
2L* 2L mg
+ A is the cross-sectional area)

(a) Fundamental or 1 harmonic : 12 Open Organ Pipe

AN Fundamental Freq. or 1 harmonic :
V V
AN AN
2 2L (F
N
2L
(b) 2nd harmonic or 1
overtone i
or 1 overtone :
2hd harmonic

AN AN AN
f= L N N /f= 2f

=
2f
 2na overtone :-
dharmonc or s
harmonic or 2nd overtone i

N
4L
N4 N a N
YP YRT
2L (2n +
1) = Hormonic n =
2L M Overtone

=
harmonic (n-1)
=
overtone
Sf= (2n+1) f,:f,:f, =1:3:5
+n 4L
Node = n Antinode =
No. of
n+ 1
No. of
Difference between any two consecutive
integral
::f,
=2
:2:3: harmonics :

wave : NEET
For
Pressure default Af = 2f' = 2V
4L
By
2013)AN
(Neet The MR*
Frequency Ka ratio likhdo aur uss ratio mein
Minimum displacement wave
dhekhoKonse wave form Kibaat chalrahi
Disp wave & Pressure wave have jiss wave form Ki baat chal rahi hogi wahi
¢= /2. tumhara N & AN hoga.
=

Note:
f, :f, :fs:f, 1:3 ::{
+
Antinode = Maximum pressure variation. 2ha overtone zra overtone

+ Nodes = Minimum pressure variation.

3 wave form 4 wave form
3N & 3AN 4N & 4AN
13 Closed Organ Pipe

Fundamental or 1 harmonic : End Correction:

A
Closed OP: Open OP ;
N
AN AN

N
3" harmonic or
1st overtOne i
L

A (2n + 1)V nV
f= 4(L+e)
f= 2(L + 2e)
N44 e =0.6 r. e= 0.6 r.
 Sol. The fundamental frequency ofopen
Q.s. The length of an open organ pipe 1s pipe
V
twice thelength of anotherclosed organ =
100Hz
pipe. The fundamental frequency of Hence the third harmonic of closed

the open pipe is 100 Hz. The frequency 3V

organ pipe is
of the third harmonic of the closed 4(/2)
= 300Hz
pipe is.

14 Resonance Tube

Tuning Fork

Length of
Tube air in Tube
|Clamp Stand
and Boss first
resonance
Air
seCOnd
resonance
Cylindrical (third harmonic) third
resonance
Beaker (fifth harmonic)
Water

= = 3V w, - W,
ff f +
COS
2 2
"Resonance'"
NEET Amplitude Oscill" oscill"
V 3V
Ye Amplitude Ko
+ End Correction using resonance Tube : decide Karega !

= W, - W,
e= 2 Angular freq of A
2
Beats! Angular freg of I = W, - W,
Aaisi doh wave jinka "A" same hai lekin
<
"fo" slightly different. Af 10. Angular beat freg = w, - W
Vime
,Tuniing
Fork : - In waxing of A f. will decrease but
fA frequency difference is increasing hence
Sharp:-
waxing :- fl 260 Hz will be answer.
+
Waxing : max (A, A,)
(Ay - A,) Q.7. A tuning fork produces 2 beats per
A

min
Waning ;- second when sounded with
a
tuning
when is
tuning forks sounded fork of frequency 200Hz. When A
Two 4
together produced beats/sec. The loaded with wax the beats stop. What
one fork is 256. The
frequency
of
isthe frequency of fork A?
of beats heard increases when are 2 beats per second
number of Sol. There
fork of frequency 2S6 is loaded : f, -fa =
2
the
wax. The frequency of the other
with
200 - f, =+ 2
fork is =
f, 200 +2
f, =
202 or f, =
148
256Hz 26OHz
f= (Possible)
When loaded with wax the beats stop
since the frequencydecreases on loading.
252Hz
=
.f, 202 Hz
 Electrostatics
21
is
Sureity check of a charge body
1 Charge repulsion:
Charge is a fundamental property of matter Attracton can occur between charged and
that cauSes it to experience a force when neutral objects due to polarization
effecte
placed in an electric or wmagnetic field. It but repulsion only
occurs between like
is the property by which objects exert an charges.
electrostaticforce of repulsion or attraction state
on each other. Quarks :- Does not exist in free
+ There are two Types of Charges:
up
Positive Charge (+): due to the deficiency of
clectrons
Negative Charge (-): due to the excess of down-e
electrons
Q1 Which of the following charge is possible:
Behaviour of charge under different condition:
1C 1e
(a) (b)
Charge Electric Magnetic EM Wave 100 SO
field field x 1021c (d) L.56 x
(c) 4.8 10c
Rest X X Sol. Use Q= ne (a) is possible
V=Consth X Note: Charge a Sharp Point vi t:
Accelerated
2 Method of Charging a body
Properties of Charge:
Charging of Body by conduction:
+ Scalar, Conserved, Quantized + Conduction involves transferring charge
Q= ne,n integer
=

+ lnvariant: does not depends upon speed: through direct contact between materials.
+ For conductor only
+ Charge can't exist without mass but mass
can exist without charge. QaR. [R Radius]
+ Same charge Ex When two conductors with charges Q,
repel (may attract)
& Q, and Radius R, &&R, are connected.:
Opposite charge must attract
IfQ,' is the new charge on first conductor
1
+ Sl unit 1 C= 3x10 esu. IC = emu. then
10
+ = 1 esu Uska R
Smallest unit frankline New Charge = [QTotad
+ =
TotalR
Largest unit faraday, 1 faraday 96500 C
R4
[Q, + Q,]
+ One charge may attract other Neutral R, + Ry
 body by friction :-
Charging of
Kas42.
Fnction ivolves rubbing two different F
o2.25, 1o 12
+ materials together, causing a transfer of
clectrons
1
. For insulator only equal and Nn'
=

charge on
two rubbing object
induction ;
opposite K
4TEo-910".
Maq:- Formula

Di:- Buddhi .
4

charging by Another Mediuwm between Charges:

+
lnduction involves bringing a charged
otject close to another object without
a
K=E,= m oK l dec. to K
tines
dircct contact, causing redistribution of its initial value.
charges in the second object.
Conservative, long range, follow
conductor and dielectric inverse
+ For equal or square law
lesser charge
of positive nature induced. (Fa, central, mediated
by photon.
Charge density :
+ Electrostatic force on q,
due to q. does
Charge Charge on Charge on not depends upon medium or presence of
on Linear Areal object Volumetric
other charge True.
object object
+ Net electrostatics
= = force on q, depends upon
dq odA d pdv
dg = hdl medium or presence of other charge - True.
dq dq, C/m
C/mp= Coulomb's Law in Vector Form :
:c/mo=
dl dA dv
K4142 Kq,42
Areal charge Y21
Linear Charge
charge density density
density

3 Goldleafexperiment A
+ Deviceused to detect charge, not use to B
measure charge. F21

Method involves conduction or induction.

+ Diverge angle a charge of leaf. Q.2 Two identical charge 'q' repel each other
with a force of 100 N, one of the charge
4 Coulomb's Law is increased by 10% and decreased by

Valid for point or spherical 10% then new force of repulsion at the
charge symmetry same distance?
+ The
force of interaction between two
point charges is directly proportional to Ans. q, = 110%4, 42 =
90%4
the product of the charges and lnversely Ka,9, Kq4,
proportional to the square of the distance F= F'=
between them.
Neutral Point : tano
+
Find position of 3 chare where force on tan ß m

that charge will bezero +

If m, m, then a = B

+ If m, > m, then a < B

9,+Q 92FnQ
nQ
tano =E
mg

X
F,=0 T=JE+(mg' T
Like Charge Unlike Charge
X =
d d mg mg
+ X =
Jn 1 Q.4 If q, >
4, but m, = m, then which of
Bada charge
In = the following is correct?
Chota charge a =
(a) B (b) a>B (c) a < B

Note:
If we Divide charge Equally, they repel each
other with F

Q.3 Find Position & Value of "g" so that

System will be in Equilibrium: Ans. (a)
Force on Rod Due to Point Charge :
dq, dx
nQ
X
X =
Jn+1
-nQ Kq (aL)
(Jn+ 1) F=
a(a+L)
Pendulum Problem :

s Electric Field Intensity

B + Electrostatic force per unit positive charge.

2 m
FNC. Vector !

E
+ Value of a anddepends on charges and
B
+Ve dur
On t-along
masses but ratio of a and B does not
depends on charges and depends only on -Ve o Pass on--opposite
masses E
 Electric field lines Superposition Principle:

+
Electric field lines are inaginary lines or + When dealing with multiple charges, each
curves that represent the direction
and pair of charges interacts independently.
strength of the electric field in a region of
space. At any point
on
the line, the tangent + The total force on any charge found by is

the line gives the direction of the electric adding up all the individual forces exerted
field vector at that point. on it by every other charge.

Mathematically
Consider a system of n point charges;

4142 45
,9, distributed in space. Let
* The density of the lines at any point the charges 42 43 *** 4n exert forces
indicates the magnitude of the electric Fi2 É:s
.., F on charge q. The total
Feld: closer lines mean a stronger field.
force on charge 4, (F) isgiven by:

.+

>
|E |Eel
Electric field due to Point charge :
Properties of electric field lines: -

+ Electric field lines originate from positive

charges and terminate at negative charges. E = KQ

+ Electric field linesnever cross each other.

If they did, it would imply two different
Electric field due to Ring :
directions of the electric field at the same
point, which is imposible.
JR+X
+ Electric field lines do
not form closed loops.
|R
Radius
=
They begin at a positive charge and end at t 2
a negative charge, or extend to infinity in X
+
the case of isolated charges.
= KQx
In regions where there are no charges, E,
(R²+X33/2
electric field lines are smooth, continuous
Curves without an
 2KA
+ Graph B/w electric field and distance + Infinite - line:- E

+ Semi- Infinite line: E-)

KA
E
+ Finite line:- E (sin a+ sin B) 3

Enax
+(Cos a - Cos B) 1
- = 2
+ Finite line at 'r when (a=B); E sinai

Electric field due to A Half ring : IMP Charge (-9, m) moving around
Case infinite line charge with speed v.

E = 2KA 2KA
R
Lu
-q, m
E 2KQ

MR*
Q.5 Find electric field at centre ?

+Q
2KA sin (e/2))
E=
R
R +Q +Q
#Garda Visualisat.
if e =
(Half Ring) +Q

then, E z2KA KQ
Sol. E =
if e = 2r (Ring) a?
then E =0 MR*
Put and -Q charge on the corner,
+Q
Electric Field Due to Line Charge i where no charge is present.

Motion of Charged Particle in Uniform E.F.

Charge is drop/released :

Acceleration, a=1, Velocity,

Momentum, p = qEt
 Distance covered,
s =9Em t Graph of Electric field with R due to
2 Combination of Point
Charge i
E

Kinetic
energy, K.E
2 m
Positron, p"': e,mn. Deuteron e,
2m.
x -particle
= 2e, 4m. NP
projected with "U" in
Change is di of E.F.:-

i=
Const + V=U,t2,
m

+ AP= qEt (-44 +9)

NP

+ S= Ut
+
+ P;=mu9Et
2 m m
7 Electric Dipole

5> Charge is projected er to E.F. : + Two equal and opposite charge placed
Small distance.
at
+ Unit =
C.m, Net charge = O,
ldeal dipole
= Small
dipole
tan &=.9Ed
Mag. of Dist" between
P=
two charge
+ Direction of dipole moment -ve to +ve
charge.
2imU
Equitorial line :

Ex Proton, Deutron and a-particle -KP -KP

projected in electric field perpendicular (a' +/2
to it, then find ratio of deviation if:
P
E sin
() They projected with same speed 2E cos E

(n) They are projected with same K.E.

E
E sine
op:op : , =
1:1: 2
&«q
(n) Projected with same momentum
Op : op :
6, =
1:2:8|8c qm
+a
 1> Force b/w two dipole o
Axial line : 2> Force b/w point charge 1/
E
oc &
2KP
dipole 1/
2KPX E
=+ 37 Force b/wtwo Charge o
1/2
(a-x*)²
(X-a)
A B
*Jiska Power woh sabse nichepx
2a
R
Electric oscillation in electric feld7
X
When electric dipole is placed
an
in a
Axial Same line
E.F. uniform electric field, it experiences a torque
Eequi 1 mein hogi aur E.F. equitorial) that tends to aliqn the dipole with the field
Eaxial 2 line pr 1 hogi aur dipole direction. This setup can lead to oscillatory
Ke opposite hogi.
motion if the dipole is displaced from
equilibrium position.

At an angle from ideal dipole: Torque on an Electric Dipole:

Sm T=PxE = PE Sin Vector !

2KPcosO
KPsinb e= Angle between E
& P.

Torque hamesha dipole at E.F. diAlian

Pcose KP Time period of oscillation (:

J3coste +1)
T= 2rt
PE
|=Moment of lnertia
Psin T=Time period of oscillation
P= Electric dipole moment
.. Angle between E & P
= +
< =
E Electric field.
s
+ Electric field on the axis of electric dipole
KP sine/x tan moment -
tan c = = always parallel to electric dipole
2KPcos/x 2
False

fo= tan J2 } The Angle from dipole at which + Electric field on the equitorial line of dipot
ELP isanti-parallel to dipole True
Electrostatic PE. Stored in Dipole in Uniform
Scalar
Electric field :
-
Scalar. Unit (Volt meter) & (Nm c)
P.É
= - PE cos.
dA variable electric field.
P2
Py Flux:- Aaisi line joh area Ko aarpar ched

Pe
banakr jarahi hai !
3-D body :- , =

=
-ve out
it out
+Ve rotal

Uniform E.F.:- = 0.
(rotal) close surface
Q.6 A charge Q placed on the cornor of
=
40° =
180° Square plate of side 'L' then find flux
through that square plate zero.
PLE P anti E
F=0 F=0 F=0 10 Gauss Law
PE
T=
4enclosed
PE U= 0
U.=- PE
U.
max
min
=
inside charge ARIT
+ Work Done to Rotate dipole W=AU= Up-U, E =
inside outside ¿t !
+ Work done by E.F. to rotate dipole=w=- AU Flux from close surface does not depends
Special Case : shape, size of surface and location of
+ Work Done to Rotate from Stable to charge inside surface and charge outside
the surface.
Unstable :- U =
2PE.
Always valid
field
W.D. = O! Only applicable to calculate electric
for symmetric charge distribution
q
Electric Flux Special Case :

= flux
= =
EA Cos + Flux through any one of the faces not
É.Á touching the corner charges :
& A

b= Angle between E
Gives the idea of electrostatic energy
passing through given area. =

>Counting of field lines passing through

given crosss -section area
 Infinite hollow/solid conducting or holloy
-
non-conducting cylinder:

radius
2KA oR
E outside
Er point

Aaise Question mein pahile length nikalo,

E^
charge distribution dekho

lagado !

+ Relation between plane angle & solid angle

r=R
Solid non-conducting cylinder :

-+)ods
Caa = 2n(1-cose) pR pr
Eout
2€,r 280

(1-cose) E ^
2Eo
pR
Esurface

11 Application of gauss law r =R

E.F. Due
to point charge i
MR* r
E
KQ
E=
2KA
E

Infinite line charge : E.F. Due to hollow conducting/N.C. Solid

conducting sphere :

E^
E = 2ka
Eout =

R2
 solid non-cOnducting
EF
dueto sphere
E.F Due
to ininite laarge (non] conducting
KQ
plate/sheet i
Eut
R

KQ E
Pr
R 20

Kuch na bola jaye toh by default

E
Non -conducting consider Karo!

E.F. Due to conducting plate

:

Spherical Shel: E= +|+

2AEo ++
+t
(like Hollow Sphere).
Charge Ke Terms

sheet Ka Formula same

Egut
KQ KQ ti
R2

Conducting Shell: Electric field due to charge disc:

E.F. inside isolated Conductor is zero.

X E=
EF Inside cavity of non-conducting solid 2€0
sphere :

distn b/w centre of sphere

to centre of cavity Charge Distribution:

E, = pr (uniform) r ro -
Total
Charge
Charges on outer surface of plate =

from from 2
Sphere Cavity
|2Q 3Q
o
Charge distribution on concentric
sphere :
SQ-Q +Q| 5Q final charge on outer
4
surface of outer sphere
2 22 2 2
o
Charge on inner surface of outer sphere
SQ Q
=
=
42-4
2Q
2 2 42
SQ 41
+ = 3Q
2
22

MR
 Electric Potential
22
Potential
Electric
E =

done
nit positive
in bringing dy
charge
sk to the point without change
in
+
called clectric potential at that point. (or) Potential decrease in the direction of
KE Š work. done by electric force
Negatrie in bringing Electric Field.
positie charge frominfinity to that point. +
ntdepends upon refrence frame Potential due to positive charge at sOme
+ distance must be positive - False
unit: volt, J/C, weber/sec, N-mC
+ + Due to positive charge potential may be
Potential ; +Ve, -ve, zero depends on refrence True
=
AV=-Edr Area of -E/r graph
24x
[v dr will be zero one,
# At two point potential
Area E slope
E/a b/w the charges and 2nd left of smaller
diff charge (V= o karne ke liye dono charge
opposite nature ke hona Chahiye)
dv (diff")
E= r r
dr n
n+1
E=-(slope of V/r graph)
2
Potential due to
WeE Point charge :
AV= - E. dr =

=
KQ
+ Scalar V= r
+ Ref. at oo, V= O.
KQ
Electric potential energy is defined only in
a conservative field.
n
# E =
dv = - [Slope of V-rgraph]
+ For n point charges
at distances r,, r,,
4

, 42
located
from a point P,
dr the electric potential V at P is given by:
 Hollow conducting
conducting sphere
/ non-conducting.
:

411€,
Ring i +
V,
KQ KQ KQ
V
JRx² R X
R

Charges at corner of square i

+Q +Q +Q -Q

Vo

+Q +Q -Q +Q Solid non-conducting sphere :

+Q +Q +Q +Q

Eo Vo +

R
O
+ +
E

+
-Q -Q -Q +Q +C + s
Axis of line charge rod
:
3 KQ
L
2 R
KQ
R
=
Ja+L]
V, KÀ log

R
Half ring:
KQ KQ
+ Vo + =
V,
R
KQ Qt
Vo KQ
=R + Vin
+
Ve=
3KQ
2R3 2R
R
Electric Potential due to dipole
at general () Two charges system:
point:

KQ,Q2

P
KPcose (i) Three charges system:
+ VP=
+ For a system consisting of three point
KP charges Q,, and Qs, arranged in a
Q

+ + V
Vaxial equitorial0 triangular configuration with distances
(o- a) rs ry and r, between them, the total

ir potential energy of the system is

U

given by the sum of the potential energy

-a--a contributions from each pair of charges.
+ If potential zero then electric field must be
1
Zero - Flase
4TTe,
f field is zero then potential must be zero
- False
+ If potential constant
then field is zero -True
+ If electric field constant then potential is
zero False
+ If we move perpendicular to field potential
If Q4 = Q, =
Q, =Q, then
remains cOnstant. - True
+ Potential increases if we move opposite to
the direction of electric field.- True
3KQ?
Note:

Potential difference does Q

not depends upon
+ For a system of four point charges Q4, Q
reference point its always same between two
Q, and Q4 the electric potential energy
points!
U is
Potential Energy of System of Charged
Particles :

r42 r32
* For a charge q in a potential V: U = qV
=
Using the electric field E:U -fE. d] Y21
 :
Solid non-conducting sphere

o.GKQ? 0.sKQ' 0.1K0?

Ufotat
R

Surface Centre to
to co Surface
• If Q, = Q, =
Q,
=
Q, = Q

4 Equipotential Surface
4KQ² [2KQ?
+
An equipotential surface is animaginary
L L
surface where every point has the sawss
electric potential. This means there i
Vimp. nopotential difference between any two
n(n-1)
Total no. of terms of PE:- points on this surface.
2
n = no. of Charges
Types of Equipotential Surfaces
+ =
+
W,= AU= AKE QAV
Charge Distribution Shape of
Note: Equipotential
Surface
Point Charge Spherical
Infinite Line Charge Cylindrical
rl Infinite Charged Plane
Plate
Large Distance |Spherical
rl from Ring/Charge
Distribution
Pressure : E =
2E0 Characteristics:

+ Potential Difference (aV) is Zero.

3 Self Energy
+ Work (W) Done is Zero.
Hollow conducting / non-conducting or solid
conducting sphere i + Equipotential surfaces are always at right

KO?
angles (perpendicular) to electric field
lines.
2R
 Electrostatics of Conductor

5 Infinite charge sheet

Electrostatic shielding A
Charge : Q, Area : A
soevan
tuddesh
Conductor
-B
E

Aa Einduced
V Q
e
V,2AE
e/t + Find potential difference b/w two concentric
sphere
Entt =ext t Eijnd
= 0.
Enet

Jitna External E. Field hoga Utna 1 1

opposite Einduce hoga. AV=

Qz Neutral conducting sphere, find electric

field of center due to + q
charge.
+ Potential difference does
not depends on
charge on outer sphere only on inner charge.

+ + When two concentric spherical charge

connected with wire the potential difference
Ans E,=
Ene0 becomes zero, all the charge of inner sphere
will flow to outer sphere.
Ejnduce
-E
+ Wat
AU= qV
6 Important points + Welectric field = -AU= -qav
+ If external force absent, we can apply
is
<
A B E Eg
(C.OM.E.) conservation of mechanical energy
or AUoss = K.E'gain

K.E. =
qAV
+E VA- Va = Er cos
Electric field inside conductor is zero
- False
+ zero hoga and final charge
Electric inside isolated conductor | potential
field on outer
where matter is present is always zero sphere
True

+ Thick cOnductOr : 42
42= Same

O
Eg
+4

+ When two conducting sphere is connected

with wire (Not concentric)
+
From large distance then distance of
closest approach
fixed
42

R 2KQq
r=
Final charge q a Radius (R)
Q.2 What amount of work is done in movina
Potential V= Same a charge of 4 coulombs from a point

Surface charge density o a

220 volts to a point at 23O volts?
Radius (R) Sol. Potential difference between the two
points
Electric field on surface Ea AV=230 - 22O volts
Radius (R) .. AV= 10 volts
+ After earthing potential of conductor must Amount of charge moving q =4
be zero, charge may or may not be zero. coulombs
Thus work done W= q4V
+ Final charge on each sphere when outer :: W=4 x 10 =
40 joules
sphere is grounded. Q.3 Three point charge -q, +q and -q are
placed along straight line at equal
R distance (sayr meter). Electric potential
M2 energy of this system of charges will be
if +q charge is in the middle.
Sol. -q rqr9
-Kg K
U= + K2r
Jisko ground nahi kiya hai uska charge
same rahega. Jisko ground kiya hai, uska U=
2r
 uniforn electric field
ln an
E
1ON/C Sol
Q4 AV-EArcosb
as shown in figure,fnd Va V

. E
(20-1O)
Arcocg
1010 cos120
E
10
10x10(-sin 30)
2im 2m
-10 =
200 V/m
-1/2
2m Q7 If potential at centre of Non conducting
sphere is zero then find poten tial at
Sol. We know that Electric field, distance
surface of sphere?
and voltage are related by formula,
Sol. AV = Same, does not depends on
= V
E.d reference
Subsituting values, 3 KQ KQ
Vo-V;=
V= 10 x
2 x Cos 120°, V= - 10V 2 R
E
The work done to move a charge on an KQ
cquipotential surface is?
0-V,=
2R
Sol. Workdone in equipotential surface is KQ
zero as W=q(VA-Va) & V=Vg 2R
Q.8 Equipotential surface due to point
Q6 Equipotential surfaces are shown in fig. charge then compair r, and rz
then the electric field strength will be dv
Sol. Hint E=
dR

10V 20V 3OV 30V

20
10V
(cm)

30,

30

MRS
6 Aasma bhi jhukega tere aage yu hi
junun ke had se guzarte raho pura
or
jeevan ek sangarsh hai ladte raho
aage badhte raho.
 Capacitor
23
Combination of Spherical Capacitor :
Capacitor
.
An clectrical device which store
clectrostatic encrgy by storing charge. ab
q'=-QC= 4e
Generally it is combination of two a (let) a-b
MR
conductor, having equal and opposite
o
charge. b=
E=0 C= 4TEoa
Q= CV Volt Farad
Depends on size, shape & Medium Parallel Plate Capacitor :
between them.

C=
+
4,
+ +
Slope of Q/v graph
E=olt E=0
Scalar t E

= d
unit q/v farad
Dim - [MLTA] -A = Effective Area

2 Spherical Capacitor E (due to one plate) =

2€0 2AEo
Q.R -=
C= KQ 4TE,R
+ Enet
Case :
o
AEo
Special
n small charged sphere combine to form od Qd
+ AV= AEo
a bigger sphere.
Q' = ng
Capacitance in air
c'

+
(air) Co = Ao
R AV d

For bigger sphere, =

Cl= n3c V=nV

+ (medium)C'=
d '
C
ko
U'= nu, R= nr
 Energy on Copacitor i

1 1 Q

A d

Delectric introduce between plates : - Self Energy :

For Spherical Capacitor :

Force
between the Plates :- U=

(: F= qE)
2E0 Cylindrical Capacitor :

:
Pressure on the plate
2rcE,!
2AEo 2€0 C=
log
Energy density :

Energy
2€o Volume 2CAd

Between the plate net electric field only

Charging of Capacitor i
due to charge on Inner surface of plate

E,
Alo .Q= charge of lnner surface.
R
Note :

+Q/C
+Q-Q
VA VB
Key
V

WD by battery in Charging Capacitor

-Q/C
=
A to B
CV
-
B to A
VA
Q/C= V Vgt Q/C= V • 1
V, - V = Q/C =
Va Q/C
WD in Charging Capacitor =I
V-
1
Heat
MR for Calculating Elos CV+KCxO CV
V
V= C+KC C(1+K) 1+K
U, + Whatteru = U,
t Uioss
CV = KCV
1 Q(air)= Q(dielectric)
cVfinal 1+K 1+k
initial
2
charge cmf of
transfered battery
4 Combination of Capacitor

Series combination of capacitors :

3 Connection of Two Capacitor(
Q= Same
Same Terminal Connection : V= V, + V, t ..
1 1 1 1 ,
C,V, + C,V, 41+42
+
C
C C, + Ca
Law of Potential drop :
Q = CV= same.
Loss in Energy :
Jiska Capacitance Jyada hoga Usmein

AU= Voltage drop Kam hoga.

2
.t(V,-V,
Parallel combination of capacitors :
Final Charge :- q, C,Ve V= Same
Q= 4. +
42 to..
42 =
CVe Transfer :- [9,-q':]

Reverse Polarity Connection : Law of Charge Distribution:

MR*
Special
C4 + C

Jiska Capacitance jyada hoga woh jyada

AU=
2C charge rakh lega!
MR*
+
An air filled capacitor charged with
potential V connected with identical
uncharged capacitor filled with k-dielectric C, C2
then common potential and final charge
On each. C,V+C,V, Q,-C,(V,-V)
V= C+C, Qz=C,(V-V,)
 Q1 Find chare and potential difference
acvoss cach capacitor

C, 2pf C,
4uf

10V

20V SV
&
Sol.
indentical Conected in Series
MR" You can assume potential ka refrence
zero potential at any one point of
farallel:
circuit.
=
*
Parallel: +10V 4uf Cz
Serits :
Cca = nC. C,
2uf
10V
is Smaller Cea islarger
than Smallest than largest
Capacitor Capacitor. +20V 20V
V
(Let) SV +5V

.Brcakdown Voltage : (Change on C) Q, =

C, (A) =
2uf x

(10) =
20uc
that can be applied across a Capacitor. (Change on =
=
C) Q, C (A) =
4uf x

(10-5) 20uc
* Series : Parallel :

VB V

• Special Case :

Ca OV (Let)
No. of gap MR Bade aaramn
= No.
of Cap.
C,V,+C,V,+C,xo
C,+C,+C,
 2C
A
(2C
2C+X C

C,,3C
s Ladder Network MR
Series main C,, less than smallest and
ir
parallel C,, larger than largest
Ladder Type - 1i
C C C 6 Wheat stone Bridge
upto
T2cinfinity
2CT 2C 2c
C
Sol.
C
infinity me 1 unit
C T1 subtract karne se
fark nahi padta
A Cs B

2c |B
CA

X+2C cOnncct <- X&2C parallel

Balanced condition of a wheat stone bridaz

Cu=
(X-2C)C
X-2C)-C
- then it with c in
series to get Cea
CA

MR" In series C
must be less than smallest
hence Cua C
(: Potential difference between x and y is
zero)

Ladder Type - 2 : +
Charge on Cs = o
Some example of Wheat Stone Bridge :
20 2C 2C 20

B A
C
add 2C & X in series then in parallel
with C.
 (iüi)

15juf

12uf 12uf

C
CAR = 7Cl8
B

A +
12-ldentical capacitors or resistors in

cubical form :
symmetric circuit
Some
C

-CC

-B

Along Along Along

Cu 2C/3
side Face Body
MR* diag. diag.

12 4
C
7
7R 3R SR
X Reg
12

A
7 Dielectric Medium in an Extemal E. Field

H
E, Jaise Coulomb F. dec. "K" time
CAB = E. Field dec. "K" times.
3C/2 C K Similarly
Series Combination of Dielectrics : = =
If K, = k, Ky then C
MR*
Ek Ke baad Ek daalte rehna!
Alo
C= +o
d, 2
K

d
Kea

C +
Kke
Parallel Combination of Dielectrics : K,tKg

Saare dielectric then Cea: EAK

ka ek terminal d
+ve Dusra IF K=1 If K=o0
-ve terminal MR*
C' = C Conductor
00 C

C=
K,
+ Cea =KA,
d
+ KyAst] Introduction of dielectric
between plates of capacitor :
K,A, + K,Ayt.
+ Kea :
A, A,t..+ +
Battery is Connected
Ky
A
Initially Finally
d
Capacitance Co KCo

Potential Vo No
Charge KQo
K2
E. Field =
E, Vd Eo

U (Ener9y) KUG
EA EAK,
C= Fo (Force on KFo
2d Plate)
d
K,ky
+ Battery Ziddi hai potential same rakhegi!

C= +
Battery is removed then dielectric i
K,+ky placed :
 Initially Finally 2C
K+1
Cyacitance Co KCo

Potential "V,/K
*Qo conserved
Charge
E, =
V/d Eo /K Sol. (b) C=| €A
Field
E. =
Q§/2C,
d-z 2
U,
(Encigy)
on Fo = qE Fo/K
Fo (Force 2€,AK k
plate)
d(K+1) (K+2)

Plate isolated hai to charge conserved rahega.

Diclectric of width t placed between
capacitor;

d
Air

Q.3. Find charge and potential drop across

each capacitor.

EA
C=
(d-t)+ K
t
8uf
HHE 2uf
if t=o
MR*
C=
d=t

10V
Q2.A parallel plate air capacitor has
capacitance C. Half of space between the Sol. MR* V=
plate is filled with dielectric K as shown
to Fig. Then new Capacitance C' is V,= x(let) V,=2x V,= 4x
=
K
(a) C
C X + 2% + 4X = 10V
K+1

(b) C'= C 2K
LK+T X= volt
 of the circuit. is,
Sol. The total capacitance
C=2uf
Q = CV
Q4. So, Q
=
240uC
Q=10juC
Voltage across Buf capacitor will be

3uf =
240 80V
Sol. X + X =10 MR* Q=CV =V
V,

3
3
Qac Voltage across 2uf and 4uf capacitor
30 will be,
X= C
7
Q.s. The charge on capacitors shown in the V, =
(120-4°y
3
figure and the potential difference across
= 40V
each will be respectively.
2uf Charge across the 2uf capacitor will be
Q4 = x
(2 40) uC
=
80uC
3uf
4uf Charge across the 4uf capacitor will be,
120V Qa = (4 x
40) uC
=
160uC
 24 Current ElectricityY

Electric Current tanooo

L
Ans '4
directional flow of electric charge
of
tan30 1
fhe rate
t called electric current. Isolated Conductor:
Current
Number Density of Electrons (n)
't
Cime attime
ne =
1oe/m
t +
The average velocity of electrons in
a

AQ conductor is

At V= 10 m/s
= slope of charge
fidt + In an isolated conductor, the electrons
Jat -time graph
move in such a way that they cancel out
*Charge on circular any internal electric potential, resulting
path zero.
= in a net average potential of
ne |d f ldt
Avg. =
AQ Area of (speed V « T)
= = nev current time graph
nef +
Kinetic Energy and Temperature
2Tcr

scalar, 1 3 Js
my2 KgT Kg-1.38x10-25
unit (Ampere). 2 2 K
dimension [A"]
2 Battery Connected to Conductor
.1 Through given cross section n, electron
a

per-sec are passing from left to right

and n, proton are passing from right
to left simultaneously then the electric acceleration
current through this cross section. qE
=
F- qE, a = E =
ns. I =
(n,
n,)e +

.2 Find ratio of current. Force on electron

B Drift velocity
t
+ AT I= neAV,
A
eEt
30
30°
Where: Mobility :
E = electric field Property of charge carrier.
V,= drift velocity . Does not depends on dritt velocity an
|= lengtlh of conductor
clectric field.
n=no. of electron per unit volume
T = relaxation tine
i,
=
nass of clectron
• Relation between mobility and conductivit
V= emf of battery
e =
charge of electron o= neu
The electric field in the conductor is due
to the potential difference applied by the
MR*
battery, distributed along the length of
the conductor. Q.3 If drift velocity is doubled then wha

about mobility ?
Electrons gain velocity under the influence
Ans. Remains same
of the electric field, known as drift velocity.
This is the average velocity attained by Current Density :- (Vector)

electrons in a conductor due to the applied Current density is the amount of electri
electric field. current flowing per unit area of the cros
Conductivity(o) and Resistivity(e): section of a conductor.

Conductivity is a mneasure of a material's J== neV

ability to conduct electric current, while A
resistivity is the measure of how strongly Where
a material opposes the flow of electric
current. They are inversely related. I: Electric current
MR
feel A:Cross sectional area of the conducto
n: Number of charge carriers per unit

ne't m
volume
net e: Charge of an electron

scopic form pl V: Drift velocity of the charge carrier:

Micro
of
Ohm's law! R=A ln vector form

mil V=iR m/ = Vector form

V= LR= i= J.A JAcos0
of
ne'tA ne'TA
J = neVa Ohm's law!
 irection of the.current density vector
1he If wire of Resistance R ttretched to
a
sane as the direction of the flow double of its lenqth the new resstanc
& the
opostie charge (or the direction of the becomes 4R
ovntional current), Q4 The masses of the wirt in the ratio ot
1:35 and their lenath are in ratio of
The ratio of their resistarce
5:3.1.
r
125 : 151
R
Ans. R, :R,R,
B
A
Ohm;s Law :

Current mil V= iR
V=
Current density
:
Ja <Ja ne'TA
prfit velocity
*Note :
Variation of
Resistance :- Material
prop. fConductor
pL
R=
(remp't Insulator )
where R is the resistance, p is the Semi-Conductor yoc = -Ve of pl
resistivity of the material, L is the length of
the conductor, and A is the cross-sectional

arca of the conductor. Temperature Dependence of Resistance &

Resistivity :
(b) l Change
(a)
I Change
= + a AT]. Ap
A Const V Consth Pr Pol1 Po AT
Rool Ro? unit K-1
(c) A Change (d) A Change
| Consth V Consth
Ro 1/A Rox 1/A²
Cu Nichrowne

pf pM T T
(e)
R=x density ( R= density A?
Two resistance R, and R, connected in
M
R« series and their Ra does not depends upon
M
A =
temperature then R,a, -R,a,
 Note :- Household circuit maltab pavallel civeuit.
•
Rrc= Ro (1 +
oT) always valid l
Rtz =
R, [1 x
(T, - T,)] 2.0
WW

Valid for small change in temperature 10.

1 +
at, Ro
=
resistance at o°C 12V
=
1 + at: Resistance at t, 2.0.
Resistance at ty W

always valid
10. 3V
MR*
Relation between Coefficient of : Sare resistance ko series me ek sath add
kar ke battery ko ek sath polarity ke
(a) lincar expansion (a) sath add kare
(b) Resistance (a)
(c) Resistivity (a,)

MR*
R=A Point potential - current depends on
potential difference not on potential and
potential difference does not depends on
reference, hence you can assume zero
3 Battery
potential at any one point of circuit.
(Sirf ek point pe hi zero man sakte han
Kishi bhi point ka Potential Apan zero Mann
(a) Charging (b) Discharging
Sakte hai!
AV= E + ir AV= E - ir Q.5 Find current in 152 and 3O2.
R,=150. R,=302
m=-r WW
M=+r
E
-SV "10V

MR* 20V

4 -5V 1s2 +10V 3O2 7+20V

Kirchoff's Law

10V
|Charge SV
Law ()
Conser +ov(let)
Law (in) Energy Conser. yaha ish liye kyki yha se sare point
potential nikalna easy hai.
 10-(-5) 15 =
1A Q.6 Find current throuah each resistance?
15 15

20V 102
(20-10) 10 m
A +20V
30 30
(Put) ov V(let)
Combination of Resistance 202

+10V
10V 52
Series i- is Same potential different

Vyotal = VtVy+Vyt.. Ans.

= Ry+Rz+Ryt.. 102
MR*
20V
Ifn equal resistance, Reo = nR V
OV W
(let)
202
R,, will be largerthan the largest Resistance W

10V
V«R
+
Jitna Jyada "R" Utna Jyada V,
arop.

V= R
Parallel :- [v =
same] current different
R, R
+ ltotal = l+,+lyt..
20 4
1 +
+ +... 20 52+1+ 4 80
Rea R, Rz V 1O

1 20 7
+
10 20
If n equal resistance, Rea = R/n
Now, we can calculate each current
+
i« 1/R
because we have V = 80 hence we have
+
JitnaKam R' Utna jyada «i" potential difference.
*Household circuit matlab parallel circuit.
Q7 Find current and potential drop across
each resistance
To Calculate Potential at Midpoint :
22 62 42
R4 Ry
V
mid
+
R, Ra
Ans. V =
IR, VaR Parallel :
= =
V, x(let) V, 3x V,
=
2x
Hence x+ 3x +
2x =
24V
12 volt v, =
=
V, =X= 4 volt, V, 8 volt
V..
net 24 =
R2 2Amp
12
1
Qs Find current through each resistance V= &
1 1 Yea
=
I, 4x

42
+
If there are n-identical cell in parala!
|= 14A = then,
I, 2x =
o net E(emf)
I,
=
x(let) 82 =
r/n [Minimum]
Ans. V= IR
1
Mixed Grouping i
R +
n-ldentical battery (E.r) COnnected
+ =
X+ 2X 4x 14
in series then this series combination
X = 2 Amp connected m-times parallel with external
resistance R.
6 Combination of Battery
n - series nE, nr
Series :
then m-times parallel (nE)

nE
nr
Enet R+

This I will be maximum when

If there are "n" identical battery is
connected in series : R = )(ntemal resistance)
Enet = ne +
Circuit Mai chalna lmportant Hai

net nr
. If R
"n'" identical battery is connected in
X
series out of which "m' reversed
:

Enet = [n-2m]E V, - IR + E = V,

ret = nr [Maximunm] V, -E + IR =
V,
 ki direction me resistance ko betueen two
Curcnt Agar ye internal resistance
par potential drop hoga (-IR) Sane
cross karne Circuit iss pattern mein raha toh Parop
Current ke opposite potential increase hoga woh doh circuit mein!
(+IR). maximun
hoga Power drop in ext. Circuit with
cross karne pe
Battery ko lower to higher power theore :
potentialincrease hoga (+E).
to lower Cross karne pe potential R
Higher
decrease (-E).
se
Current ki direction fark nahi pedega.
= E R
Q4 Find V? Power drop across R, P I'R=
|R+r
Power drop will be maximum when r=R
|= SA 22 giV 42 3V

Ans. Move from 'P to ground P

Pmax
S+ 3 =o
E

V,+
5 x
2- 8 + 4 x Pmax =
4R
+ 8 = -25 volt
V, -33
7 Power
R
P= iV, P=R, P=. R, R=r Rg

Series:- P«R 9 Bulb (Pure Resistance

Parallel:- P« 1/R
Rated power and rated voltage given to
8 Joule's Law of heating calculate resistance of bulb.

Heat produced (H) in a

resistor when current
flowsthrough it: 2
Rbulb
=
H= Rt = ivt msAe Pp
PCons. PRated
If, =
i Variable: - H = R. dt. 1
PRated
Special
Case r= Q.10 If two bulb of power (6OW, 110) and
R4 R2 (100W, 110) are connected in series
with supply of 220Vthen?
Ans.Potential drop across 6OW bulb will be
greater than 110V hence it will fuse.
 "Prated Ka hoga woh
Series Combination : Joh Jyada Jyada
Chamkega!
Bakwas Combination
36 x 10°J]
[1 kWh
=

:
Time Taken by Heater Coils
(P,) (P,) (P,)
Series :- t=t, +
t,
Parallel:-t t,t,
t, + ta
1
Pcons.
Pi Pz
10 Electrical Instruments
If all are identical bulb then,
Galvanometer :
p Pcons. is Smaller than the smallest use to
PcOns.
+
An instrument detect or measure
n Prated bulb.
Small current.

1 + Very sensitive, produce large error.

P,consumed. xKbulb o Prated
+
l, =
Maximum current that can flow.

Pconsumed + G =
resistance of galvanometer
+
As Ammeter i- Connected in series in
Joh Kam Pated Ka hoga woh Jyada Chamkega!
circuit.
Parallel Combination :
o Small resistance shunt connected in
(P,) parallel with galvanometer.

|(P,) o ldeal R= 0; Behave as simple wire.

|(P,) o%
Error =i -x 100

Pcons. = P +P; P, +

If all are identical bulb then, i-ia

Pconc =
1
nP consumed Ryulb < Prated
Where i,= True current
Pconsumed =
Rbule
=
iM
Measured current
 GS
Kamneter = G+S P
G
R
n-1. % Error J

100-1,
i we want to Measure
n
ijitna Galvano-mcter se
jayega. Potentiometer wire i
Total current
Current through Working based on potential gradient.
galvanometer
+
To Find EMF:

As Voltmeter i- Connected parallel in

circuit

o large resistance cOnnected in series with R, L

galvanometer
o ldeal R =
0 infinite (Behave as open
wire)

E
*Step-i :- i=
S=G(n-1) R+r
*Step-ii:-v= iR
%
Error =

V
x 100 *Step -ii :- =
-Potential gradient
Aeter Bridge :
Potential drop per unit length in wire.
Use to find value of Resistance. E = kl
Working based on wheat-stone bridge. Balancing length where current
through galvanometer is zero.
!
Caution
100-I *EMF of thebattery must be less or equal
tothe Potential drop in wire.
 "Upar battery Ki polarity aur niche
Ke To Find internal Resistance
ke battery Ki polarity supportive honi
chahiye nai toh balance point asambhav
hai.. !
+ To Compare EMF : R, L
I, &l, are balance
points E, & E,
are support each
other and when
R, L oppose each other
drespectively. E
r =? r= R

R=KnoWn
I, = Balancing length when key is open
, =
Balancing length when key is closed

(,>4)

MR
25 Magnetic Effect of Electric Current
Oersted Experiment e- angle between the element dl and the
line joining the element to the point where
Electric field outside current carying wire
the field is being calculated.
is zero
r=distance from the element to the point.
Electric field inside current carrying wire Unit conversion:
may or may not be zero. =
*1T 10 G= 1
But moving charge near to current
carrying wire experience force hence there Vector Form :

must be a field that is magnetic ficld.

dB - o4Tt 4T r
lote:- *Current carring wire produces MF MR

around it. To find direction of magnetic field

x
dB = idt
2
BIOT-SAVARTSLAW (Result) (1 vector) (2 vector)
Place your four-finger (palm) of right
he magnetic field (dB) due to a small
hand along 1* vector (id) slap 2nd
lement of current carrying wire (idL) at a vector(r"), thumb will represent B.
7oint is given by:

3 Magnetic Field due to Straight

dB = Ho
idl sine Wire
4Tt
idi'. The magnetic field (B) at a point due to a
(Scalar form)
straight current carrying wire is given by:

Where: idl
to permeability of
free space (4Tt x 10-7 B= [sina + sinß]
4Tr
Tw/A) B
Current through the wine.
a, B i- Hamesha point A
al= length of the small element of the
lena hai!
wire.
Where

•r is the perpendiclar distance from the

wire to the point.
•
a and B are the angle subtended by the

wire at the point of interest.

Symmetrical Object :
MR* feel Symmetrical objects with uniform Current
Dinensional Format distribution often result in zero wmagnetir
fields inside the object.

Ex: B=O
B=o

For infinitely long wire :

+
For infinitely long wire : .0 B=o
Bo=0

Ho!
B= X2
4Tr Combination of two thick and two thin
B
wire i

Semi-o0 wire :
() BO
2> Semi-o

B=
4TtR
(ii) B

(iii) B =O

Direction of Magnetic Field :

Parallel wires with different currents:
Right hand Rule:
+
o
Place thumb in the direction of current Consider two parallel wires separated by a
distancer, with one wire carrying current
then curling finger will represent
direction of magnetic field
I=I and the other carrying Current
nI= I2
 For a regular hexagonal loop with the side
length L carrying a current i, the magnetic
n=I, field at the centre O is:

BiO
-XB=o BtO

TtL
At a pointxfrom the wire carrying I and
from the wire carrying current nI,
magnetic field due to these currents:
the
4 Magnetic Field on the axis
B,+B,=0 of a current carrying loop

2TeX 2(r-x) For a circular loop of radius R carrying a

= nx current i the wmagnetic field at a distance x
r-X
along the axis
n+1

Siilarities and difference between Biot

Savart law and coloumbs law :
-xBis
is
O Electric field () Magnetic field produced
produced by scalar by vector source "cunrent
Source "charge'" element idi
HoiR?
ö Electric field along () Magnetic field
Baxis
the position vector perpendicular to the 2(R°+x2
|from source position vector from
SOUrce
(in)follow inverse (ii) also follow same Special cases :
Square law
B at the centre of circular loop: -
(iv) linear inside source (iv) linear inside source

MR wala sawal Beentre

The maqnetic field at the centre 0 of
a 2R
rectangular loop with sides a and b carrying a
current i is given by: -
B at the centre of semi-circular loop:

B= TLab Bo
4R

a=b=L B at the centre of quarter circle:

"Square'"

Bo = 22 Poi 8R
TtL
 Generalised Formula for Circular Arc i Same wire rewound with reduced radius:

For an arc with a

central angle e L= 2TR
= cOnst",
Vime radian.

1-loop n-loop
Bo =
2R
Bo
Direction of magnetic field

I(Anti-clock)_ I(clock-wise)
If the same wire is rewOund intO n loops.
BO BO each with a reduced radius r,:
ARAnti-clockwise Current: Produces an
upward magnetic field. n
Clockwise Current: Produces a downward
The magnetic field
magneticfield.
Graph of Mag. Field along the axis of
Current Carrying circular loop : (B, = nB,loop2R
B

6
Amperes Circuital Law
+
B =
due to all inside or outside current.
X
+ Always valid for all type of current.
5 Magnetic Field due to looping/
only applicable when current distribution
lof wire
is symmetric.
"R = Constant."' ;
+ Not a magnetic flux, because here is close
1-loop n-loop line integral.

i = enclose current.
If the wire is wound into n loops, each with
radius R, the total magnetic field at the + Assumne direction in loop and if direction of
center of the loops is: loop same as magnetic field then current
n will be positive if opposite then it will be
B, = n B, loop'
2R negative.
 BO BO
Bo = Bi =O
dl dl 2Tcr
^B
because B also
Anti-Clock
Bis Anti-Clock
inside
wise and loop
but loop is clock
Out

Steps to apply Ampere's circuital law

Magnetic Field Due to infinite
Draw close Symmetric Amperian loop,
1.
Current Carrying solid Cylinder :
that must be passes through the point
where field have to calculate. Outside Bo =
2Tcr
EX circular, square loop etc Hoir
=
Inside|Bi
2. Angle between loop and magnetic field 2TR
must be o°, 40° or 180° Hor
z Value of B must be 2
constant at all point
of loop. B, = Bxr
2 *J = I
TER?
Magnetic Field Due to a
straight
infinite current carrying wire : Bsurface =
On surface
2TcR
B
B

B=
2Ttr

r= R

Q.1. Magnetic field Due to infinite current

Magnetic Field Due to a infinite Current
carrying solid cylinder where J=Jx
hollow Cylinder :
find magnetic field outside the cylinder
Sol. Given ý = jox
Outside the cylinder, Bo =
2Tcr Total current i enclosed within the
Inside the cylinder,
Bi, =O cylinder up to radius R
 L

Complete Cavity

3
B=
From ampere's circuital law 2

B(2rr) = Ho'in

Magnetic field wil be uniform inside cavity.

HodR
B=
3r
7 Solenoid
Magnetic Field Inside cavity of solid
cylinder ;

A cylindrical cavity is located inside the

cylinder. The center of this cavity is at a
distance r, fron the center of the solid Finite Solenoid :
cylinder.

Magnetic field at a point inside a solenoid:

Honi
[Sina +
B= sinß]
2

Where =
At centre: B Boni, At ends: Bend =
2
,= vector from the center of
the solid
Infinite Solenoid :
cylinder to the center of the cavity.
=
vector from the center of the solid R <<< L

cylinder to the point of interest with the

cavity.
7= Distance from the center of the cavity = HoNi N= Total turn
to the point of interst. BBoni Total length
L L=
 n
Turns per unit length. M.F. At aK A"q" speed
Total turns
n=T length of solenoid change ! # Garda visualize.
^B Lekin accl O
v
Kyuki di change hokr & P. change
hoga!
Toroid: M.F. is like Centripetal Force (F I )

HoNi
9 Lorentz Force
B= 2TcRavg

Ravg
R+r
2 = F
elec. Mag.

s Magnetic Force MR* Law for direction

Place your four finger of right hand along
The magnetic force on a charge q wmoving velocity and then slap magnetic field by
with velocity v in a magnetic palm then thumb will represent direction
field B is of force.
F= qBvsin =
&
q(Vx B)
Fp
Ex.:
Magnetic field
v)B=? (Upward)
rest charge per
force nahi lagata

10 Motion of Charge Particle

*8 = Angle between V & B, in Magnetic Field
and F I3 Charge is projected llel to Mag.
Field :

"onlydirection will change, speed will m V= Const

remains constant. disth =
vt
*K.E = constant Charge is projected Ler to Maq. Field :
*Work done =
O V =
Variable
"Power =
FV= 0 = qVB
F.,
 MR**
•
Average Force

sin
favg = qVB 2
qVB
2
2qVB
for 180° tava =
T

Radius of Circular path :

general formula for Time period ty =
qB
MV P J2m(k.E)J2mav =
mT
R=
qB qB qB qB
for 180° T=
Charge particle is projected ler to Mag.

Time Period & Frequency: Field at some angle with boundary of

Time taken to complete one rotation. Magnetic Field :- (M.F. :- inwards)

T does not depends upon speed

2Tm qB B 8 =
T= f= 2TLM 29
qB
Fg m(26)
time taken to Rotate through an 6 angle
qB
me qB
= qVB sin
T qB
f= me (0 in radian) Fava

Charge particle is projected from outside

region of M.F. ler to Field :
Charge particle is projected Ler to Mag.
R<d Field at some angle with boundary of
V
B outward magnetic field :

F.
B

F V mq Fm S=2T-2b
m

-9.
Ta qB

d
= =
|Deviation 180° T • =
6 Angle between boundary & velocity
 lmportant Questions Important Cases :

Object is projected with speed "v at an

Tine required
when "q" loose contact
02 angle "e" from Maq. Field :
smooth inclined plane
Path of the particle will be helical.
Magnctic ficld is outside the plane : BO
0°, 40° & 180°
mgcose
col. N + qVB= Vsinbt
.
N=0for losing contact

The perpendicular component vsinb causes

the particle to wmove in a circular path
mcote with radius R and time period T:
|t=
qB mvsino 2Ttm
mgcose R= T=
qB qB
mgsine
N qv,B
mg The parallel component vcose causes the
particle to move along the magnetic field,
mgcos
resulting in helical motion with pitch:
mgsine =
Pitch (*) u,T
mg = VCos
2Ttm
qB
Q3. Charge particle is projected ler to Mag.

Field < R) S.
where (d then find 12 Velocity Selector
Sol.

A velocity selector is a device used to filter

R
particles so that only those witha specific
90-8 velocity pass through undeflected. This is
d
achieved using
=
d
sino + Magnetic field, Electric field and velocity
R
all are perpendicular to each other.

V J6 = sin -1 Condition for No Deviation:

R +
For a particle to pass through the velocity
X
selector without deviation, the net force
B
6= Ang. deviath
must be zero, i.e.,
 =
KE,yoth 2q4V qB
Eo
2.Ttm
Bo
1 q'B'R? my
KE =
2 m

14 Magnetic Force on
Current Carrying Wire
o
Magnetic force always perpendicular
to

Bok the plane of [ap and B.

Ramlal o
Force on close loop or any
Shape is 2

Particle which have velocity V> V, will

F= Bilr sine.
experience large magnetic force and Right
deviates downward F =i(lx B)
Hand
Particle which have velocity V < V, will Thumb Fore Curl
experience small magnetic force and Finger Finger
deviates upward. e =
Angle between i B. &

Left i
13 Cyclotron -efr L

Device use to acceleration charge particle

like proton deuteron, a -particle but not MR*for direction; - Place your four finger of
for electron, we use betatron for electron. right hand along ID and slap magneti:
Dees Magnetic field thumb will represent force.
field
Electric Q4. Magnetic force on different wire.
field
Initial ion
at rest
Acceleration
particles

Electric field used to acceleration and

(0.0) (+0)
shift provide k.E. to the charge particle. (i)
Magnetic field used to keep the charge
particle inside magnetic field. Sm
•
3cm
Freq. of oscillator =
Freq. of charge (i)
particle
(i)
 2BIR (ii) F= 413 badi-
tye sab Mutual Force hai matlab jitna
BI| (iv) F= 4BI
(ú) F= choti wire pr Force lagayega utnahi Force
choti-badi pr lagayegi

Long prallel wires:

F=0
R

F= Bil
F
T Bi
F= BIR
R
effective length
perpendicular F
to B is R.

Force on
Small current carrying wire due to
;
fnite large current carrying wire
"Force per unit length'
Case 1 :
Both
Biot-savart Law in Terms of Velocity of
wire
Particle :
dir
Same oppos. Po qVsine
B=
Attract Repel 4T

e =
Angle between I andr.
Magnetic field due to infinite wire:
Note :- For electron, q = e
Ratio of wmagnetic force to electricforce
B,
2Ta
4red
Force on small wire F= B,i,l=
Ho' FEF
4rd'
2Tta
Case 2-
FEF HoEo

FEg >>>>>> FME

15 Circular Current Loop

as a Magnetic Dipole
F=
A
current-carrying circular loop generates
2 a magnetic field similar to that of a bar
magnet, acting as a magnetic dipole.
 Magnetic Field on the Axis of the Loop: Gyromagnetic Ratio:
. Ratio of Magnetic Moment and
B= , Bo Anqular
2(Rx*) where, K= Momentum: -

M= magnetic moment M 8.8x101°c

At x >> R L 2me Kg

2KM
B = Bohr Magneton:
4Tt X
e
=
M,-
M = i(R²) = iA 2m, 2Tc

t
Vector Amp m

M = [lw]
Dir along Area vector 2m
# |= moment of
inertia
Torque on a Current Carrying
Loops, Magnetic Dipole:

x =
T= M B MB sine
Clockwise Anticlockwise t =
BiNA sin
South-pole North-pole
= M & B.
M: M:- O Angle between

Torque perpendicular to magnetic

Direct of M is along B. moment and magnetic field
Net force = zero
{M = NAI N= no. of turns.
* If angle given from plane of loop
Magnetic Moment of revolving electron : = = MB cose
T MB sin(90-e)
Magnetic Potential Energy
Frequency f= Stored in Magnetic Dipole:
2TR
U=-MB cose
=
Currenti= T
ef U= -BiNA cos

eVR Mag. Field Ka ekhi Udesh hai woh Mag

Chahta
M (A efk Dipole Ko Apne Along align Kna
2
hai.
 Area of
Feriod T= 21t Loop
Tne MB
Current
Momcnt of
lnertia BAN
Sensitivity
C
Magnetic
momcnt
Divided by R both sides
Work Done to Rotate dipole W=Au. Voltage
rotate I, BAN Sensitivity.
INork done by M.F. to V= R CR
diole W=
-AU
=

Visualisation 1.
L6 Moving Coil Galvanometer
Ifan electron is not deflected in passing
Torque
Working Principle: On current through a certain region of space, can
arying loop we be Sure no magnetic
that there is

No. of turns in moving coil -galvanometer field in that region?

k increase then Current sensitivity will No, electron would not be deflected if v
increases but voltage sensitivity remains and B are in the same direction.
same because resistance will also increase. 2.
Visualisation
W
Ifa moving electron is deflected sideways
Va R
on passing through a certain region of
space, can we be sure that a magnetic
2 4

Scale field exists in that region?

No, the sideways deflection may be due
lron core
Peranent
to Electric field as well. In the absence
wagnet

N S of electric field, the sideways deflection

spring Moving coil carrging| current shows the presence of magnetic field in
the region.
Torque on the coil:
= = CO Visualisation 3.
T= MB NIAB
If a charged particle at rest experiences
Torsional Const
BiNA no electromagnetic force, then the
spring Cê
electric field must be zero
 E
=0B =0 or EE
Or =OB 0 or :
EoBo
E

The magnetic field may or may not be Visualisation 7.

zero charged particle moves along a circle

A

Visualisation 4. under the action of possible Constant

electric and magnetic fields. Possble
If a charged particle kept at rest
Case is
experiences an electromagnetic force,
E = 0, B O

then The electric field must not be zero

S.
Visualisation
or
The magnetic field may or may not be charged particle goes undeflected in a
A

ZEro. region containing electric and magnetic

Visualisation 5. field. It is possible that
If a charged particle projected in a
gravity-free room deflects, then Both
vUEiB or Eis not parallel to B
fields cannot be zero Visualisation 9.
Or If a charged particle goes unaccelerated
Both fields can be non-zero a
in region containing electric and
Visualisation 6.
magnetic fields, then
A charged particle moves in a gravity
free space without change in velocity. E
must be perperdicular to B and v
Possible cases are
must be perpendicular to E.
26 Magnetism & Matter

Magnet
Bar They flow from the South Pole to the
L
A bar
magnet. creates a
magnetic field, which north Pole within a magnet and north
visualized using magnetic field lines.
be pole to South Pole outside

They Comes out and go in at any angle

from magnet.

+m
2 Magnetic Dipole Moment

The magnetic dipole moment represents

the strength and orientation of a magnetic

Source, Such as a bar maqnet or a current
lMag loop.
=
lGeo
0.84
M =
ml = NiA m:- Pole Strength
+ Magnetic field lines are also called ml
For bar magnet
magnetic force line false because force
acts perpendicular to NiA For current loop
magnetic field.
+ Magnetic field lines always Direction:
from N to S
false, Inside Magnet
it is S to N The direction of M is
Properties of Maqnetic field lines :
fro the south pole
to the North pole for a bar magnet.
+ They form closed loop
They never intersect
+
For a current loop, the direction
each other of M
Magnetic field lines
are crowded near the
is determined using the right hand rule:
curl your fingers in the direction
role where magnetic field is strong.
and of the
pread apart from each other where field currrent, and your thumb points
in the
is weak.
direction of M
Cutting of bar Magnet
*m a Area, M a Volume
Cute type Resulting Length Pole Strength (m')| Magnetic Moment (M
()
Cut along Length M' = m.'=(m/2)l = M/2
m'= m/2
|Cut Perpendicular to| =
I/2 m
= m M
= m. = m (V2) = M/2
length
Bending of bar Magnet : Two ldentical bar Magnet of magnetic
Moment M

+m

-I -m
JM M²
=2 M

R
MR **
S
Jab bhi mein Koi Circle dhekhu mera dil N
dewaana bole...
Magnetic moment circular
Segment S
M sin (Bb/2)
M = Mot M² + M² 2MMcos(120)
9/2 60 = M

Complete N
Circle
Semi
Circle.
e = 2Tc
Mnet
M
= O 2M
NM² + M² + 2MMcos6o
=
M
= MJ3
120°
Magnetic moment of
60° segment
M Sin
M = 3M
TE
(o=60°-adian) 3 Magnetic Field Due
to Bar Magnet
3×2
On axial point :

S +m
60
N •Baxial
R
>M
2|
 2Mr Magnetic field due to Dipole at General Point i

Ho 2M
Bavial =
For r»l,
M
Magnetic Field along dipole M

on
Normal Bisector i- 4r

Dipole in uniform Magnetic Field :

2ml
/o
M = ml

Bea

For r >> |
N
M >M
Ho
Bs 2l

Maanetic Field opbosite to dipole.

Condition Torque (t) Potential Energy(U) Explanation

=
General T=MxB =
MBsine U= -M.B -MBcos
=
|U -MB |Dipole aligned with the
(Minimuwm energy) |magnetic field
= =
MB |Dipole perpendicular to
90° T
|(Maximum Torque) the magnetic field

U= MB opposite to the
|Dipole
l(Maximum energy) magnetic field

I
T= 2rt
MB
Stable equilibrium of e =
o° (Diople
opposite to field) MR feel
Magnetic Field Ka ekhi Udessh hai Ki woh
Unstable equilibrium at e =
180°
Mag. dipole Ko apni taraf Khich Ke raklhna
BAR magnet wil oscillate in uniform !
Chahta hai
magnetic field about stable equilibrium
 MR Speical
4 Analogy
Force Between

Electrostatics Magnetism
Two Dipole de Dipole
1 point Point
Bo Charge Charge Dipole

1
Magnetic Pole Fa Fa Fo
Charge q
Strength (m)

Dipole Moment Magnetic Dipole S Gauss Law in Magnetisn

Moment
Gauss's law in magnetiSn states that
the total magnetic flux through a closed

surface is always zero, indicating that

9:42 Po m, me
F= F= magnetic monopoles do not exist.
4E 4Tt

É= mB

2p Bo 2M
B,d =o (Always)
Axial Field E= B=
4TEr 4Tt This means that the magnetic field lines

are continuous and do not begin or end

Equatorial field E B=
Ho M at any point, unlike electric field lines
4T
MR Speicat*
-p
4nEr When bar
1> T= Same magnet cut
along length
Torque r =
=PÉ T B
M

When bar
= T magnet cut
Potential Energy U 2> T'
n 1" to length.
U=-
M
B n = no. of equal cutted part.

Work, w Work, w
pE(cos®, - cose,) =
MB(Cos b, - cos®,)
T'=T
 NeutralPoint
A I,
M,
N

N M, T;T;
-6
M, T-T;

2= NP o =
NP =
1 NP = I, I,
T, 2r
(M,-M,)B
Vitrational Magnetometer
7
(Oscillational Magnetometer) T, =
I I,
2 (M, -M,)B4

I
T= 2
8 Tangent Law
MB

The tangent law in magnetism describes

the relationship between two perpendicular
Aeplication -1;
magnetic fields acting on a magnetic needle,
To Find Magnetic dipole Moment (M); Such as in a tangent galvanometer. When
4r'I a magnetic needle is subjected to two
M= perpendicular magnetic fields, B, and B, it
aligns at an angle e such that:
Ayplication
-2:
To Findratio of Mag. dipole mnoment of two
Ba
magnet of same size. B, /M
=
tano 40-0
N
M B,

M,
-B,

Application
-3:
1o Compare Mag. dipole moment of two Tangent Galvanometer:
magnet of diff. size.

I, A tangent galvanometer is an instrument

M, used to measure the
horizontal component
M,
of the Earth's magnetic field.
 Magnetisation & Magnetie Intensity: - ()
B -
2R Vector
Medium
I = independent.
BA
dir" to M
Magnetic Susceptibility:- (x)

Scalar
Xm
> Unit & Dimensionless

When placed in the Earth's magnetic field. Xm

= Easily magnetised.
M B
sin = M
cos . Relation Between E, &&
Xmi

2R

=
HoiN
tan
2R BA
9 Cause of Magnetism
"K =
Reduction Factor:" Atom (Nucleus +
electron in rotational
2R BA motion)
K tan 0 = i
K=
HoN #*revolving electron Produce magnetic field,

Magnetic Field Intensity:- (H) (magnetic moment) along axis of Rotation.

#ln Paired electron atom,two electron
Source are in Opposite spin.
ft HRt A
M= o
Bo # In unpaired electron atom.
H =

Ho
Matom * o and Mgrustal =O due to random
Pm
orientation of atoms.
Magnetic Permeability :-
()
1O Materials(
B Scalar Unit : Diamagnetic:
H - wb/Amp-m
+ Diamagnetic have tendency to Move from
Medium region of Stronger to weaker
Source part f
external Magnetic Field
 They are Magnetised in opposite
Ferromagnetic :
direction.
Ferromagnetic Material
Magnetic field lines are expelled
by these strongly
substances. attracted (: Random
Diarnagnetism is universal to Magnetic
property Mmaterial! =O arrangement
Substance
of domains)
MR** Mmaterial
Magnetise hota hai lenz law (law ( magnetic
of inertia) field externa)
# Domain Formation.
Xm X

Temp independent X >> 1

Ferromagnetic
& -ve. B >>> Bo

>
Paranagnetic
Hr 1

Paramagnetic:
MR Speicalt**
Paramagnetic substance

Matom

Mnaterial =0 (in absence of

external mag. field)

Material 0 (O presence of B)
Pinky Babu Kalua Ramlal
Tendency to move from Weak Magnetic Jalela Diamag. Ferromag.
field Region to strong magnetic field. Paranagnetic
Curie's Law:
MR**
CBo Paramagnetic Sub'.
#Magnetise hota hai Tet Se. I=
T
Xm = +ve (Small +ve)

B> Bo Xm =
Co
T
Xm a Temp" Curie Weiss Law:

X =
T T -Te
11 Hysteresis Loop or B/H Curve or' = Retentivity OH
Coercit
MR Speical"* (R)
(C
"Life of Ransla" Ramlal Pinky Ke Rabita
Voditea
Area under loop o tPdoll iRomlal cl Pyaar mcin Kitne Pyaar diWhara
yaadein bachake
Arca under loop D Encrgy loss pada pirky
(Ramlal) ^B rakh paya tha Ki yaadein
Ko

Saturation mitane Keliye

+ SOFT IRON:- Small Area.

-H H
i=0
HO Low Retentivity & Coercivity.
(Babita) i=O (Pinky)
+ Permnanent Mag. i- Large Area.

High Retentivity & Coercivity.

-B

MR
Everyone including your society
family, friends sirf success ko he
salute karte hai
 Electromagnetic Induction
27
Experiment
Faradays
Uniform Magnetic
Field 2 Magnetic Flux

Counting of magnetic field lines passing

through given cross -section area.
+ gives the idea of rmagnetic energy.

rest Area
:ckanging
scalar S.. unit - Tesla-n² =
Weber C.as.
unit Gauss cm = Maxwell

= = BA cose
B.A
E ::F: e = Angle between Mag. Field & Area

In loop A,
D, F, G : Unit :- 1 Wb =
10 Maxwell
.
Current induced in loop because of change
+ If B = Variable.

in magnetic flux.

This can be due toeither the movement +

+ If magnetic field B= Bi + Bj B.k
of the loop or a change in the area of the

loop within the magnetic field.

and A = Af +A,+ Ak
= +
In loop B, C,
E: then (flux), BA, BA, +
BA,
+ Flux through circular loop (2 >> R)
+ No current induced, because Flux is

COnstant.
=
These loops could be stationary, or their
area within the magnetic field mght not
be changing.

MR***

S
=
rest )= outward
= =
No current inward
Current induced
Note MR law :

Variable Constant
A =
BA cose
¢ =fB dA cose N

Coit
Variable due to :
B time varying
Coil Kehti hai magnet :
A Variable
e =
Changing Pass mt aana repel Karungi durr mt jana
Induced current attract Karungi aaisehi padhai krte raho
Exam Ke baad date Karungi.
Magnitude Direction
Case :-|
"Faraday's" "Lenz"
Law Law
CoIL
REPEL
3 Lenz Law Pinky
Ramlal

"Joh "i" Ko Paida Krta hh;" Ushika Oppose Obserer

Observer Due to induced
Krta hh.
Current
MR law :
• Coil is in Current induced in loop
inertia (Pyaar) of Flux.
+
W.r.t. Ramlal ACW
External Field lnduced Field B
+
OB O(Then =
Cw) W.r.t. Pinky CW

= ACW)
MR* Aage se Anti then pichhe se clock
OB! O(Then li

Case :- I|
=
OB O(Then i ACW)

=
Cw) Coil
OB 0(Then Ii
"Up O Anti, down C"
+ Coil Na Flux Ko pyaar Krta hai na Usko
N
Attract
SN
hate Krta hai woh bs Change in flux ko
oPpose Krta hai.
NOTE (AIMS)

for which curvent

Find time will
induced Current induced in loop
in ractangular loop?
A - ACW
B -C
C - Zero
X X X X

X X X X
|X X
26 (C) A
(increasing)
t=
B (AC)
I|>
a
<b X
5 Faraday's Law of EMI

X Based on Energy Conservation.

[Loop]
X X Eist
|X X
2a -do
t= dt

-do
R.dt RAt

d(BA cos 6)

dt AQ=
R

>t Q.2 Radius of Circular

placed loop
perpendicular to magnetic feld
increasing at rate ro ws then find
induced emf in loop when radius is r.
Sol. emf
A
d(BA cos O)
Current induced in loop
dt
-=- B

dr
x
drldt
ACw B) 0 CW emf = dr
-Br2rr Volt (Given, =r)
dt
 MR
NRA
\We Anow RA cos :
law
d( 8A cos e)
dt dt
bhi ho sab mein EMF induced
In this formula, three variable B,
Areaand angle Faraday.
(),
genrally type 3
ka question aayga B -time
dependent, Rail problems(
A -tine dependent or 6
-tine dependent.
Rod of length I V.
moving with velocity
Falling a magnetthrough diferent coils i
Induced Emf.
|sreleased E = BVI
W Current in the circuit
OB BVI
N
R
R
Coil

A non-conducting or a coil with a small B²P

+ = =
cut: External Force: F
F Bil=
R
• No current flows, hence no opposing
magnetic field is created. The magnet fals Note :- To maintain the cOnstant velocitu y

with acceleration a =g. an external force must be applied

Ft
Conducting coil: to countereract the magnetic force.
Induced current generates a magnetic field +
Power dissipated in the circuit
opposing the fall of the magnet, reducing
the net acceleration i.e., a < g. B'RV2
P= FV= R
Q.3 ln which loop induced emf will be
uniform: Hall Bhaiyaa :- [Rod]

OB
E=
BV#
V

Scalar Triple Product :

Sol. in rectangular loop because rate of
change in flux is constant.
 pirction of EMF :-
MR* :
*Wimp*
Velocitu
Plam :-
Curl Finger
;- Magnetic Field
EME.
Thumb :- OFire Concept

Direction of higher potential

MR for = Bu(2R)
|emfloa
placefour finger along velocity and slap
magnetic field thumb will represent =
Ie 2R
higher potential.
Rod
Induced emf in given
s divided
The rod
is into segments with specific W

lengths anad velocities. The induced EMF in

L
zach scgment depends on the length of the

sEqment and the magnetic

field.

emf = o
la+|
emf = log Translational Rotational T+R
2Tt
Motion (T) Motion (R) Motion
=
emf Emotional = BVI
2Tta Bw'
2
=
emf
Rotational Motion a
in Magnetic Field i E = BL

dist" between 2
When a cOnductor rotates in a magnetic
two points.
induced across its length due
field,an ewmf is
to the motion of the conductor through the
Note :
magnetic field lines.

(emfos = Bwl?
2
BwR?
=
1 Bul
(emf)oA 2
2 4

3
(emf)as Bwl?
Disc. Collection of o Rods.
 "Convert Mech. Energy
7 Induced Electric Field
Energy.
intoElectric.
MR

Electric Field
Magnet

Due to Rest Due to time

Charge. varying M. Field

Electrostatic InducedE. Field

Field.
Coil

Conservative Non -conservative

dB slip rings
dt
Does not Forwm Always form Closed
Closed loop Carbon brush
loop.
(Concentric Circle) q
Self-inductance(L)
Value of induced E. Field :
Aaj Kal Ke Rishte Kaha hai itne Ache
B(t) isliye hwm Akele hi hai Ache.
Ein
HoN'A

R
di
e

2 r=R
=-L dt
+ =
Inside the circular Li
Outside the circular
region (r< R) region (r > R) L =
(self-inductance) aI (n cos t")

=
r dB
R² dB ') a 1/l(N = cos
=
E, E, Where n no of turns per
=
unt
2. dt 2r dt
length
N= total no of turns
8 Ac-generator Unit :- Henry (H)
= constant
(flux)
=
NAB cos and =
wt +
i Li, = Lalz
Direction buddhi
, Magnitude
Formula
E = BANw sin
 |= costh
di Capacitor Inductor
E = L
dt Q=Q[1-e t/hC] i=i[1-e]
=
t RC t L/R
+
t=o Q=Qo t=n i=i,
di
= L di
dt E = L
dt 63
Qo
in Inductor i
Energy Store
T=RC t L
R

E
-
2
L = BAI
2o
Graph Between di/dt and Time :
Rate of Change in Current :
. Energy per unit Volume
Stored di
dt -E)le-tt
Bo
At
t= O, At t =
0
2o di di
= =0
Charging of Inductor : dt dt
di
dt
Steady E
t=0 t= 0
State

|L= 0pen Wire |L= Simple Wire

|C= Simple Wire C= Open Wire
Graph Between V, and Tie :
+ VR=E
Ve
=i, (2-et).R
di
VR
V= 4dt = E
I= E/R

VRO
|Emax
=2
t
 = L
di di,
V,
dt i, dtv

i, L di,

1 1
+
-
Current in lnductor as Function of Time L, L

E 10 Mutual Inductance
Mutual inductance is the property of twc

coils (orinductors) where a change

in curret
Battery be like :- Raziya Gundo mein Fasgayi. in one coil induces an emf in the other coil.
MR*
Jitne mein tumhe HT Karunga utna tum
bhi mujhe l Krna Jyda kam mt Krna.
R,
R,

t
Series Combination of Inductor :

di Mutual inductance of 2 due to 1 :

dt L

HoN,N,R,'R,r
2x°
di beg = Ly + Reciprocity Theorem :
= Sawne L
dt = M2:
M,
Parallel Combination of Inductor : =
Magnetic flux s2 Mial2
1 1 1 di,
Induced e.m.f. E,2 Ms2 dt
Leg
 Facto
Coupling
Noe
dt
DsKs1

close ->
K= 1.

Combination of Inductor
M): L
(sidering
2M
b by t by t +
Find total heat loss across R,when Key is
= L, + L, t 2M
shifted from (2) to (1) :
are in L, are in
& Ly
L, & L, R
Opposite order 1 1
same order Rg

Lea = L+y -2M 2

R, t 00

11 Discharging of Inductor Estored LV

or Eloss 2R
R

E
12 Eddy Current
i= E/R
Agar Kishi AR F Current Flow GhI 3T
2

Kehte Current Alt Plate t Current Flow

aRUI A Eddy Current.

R

Application :

1> Magnetic braking in train

2> Electromagnetic damping.

'max

3> Induction Furnance

4> Electric Power

meters.
R
 Current is increasing hence B
L= SH is at lower
A B potential.
|= 4A

di
=
dt 2 A/S i(tes)
L

A B
Ldi
V = Va
Vg
H
dt

Ldi Brightness of bull willsuddenly

VA - Vg = increase
dt -=Sx2= 10
V
when key is just opened.

MRS
GKhushi k liye kam karoge to
khushi nahi
milegi, lekin khush hokar kam
karoge to khushi
aur safalta jarur milegi.
 Alternating Current
28
+
Alternating Current A/C Bidirectional

. Alternating Current (A.C.) is an electric +

D/C - Unidirectional (Steady Current)
current that reverses its direction
t
periodicaly. is bidirectional, meaning it

flows in both directions.

Example: The household electricity supply

a AC C S. Area. D.C A.C.
is A.C., typically with sinusoidal wave.
Direct Current (D.C.):

an electric current
.Direct Current (D.C.) is
that flows in one direction only. It is
2 Measuring of Current

unidirectional and usually has a constant

Moving coil Hot wire
magnitude. galvanowmeter ammeter
Example: current from a battery
The On Current +
Heat loss
carrying coil.
is DC.,
providing a steady flow of
dlectricity. Only D/C +
Both D/C & A/C
current of constant magnitude can be + e (angle) a
A i
+ e
(angle) a H a
AWc current
Yes. It is square wave + Linear Scale +
Non-linear Scale
Ac.

Average Value :
-t
Discrete Continuous
*A Variable system system
current in magnitude only
is D/c
'avg <i> Si.dt
lavg

*A Current is varying
from +SA to +15A RMS Current :
Sinusoidally
then this current is D/c or
(AC-DC)
mixture, not A/c because it is fP.dt
not a bidirectional.
dt
 RMS Voltage : Voltage relation
+ = Vo Sin
V= Vo sin(wt) (2cft)
Vo
Sdt + Vms
MR Ratta 2
+ MR* Table
FullCycle (FC) +
Half Cycle (HC)
2 Sinusoidal
Trianglular
<sind > =
<sin > o Tt
Square Full Half
<cose >O Wave
2 (A/c) Wave
rectitierlrectifier
<cose > =

1
> =
Half/Full Avg.
<sin?0 <cose >
2 Cycle Full
cycle
Avg.
<2sin(wt) cos(wt)>cule= <Sin(2wtFogcle= O
Half
2i 2io
T 2
Avg. value of l,sin (wt) in half cycle may cycle TL
7

2io
be zero or because it will depends |R.M.S.
TL value V2 2
half cycle ki limit kaha se liya hai.
Mathematical representation Fire Concept MR*
Alternating Current i
= +
i i, Sin [wt ¢]
where io = peak current STh2
w= Angular frequency 3T/4
=
7Th2
Phase angle
+ :
T T=2r
Note
T

2ip
X =
>2 'o2
O

Virtual Current
Mean Te/6 T/3
Effective Current
2
5Tt
2
Reading of Ammeter.
11c 2t
= s
Rt.
H
 Current MR*
Anating sin(wt)

DC AC

2
t
+ b coSwt
i=a sinwt
wo utna piche.
AC AC *Joh jitna niche y-axis pe

+
2 2

Afternating Current :
3 A/C Source Across Pure Resistance

Square Triangular
wave AC wave A/C

A/c
<HC =io/2 Same phase
i
= =
E
Esinwt i igSinwt

R
Representation of
Ae Current &
Voltage by
Phase Diagram : t
CoSwt
;i,sinwt
,*i,sin (wt +)
i,=icos (wt-6) Power factor, coso =
1
+
Power drop across R:
-Sinwt Sinwt
<P> = pr =
R =R
-coSwt
 s AWC Source Across Pure Inductor
4 A/C Source Across Pure Capacitor

E=
E,Sinwt
eads "v"
+ E =
E,sinwt
by T/2 ie., T/4

-
coswt = coswt
1/Cw A/c
+
" lags
V"
V= esinwt by T/2 i.e., T/4

Capacitive coSwt=
Cw 2rcfc Reactance

wL
Capacitor loves change.
DC-Filter Inductive Reactance
X= wL
Parameter D.C.
(Direct Alternating
Capacitor Behaviour in D.C. and A.C.

Circuit :
Current) Current
(A.c)
D.C.
Parameter (Direct Altenating Frequency () |f= o
Current) current
=
(A.C) Reactance X, 2rfLX,
(X) = O
Frequency () f= o Behaviour Acts as a Acts as a
Reactance |X =0 short circuit open circle
|(X)
(simple wire) (no current
Behaviour Acts as an flow)
Acts as
open circle a short
(no current circuit
flow) (current For D/c For A/c of high
flow easily) f=o frequency f= 0

Power drop across pure Capacitor :

Hence inductor Hence inductor
cos =O behave as open
be have as simple wire.
wire.
<P> = O Wattless Circuit
 Powerlossacross pure inductor 7 Series R-C Circuit
,
R, X 1
R
COS =O
>R i=i,sin(wt+)

"

>w/f N
E=E,Sin(uwt)

6 SeriesR-L Circuit (
Ve Vaet lags "p by
L

net

• +
Z= R x?
¢ = =
tan
A/c
Vnet = Ve = Eo Sinuwt

i
=
i, sin (wt - ¢) cos = Rnet
8 Series L-C Circuit
V=
L C
Vt leads iby

VR(R)

x
lmpedencez =/R
E=E,Sin(wt)
• tan =
V
Ve R V,
leads i by

• coS = R Power
Vnet Factor
Net impedence :
= Phase difference. =
Z X-Xc
 Ve R
=
+ CoS
9 Series LCR Circuit Vpet

L C R

E,=E,Sin(uwt)

lnstantaneous
current Zmin
Capacitive Inductive
lnstantaneous Circuit Circuit
voltage fo

Peak Current If Frequency increases from zero th

impedence (Z) 1* decrease then increas
Peak voltage
E, = VoL + Voc t VoR +
f=OZ= o
= o =
+
f=
o Z
X=0 X,
Inductive
V, >
V LCR Power drop :

rme Sing
Capacitive
V>V,
LCR COS
'rs
LCR) Vimp
• If V, >
V (lnductive
+ <P> = E,pse sse cos
i
Resonance in series LCR circuit

Vt leads i by ¢
1
wL =
LC
f=
R wC

=
tan =
Zin
R
V,net
VR R
 Quality Factor :- (Q)

=
0° cos =
1
Ramlal MR Radio
Radio
<P> =
Vs 'rms

fo f
(QMe QRamlal)
2
a
P max The sharper peak of MR Radio indicates
R 2R Radio.
higher Q factor compared to Ramlal
mp Graph:- MR* This means MR Radio has a better quality
resonance.
R^R XetC
imax

f
IAw,Aw"

12 Aw
Z LR
Z =x+R² I

f
Half
Freq forResonance Power
which iNa Freq freq.
seen.
Z ^RC
Wo
Q=
+R² Aw 2r«(f,- f,)
(2rcfC)
R Wo
Q=
2Aw 2[2r(fo- f)
*
L-Ccircuit
=
24w
Wo
Q=
2Aw R RR
Wo Wo
Q=
Aw R/L R R
f
 L-C Oscillations :
Q =
R Q, sinwt
R 9= i=i, coswt
1 L 1
i,= Qw
VLC R R,
C
MR
t
B
A-B-C
A Half Cycle dt? LC 5/
q Qsinwt
2C 2C
1 = 1
Li
B F 2
B-C-D 1
Half Cycle TE =
C E t 2C 2
D
'avg Choke Coil :

Control Current in A/C Circuit

Transformer :
+ Divide Potential without Power loss.
+
Voltage Regulator
(K, R) Choke Coil. RL
+
Based on principle of Mutual lnductance. Circuit

=
*P cOnst iV= consth ldeal Practical
*N = No. of
R=O R= Low R=High
turns.
=
X =
High X Low
=
40 <
90
= Low
Vin Np
'in Vt Ns cos = o coso =V.Low coso = High
out

Step-UP Step -DOWN 0000

R=42 X=62
Vo Vin Vo<Vi X=32
N > Np N
<Np
< ip
i;

E =
10sin(wt)
 /4*+ (6-3 Reading of v, V, iam R =V2 (4)
-.k+XXe = =
Reading of V, V, iem Ke 3y2
Reading of V,
10 -=
2 Amp RMS voltage across 'R' and 'C
=V(4V2 y +
(3 V2)= sy2
(Reading of. Ammetre) =
=V2 RMS voltage across 'C and 'L'
- =
3 V2
62 32
=
R 4
=
Power tactor Cos
RMS voltage across 'R' and 'L'
(o=37°)
X Xelnductive circuit
>
<P> = Vne Coso
ie
Voltage will leads by current by 37°
= 10 4 =
V2 X 8W
.i=i, Sin (wt-)
i= 2 Sin (wt-37)
The Ultimate MR Star* Table

Circuit Phase dif. Power Impedance (Z) Who Power loss

Between i&V factor coso leads!
=
R/Z
Pure
1
R Same P=imrms
resistive Phase

Pure T/2 Zero Current Zero

Capacitive
wC
=
Pure T/2 Zero Z wL Voltage Zero
inductive

RL T b/n o to 1 z=R+x? Voltage

R
P= inVps Z
RC b/n o to 1 z=Rx Current P= inVms COS

LC
T/2 Zero Z= X-Xc Depends Zero

Series LCR
or - X Depends
T
o
1
|Z /R°-(X,
b/n to 1 P=R= R
 Q.2 The number of turns in the
primary
ELECTRIC OSCILLATION
EQUIVALENT OF LC. OSCILLATION
: and secondary coils of
a step
Electrical system down transformer are 200 and
Mechanical system
Mass lnductance respectivey. If the power in
the input
Displacenent Charge watt at 1A then
is 100 the output
Velocity Current
power and current will respectively
Potential Energy Electric Energy be

Kinetic Energy Magnetic Energy

Sol. Power in an transformer (ideal) dos
Rtk=Spring const) Capacitance not change, the total electric power
remains same.
Q.1 In LC. Oscillation Maximum Current is
lo at t=o then find current in circuit Power= 100 Watt
when magnetic encrgy is half of
clectrical energy. for current, the proportionality is

Sol. Total Energy Conserved N,

1 N2 V
Ue +Um
,LI=
2
1 200
,LI= 2Um +Um
2 SO 1
1 1
2 200
z4Amp.
SO

MR
"Aaj kuch karlo asa ki
bhavishya me
khud ko kosne ki nobat na aaye.
 Electromagnetic
29 Wave

Behaviour of charges in Different

-
conditions for x. fB,dé
for y. fB
o
E.F. ME EM Wave hence B, =
di: Hoi0
XX 0
But maxwell found experimentally,
X
Constn
V= and gives reason of this is Displacerment
current b/wthe plate of capacitor.
Aelerated Displacewment
Current :

Q = CV |'brit Ibsglacement
2Charging of Capacitor
dQ dV
Displacewnent Current =
C. eA dV?i pstance between
Establislhed due to the dt dt dt the plates
changing electrie field
in the capacitor. = dE do
i A

dt
A
dt
Formed only due tochanging E
Field.
iDrift
Current)\ +
Notexist under steady curent
(o=costant)
+ Flows between c/s Area of Capacitor
plate.
This is the
conventional current
flowing through the
circuit, causing the
3 Maxwell Equation (4 equations)
Gauss law of Electrostat.
capacitor to charge.
E =

Electric fields are generated by electric

charges.

Gauss law of Magqnetism.

Magnetic fielas have no beginuing or

cnd
According to amperes (no monopoles)
law
29 Electromagnetic Wave

Behaviour of charges in Different for x: fo,di = po

Jconditions
for y: fB,dU =
Hoiro
E.F. MF EM Wave hence B, 0 =
Charge
XIXI
But maxwell found experimentally,
Rest

V=Consth and gives reason of this is Displacement

current b/w the plate of capacitor.
Displacement Current i
Accelerated
prift 'Displacement
Q = CV
Charging of Capacitor
2 dQ dv EA dVei= Distance between
Displacement Current =C. e dt the plates
dt dt
Established due to the
changing electric field
+9 -q = dE do
in the capacitor. i €A dt dt
>A Formed only due to changing E. Field.
i(prift
Current) Not exist under steady current ( = constant)
+ Flows between c/s Area of Capacitor plate.
This is the
cOnventional current 3 Maxwell Equation( (4 equations)
flowing through the
circuit, causing the Gauss law of Electrostat.
capacitor to charge.
= Qin
E = AEo =f E. ds
+ Electric fields are generated by electric
charges.

Gauss law of Magnetism.

B.ds = o
Magnetic fields have no beginning or end
(no monopoles)
According to amperes law
Induced E. Field :- Faraday's Law of induction Example:
machines
d
+
X-ray in medical
use this principle to produce x ivnaging
-fE,de =
EMF= -
dt bombarding a metal target with
electron
d¢ of Nucleus in Radioactivity
De-excitation
dt
A changing magnetic field creates an electric
(r-rays) :
a
field. When the nucleus of adioactive
atom
Ampere's Maxwell Law : excites, it releases energy in the form of
de-
gavna
rays. These are high-energy electromagnetic
fB.dL = Ho lipit t ipp! Waves.
Example:
do Gamma rays emitted froom radioactive
Ho 'Drift t Eo
dt
+

materials used in cancer treatment

Electric currents and changing electric (radiotherapy).
fields create magnetic fields.
EM Wave in LC Oscillation :
4 Source of EMW + LC OScillation: ln an LC circuit (inductor.
capacitor circuit), the energy oscillates
Accelerating Charge :
between the electric field of the capacitor
When a charged particle accelerates, it and the magnetic field of the inductor.
emits electromagnetic waves. This is because This oscillation produces electromagnetic
the changing velocity of the charge causes waves.
disturbances in the electric and magnetic
fields, which propagate as waves. Example:
Example: Radio transmitters use LC circuits to
+
An electron in an antenna oscillates back generate specific frequencies of radio waves.
and forth,producing radio waves.
+ No
Medium required, Non-mechanical wave.

Transition of Electrons from nh orbit : Qnet [EM wave] = o: This is because the
wave consists of oscillating electric and
When an electron transitions from a higher
energy orbit to a lower one in an atom, it magnetic fields, not actual moving charges
releases energy in the form of electromagnetic
+
Transverse in nature
+ E&B oscillate perpendicular to each othar
radiation.
Example: but in same phase.
The emission of light from hydrogen atoms Electric field
when electrons mnove between energy levels. oscillation

Retardation of Electrons in High Atomic

Weight Targets (X-rays) :

When high -speed electrons are suddenly Propagation

decelerated upon hitting a target of high
atomic weight, X-rays are produced. This is
Magnetic field
known as Bremsstrahlung radiation. oscillation
 = Sinwt
E, Eo Sinwt 4 Angular Frequency :
=Bo
E.F. & Mag. F
2T
are in Same
phase
T2Tcf
Anqular wave no :

pirection of Wave
: E xB 2T 2TcV
K=
Wave = Thumb
+ Speed of EMW :

EB
(Four
(Cur)
C= v=
TK
Finger)
If Medium isChanged !

R for direction A = Changes

=
pirection of wave ÉxA
f= SawMe.
lace Your four finger (with Palm) of right
=
C, A,v
kand along electric field and Slap wnagnetic
feld. thumb will lndicate direction of wave. 6Energy Density
EM Wave (U) : -

s Nature of EMW (U) =

EE =
B²

Speed of EM-wave in Vaccum: Ho

C=
1
-
JHoto :3
x
10 /s Pavg
B
2 2o
Speed of EM -wave Electrostatic (U):
in a medium: +

1 1
V= E
Jmm 2
1
oE
C
p= Mag. 'avg
V= Permeability
Magnetic (Ug) :

Refractive index Ug =
B´/2u
<U'avg - B¿/4Ho
E =
Electric Permittivity.
 7 EM-Waves 8
Force &
Radiation
Pressure
Surface
The electromagnetic (EM) spectrun
encompasses all types of electromagnetic Completely Completely
reflecting absorbing
radiation, from qamma rays to radio waves.
Momentum :
GaddiSUV in My Range
2E
|AP|=2P= |4P|=P: E
Energy C C
Force :
oGamma Ray(Y-ray) (1 MeVM
Gaddi
AP 2E
F= AP E
X-ray (2 Ke) F =
t Ct t
sUV Ct
Pressure :
ultraviolet (U) (10-100 e)
Ín F 2E F
dVisible (1-2 P= E
My e) P=
E \(Decreases) A CAt
Range nfrared TR) (1 me) A CAt
F L(Decreases) 2I I
SMicrowave P= P=
(1 ue) C
A Tincreases) C
Radiowave (108
I = Intensity
>low energy E = Energy

Intensity of EM Wave : Dielec.

Const
The intensity of an electromagnetic
wave
represents the power per unit area 9 Poynting Vector
carried
by the wave.
Direction :- I to wave & to electric field
and the magnetic field.
1
Magnitude :- Intensity of EM Wave.
<I> 1 BoEo
=T E,E,C =

2 Po Eo x Bo
S=
2Ho
 Type of Radiation Frequency Range (Hz)
Wavelength Range
gamma-rays 100 - 104 <10-12
X-rays 1017 - 1020 0.01nm -10nm
ultraviolet 105 -1017 400nm -1pm
visible x
4-7.5 1014 750 nm-40Onm
near-infrared 1x1014-4x10 2.Sum-750nm
infrared 1013-1O14
25um -2.5um
microwaves 3x10- 103 1
mm-25um
radio waves <3 x
10* >1 Mm

Radiowaves Microwaves IR Visible UV X-Ray Gamma-Rays

e
Production Acc" of Klystron, Heated e ExcitationTransfer of
|X-ray Tube Radioactive
in Antenna Magneton & Bodies e
from E.S. Innner Shell Nucleus
Gunn Diode to G.S. e Nuclear
Explosion

Detection
Receiver's Point Contact| Bolometer, IR Human eye, Diodes & Gieger Gieger
Antenna. Diode Photographic Photographic Photographic | Counter Counter
Plate, Films, Films. lonisath lonisath
Photodiode Photocells Chamber Chamber
Photographic Photographic
Plates Plates
FM, AM, Radar Remotes, Hi To See UV Fitter, Diagnostic Radio
TV, Cellular Navigation, Fi System Objects Lasik Laser, tool, Radio-therapy
Network Measuring Sanitizationtherapy. High level
Uses
Speed Sanitization.
of balls,
Microwave
Oven (3GHz,
Reso. of H,o).
 Ray Optics
30
Speed of Light in Vaccum
1 Light
Speed of light in medium,
energy 1
• It
is a form of electromagnetic C V=
1
which gives the Sensation of vision. Jmm
It is an essential part of the electromagnetic V= CC
spectrum that is visible to the human eye.

4+
Light itself is not visible; rather we see 1
objects because they reflect or emit light.
MR*
Visible light has a wavelength range Koi object jis light Ko emnit Karega wak
of approximately 380 nm to 700 nm, waisa dhikega.
which corresponds to the portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that human Red
eyes can detect," light
+
[VIB GYOR]: visible light Ka range
Heat up
The visible light spectrum includes colors in .. Yellow balloon will burst.
the following order: Violet (V). lndigo (), Plane Mirror
2
Blue (B), Green (a), Yellow (Y, Orange
(0), and Red (R)." Effect of Reflection &
Refraction :
Speed of light does not depends on Speed Frequency of light
of Source and speed of observer. f= Medium independent, only depend
On Source
+ Frequency and sense of colour does not
depends on medium.

Intensity. wavelength, speed of light

depends on medium.
For example, light travels slower in water
than in air."
 : Some Properties of trnage formation by
fation
reflections Li= Lr Plane mirror :
Lawsof
4 Focal length of Plane mirror is tnfinite

4 On covering part of mirror, No change in

RR Angle b/n
R
IR & RR is
Size of Inage but brightness will decrease
(reflected
always 2i. because less light is reflected."
nident ray ray)
*
Real Object Virtual mage: A plane
:
wiation from Plane Mirror mirror always forms virtual image of a
a

By a Mirror : realobject. The image appearsto be behind

6=
180 - 2i the mirror and cannot be projected onto
Normal Grazing a screen.
Incidence lncidence
+
Virtual object Real Irnage: A plane
6= 180°
H)
By two inclined Mirror : mirror can form a real image if the object
6= 360 - 20 is virtual. This occurs in certain optical
B= Angle b/n Mirror. setups, such as with converging lenses or
Note : other mirrors that create a virtual object.
incident ray rotated "" then reflected Object and Image always of same distance
• If

ray rotates "" in Opposite Sense. from mirror.

•
Plane Mirror is rotated by "O", reflected
+ Lateraly inverted image: The left and
ray turns by "29" in same sense.
right sides of the image are reversed.
It plane minor rotated by about axis
is
Plane mirror can form Inverted lmage of
Perpendicular to plane then No effect on
reflected ray real object
age Formation Height of Mirror:
by Plane Mirror :
(A) To see full height of object :
=
Hiror Hobject2.
Ooject
Object ek line (B) To see full wall behind object ?
erto Mirror draw
(Observer at Centre),
Karo 3 line z
Virtual image hogi. Hall
Image Hror 3
 man is Observer is moving with
constant
(C) To see full wall behind object if speed
not centre ?
u
then time for which observer
Can See
image of object

d -L
object
H
2L
d 3d observer
2d|
t=
3d Bd
AB 2H object is
moving to plane mirror :

Hmirror
2d sd
Clock System :

The reflection inverts the left and right Voa Via

sides, effectively reversing the direction
Rest
of the clock's hands." therefore the time
shown in the image of a clock reflected in
Vc=-Vog
2 Voc
a plane mirror can be given as follow. Vio-
o
If time in clock (Hr: Mmint : Ssee)
Object is moving at an angle tomirror :

then mirrored time will be (11-H)r

+Voy +Voy
:(59-M),mint : (60-S)see
o
When only HR and MINT is given >+Vox
=
Nox
(11-H)Ar: (60-M),mint Voa
o
If only HR is given mirror time Rest
- (12-H)Hour *Vo= 2Vox
Object at rest & Mirror is moving with

3 Velocity of Image

Object moving
I"to plane mirror :

Velocity of image w.r.t object, VMa

+
Vio =
0
• Velocity of rest
object w.r.t. ground Voc
=
Velocity of image w.r.t.
ground vc Vio Vic = 2 VMG
 Formation by TWo Plane Mirror :-
4 Spherical Mirror
360 Angle b/n
Mirror Property Concave Convex
Mirror Mirror
Even Odd Nature of Converging Diverging
mirror
No. of images Bisector |Bisector Focal Positive
forned. n=m-1. Negative
length (F) (f = -ve) (f= +ve)
placed
fthe object is If the object is Object Negative Negative
m the angle bisector, not placed on the distance =
(U -ve) (U = -ve)
the number of images angle bisector, the (U) (Real object) (Real object)
number of images
formed. n=n-1. Image Negative Positive
formed. n=m
distance (V= -ve) (V= ve)
MR*
360° () (Real lmage) (Virtual
fraction then ush fraction Se lnage)
choti integer lenge approximate Nahi lena, +
Along tncident ray distance taken as ve.
+ Ex M =
7.8 - m= 7 Image
Mirror Equation i
m
=
3600 =
300 6 (even) R 1 1
60° • f=
3 No of images = m -1=5 2 f

Pahila iwmage Transverse magnification

M, M2
Kaha banega
30°
Angle b/n two
H
V f -V
mirror add Karo. Ho f -U
Ye coincide -dv only valid for
150° 1s0° Karega. du Small object
Infinite ImaAge When TWo Plane Miror is Parallel :
Longitudinal V
Magnification
2m 2m M, M,
U

2m m = +ve
2m (m = -v
Object +4m =
>
Gm
1 Erect &E > 1 =
lnverted
m= 360 Magnified Magnified
n = 00
=
10m 10m <1 Erect &
<
1 =
Add dist^ b/n Diminished. lnverted
14m 14m & Diminished.
two mirror.
Joh Chahiye uska sign convention
nai lete
 : Graph for Concave Mirror :

Image Formation by Concave

Mirror

Object Image
f[R, I, -ve]
2f f
•
b/n oo &e C
+
b/n C&f P

[R, I, -ve] f
+ C
+
At C[R, I, -1] 2f
+ A
oo & C
• b/n C & f
+
b/n
[R, I, -vet]
At oo.
[R, I, -vej
At f
+ Behind Mirrror Graph for Convex Mirror:
• b/n f & Pole
[V, E, +ve]
V^
Convex Mirror :
Image Formation by

Object Image

at o
+
At focus.
[V E, m =ve]
+ oo
& Pole
+
b/n Pole & Focus. -U
b/n

MR*

uska "f"
Tum mirror Ko kahi bhi rakho -V
hai.
change nai hoga lens Ka ho sakta
Newton's Formula : s Refraction
When liqht travels from
rarer a medium
f= JRy
of
angle
x= Object dist" from focus. (R) to a denser mnedium (D), the
y =
image dist^ from focus. deviation (5)
Velocity of Image in Case of 8
=i-r
and r
Where i is the angle of incidence,
Concave Mirror :

1 to Principle axis :; isthe angle of refraction.

1> Object is moving a media
When liqht travels from denser
o
mnedium (R), the angle
(D) to a rarer
2> Object is moving to Principle axis : deviation (5)
o
V=
m
Vo = mfVo 8
=r -i
ntls
Law ; 6 Real & Apparent Depth

Sin i V MR" Special

SIn r
dyeol
Medium Pobr Poby
1.
|,
This means that apparent depth seen by9

an observer is influenced by the refractive

A, Medium indices of the media through which the light
2
travels.

Apparent depth in multiple layers i

MR
air
Snell's law can be directly applied b/n 1t
& last medium irrespective of intermediate
medium.

"N" Number of waves in a "X" Distance if

A.
Hz
Wavelength is

Hap? H, H, H, H4
+ + +
1

Diverging ray i
no. of waves, n=X
When a diverging ray passes through a
Optical Path (d) -
medium with thickness t and refractive
"dyacuun &
dmedium for Same time. index u, there is a lateral shift in the path
of the ray.
d= pX x= dmedium
=
d dyacum +
The real path is indicated by the solid line,
t and the apparent path is shown by the
dotted line.
 7 Lateral Shift

(R D R)

Oshift
si-r
d

t, dapy = d
= +
+
deal d
Shift =
deal - dapp
= (d+)-e )t
=
Shift t
ToSy Sin(i-n)
d=
MR*
ray aata hai toh + If i Small.
Jab bhi glass pr diverging sine and
For small angles of incidence the
hai. Aur i,
glass ke taraf lmage Shift kr jaata
cosine functions can be approximated:
Converging ray Ke liye durC.
Sin iz i
Converging ray i CoS r
i
a
When converging ray passes through
a
=
d ti
medium with thickness t and refractive
similar to
index u, there is a lateral shift 8 Total Internal Reflection [i > ic]
the diverging ray.
occurs when
Total internal reflection mediurn
a denser
light ray traveling from
strikes the
(D) to a rarer medium (R)
an greater then critica
t boundary at angle
Shift >
angle (i i) reflected
d The light ray is completely no
1 with
=
t medium,
Shift back into the denser mediunm
rarer
refraction occurring in the
 Condition for total internal reflection:| Velocity of Image in Refraction :-
liaht must travel from
1> Object is moving parallel to boundary i
Medium.
DR o
VG VoG
. Angle of incidence () must be greater
than the critical angle (i.)
2> Object is moving 1" to boundary :
critical Angle :
MR

MR*
Vreal
Pobr Pobj

= BKam Prarer
(sin i, BJyada BDenser q Refraction at Spherical Surfaces

MR* One stop solution

sin i, =

R
PRR....\-----I-----
PiR/ RR
D Water - Air :- i, = 49°
Glass - Air :-, = 42°
() (i)
Spherical surface () convex (i) concave
Radius of Visibilityi
Refraction Formula:
The radius of visibility refers to the
The refraction formula at a spherical surface
maximunm distance at which an observer separating two media with refractive indices
can see an object submerged ina medium KiR(incident ray medium) and RR (refracted
(such as water) from above the surface. ray medium) is given by:

Air R
PRR
R

d + Normal will pass through Center of

Curvature.
JR²+d?
+
Nature of Surface will be decided bu
Source position of object.
+
Water - Air +
Concave : R= -ve
R=
h=Z Convex:- R =
+ve
 Magnification : Lens Equation :

H PIR
Ho BRR. U

dv
=
mj
dU PRRU 1
R,

10 Optical Fiber [Based on TIR]

so Focal Length of lens :
The angle at which ray must be incident
as information gets transmitted : +
Focal length depends on medium.
-Cladding
Light
ray Biconvex (+)

sin i s 2
-H2 Plastic R
Core f=
coating 2(u-1)
>Chota
Bada (Heore Heladding) Biconcave(-)

=
11 Lens refractive Index of lens w.r.t

Double Plano- Concavo Double Plano- Convexo

medium
COnveX convex Convex Concave concave Concave
Planoconvex (+)

0D)IIC
Converging leneses Diverging leneses
R
(u-1)
Planoconcave (-)

12 Lens-Maker Equation

Where:
- R
H
Ho
c<

Real lmage
f+U

B, =
refractive index of the lens Virtual lmage
material.
,, =
refractive index of the surrounding Small
Object
medium. dU
 Cuting of Lens
:- Nature of Lens Considering R.l. of

Surrounding &e
Lens
P, f
Condition Behaviour
Glass Plate: There is no
P, f refraction, and the lens
2f 2f
Each part of lens does not converge or
P/2 P/2 diverge light.
|forms inmage.
Same Nature: A convex
a
lens converges light, and
L3Ray-Diagram concave lens diverges light.
Opposite Nature: A convex
a
(a) Biconvex lens : f= +ve lens diverges light, and
cOncave lens converges light.

Lens
14 lmage Formation by Equiconvex
Object Image
•
f[R, I, -vej
(Converging)
• b/n oo
& 2f • b/n 2f & f
[R, I, -ve]
Convex lens

• at 2f at 2f
[R, I, -1] Concave
• b/n 2f&f • b/n & 2f Miror
[R, I, -vet](Convergin9)
• at f • at co
[R, I, -vett]
• b/n f & • On same side df lens
(b) Biconcave lens : f= -ve [V, E, +Ve]
Pole

Can a Convex lens be have as diverging lens.

Yes, when ( > )

(Diverging) 15 Image Formation by Concave Lens

Object image

at co at focus.
[V, E, m = +ve]

• b/n o & Pole b/n Pole & Focus.

 Concave Lens Convex Mirror
(Diverging)
|Ho
No. of Image Form : 2f
L
L.
No. of No. of
images U
images D

No.of D = disth
No. of b/n Object
Materials f=
Object 4D & Screen.

x =
Dist b/n two position of lens.

16 Combination of Lens
H,
-
Power
X <lc

Lens Mirror m,-mg

a a
P= Lens &
Combination of Mirror (Silvering
of Lens) i
:
(a) When lens are in contact
MR*
P= P+ Pz Koi siqnmt rakho bs direct lens ka opposite
nature mirror Ko dedo.

a
(b) When lens are separated by distance
"d":
P=P, + Pe - dP,P2 Convex lens Concave
Silvered Mirror
d
+ f= -ve
d
Concave lens Convex
Take P with sign !
Silvered Mirror
+ve
f=
17 Displacement Method [2 Refrac" + 1 Reflec"]

Image Ka dist^ Object Ko, Object Ka

dist" lmage Ko
 Convex Lens :-
R Concave
f 2(2u-1) Mirror

Plano -cOnvex lens :-

R Concave
f 2(u-1) Mirror
i =e
Plano-cOnvex lens :- For Minimum deviation :

R Concave A i =e
fea2(u-1) Mirror r, = r, = 2
Sin
R Convex 2
fea
2u-1) Mirror
Sin

R Concave
2u Mirror For thin prism (A =
Smal)

R Convex
fa Mirror
2u A = Refracting Angle.

+
18 Prism Half Angle Formula :

Sin = 2 sin CoS

2
A
Prism is placed in medium :

S = A
1

kngle
of
Total Condition for no deviation:
prism, A
=rtr, deviation OTotal
=
ite-A
Sin i
1 Sin r,
Sin r Sin e AA,(e,-1) = -Az(Ha-1)
 Dispersion without Deviation
19 Dispersion of light
Dispersion of light ocCurs when white light A,(H, -1) = - Ae, - 1)
passes through a prisim, separating into
(emergent ray I" incident ray)
-
its constitucnt colors (VIBGYOR Violet, Deviation without Dispersion :
Indigo, Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange, Red).

1 VIBGYOR

(White light bahar)

Total dispersion :- ln case of dispersion

20 Angular dispersion (Q)
without deviation
e =
,+ , =
A[u-1 (w, - w,)
Silvering of Prism :
A

=ri
sin i
SIn A

Mean deviation :

2 21 Optical Instruments

Omean = A Visual Angle :

1
Angle from horizontal with which a
mean-1
|
Omean A observer sees an object.

Ho
Dispersive Power :- (w) D

pt
Eye sitpR!
W =
O,mean mean D =25 Cm
Distance of Distinct Vision.

Myopia Hypermetropia
By -1
Concave lens. Convex lens.
2
Near Sightedness Far-Sightedness
 Microscope
cimple . Note -
M = MM, =
M=
M =

Ho

f U
Strained eye Relaxed eye
position position
Near point Far point
+ 4 V= 0.
V= D
V,
=
infinity
M =
M = D
f Uo 1+
V,D
M =

Strained Relaxed eye M= LD

eye position position
Near point Far point
*M=D
image Distance of
V= 0.
Length of Compound Microscope :
distance distinct vision
L= Vo t U, Vo
may +
1
M

In case of far point L =

+f,
Astronomical Telescope
Compound Microscope i
Objective

Eyepiece
Objective Eyepiece
Vo
fo
H,

H,
V V
 22 Rainbow formation

M = Refrac +
No TIR
Dispersion
Internal Reflection

2° Rainbow
Strained eye Relaxed eye Refraction
position position
Near point Far point Ramlal Rainbow
+
e1°
V= D V= 0.
Pinky.

1°Rainbow 2° Rainbow
M
=fo M=

Length of Telescope :
1° Rainbow 2° Rainbow
L=fot U

+ Red on upper side + Red on lower side

violet on lower + violet on upper
L= f, + f, For image at o. +

Scattering of Light :
Galileo Telescope :
E.g.:- BIlue colour of Sky, Red Sky & sun on
-
L=fo f,
the time of sunrise or sunset.
Rest Same. Scatering a

MRS

"Beta duniya gol hai, tuhare kiye gaye

mehnat tum tak zarur lautega....
mehnat karna mat chhodo..jitna
tumhare hath main hai h utna karo,
baki bhagwan par chhod do.J
 Wave Optics
31
+
(Mech Longitudinal) +
Diffraction: Bending of light around
obstacles.
Hudgen: - Wave

Einstein: - Particle Light Polarization: Orientation of light waves in

particular directions.
Maxwell: - EM wave

(Non Mech + Transverse) 2 Huygens wave theory

2Tt T Explain:
Ax At
Rectilinear propagation, Interference,
EM Reflection, Refraction, Diffraction.
Equation of Wave for Light/ Sound /
WAve / ac:
Can't explain:
+ +
y=Asin(wt kx ) + Polarisation, PEE, Compton effect.
Nave Sabhi Medium particle Ko SHM Deta
Types of waves:
hai!

1. Medium:
1 Newton corpuscular theory Mechanical EMW

Explain:
2. Propagation:
# Rectilinear propagation: Light travels Progressive Stationary
in straight lines. Finite
3. Vibration:
* Reflection: Bouncing of light from a Longitudinal
Transverse
Surface.

* Refraction of Light: Bending of light Wave front

when it passes from one medium to 3
another. A wavefront is a surface that connects all
Can't explain: points vibrating in sync at the same phase of a
wave. It helps visualize how waves propagate
*
Interference: When two waves meet and
Cowai through different mediums.
 Anmplitude (A) Intensity ()
Wavefront Type Source of Light
|Spherical Wavefront Point source Aa
A
Cylindrical Wavefront Linear source
a a
Plane Wavefront Very distant source lAaP (constant)|| (A) P(constant)

Intensity of wave: Prism:

1
I

Planar
4 Behaviour of plane wavefront
On reflection & refraction Planar
N
Plane Mirror:
IR RR

IR

aaye
Planar wavefront Surface

RR 5 Sources
Convex Lens: Phase difference

Time Time
Point IY constant HIY Variable
SOurce Coherent Incoherent
frea Same
Planar Spherical wave Incoherent sources:
Source front = +
A¢ [w,-w,]t [KyX, -Kzx4]
Concave lens: +
[44-4]
Time Dependent Hai!
Coherent sources:
=
A¢ K(x, -x,] +
,-2
= 2Tc
A¢ Ax
Planar Point Spherical
Source SOurce wave front Single Monochromatic
wavelenath SQurce
 Interaction of light
RAY ; Phase Relation and angle (e)
Lobject =
A< Azsino
tan
when the wavelength
(2)
light of
is much +
A, Azcos
Smaller than the size of
the object it interacts
with light
can be treated as rays. Fire concept MR*
A lobject = WAVE T/12 T/6 Te
T/4
when the wavelength (2) is comparable to T/6 T/12 T/2 5T/12
he size of the object, light exhibits wave-like 3T/4
behavior. 7T/12
=
e-/p+/c-particle PARTICLE T/6 11T T/12 2Tt
Light also behaves as particles (photons),
particularly in interactions at the atomic or T
T/8,
subatomic level, such as in the photoelectric 4
effect or Compton scattering.
+A
(Photon) <2
x=0 A/2 T

Interference Mean T/G T/3

7 T/4
(Sr/2 7r/2
Interference is a phenomenon where two or
more coherent light waves superimpose to 11T/6 2T
form a resultant wave of greater, lower, or
the same amplitude. 8 Intensity
Requirements:
pVA°w?
For interference to occur, two coherent 2
sources (sources with constant phase
difference) are required. Where:
p= density of the medium
Kx,) V= velocity of the wave
amplitude of the wave
„sin(wt+
A=
aAnet
angular frequency of the wave
A,s a =
I d aA? d slit width
A,sin(wt + Kx,) Average Intensity
Resultant amplitude
nin t 'wmax

AeiiA+A+2A,A,cos 'av
2
Resultant intensity
 Ratio of Maximun to minimum Intensity Fringe visibility:

= 'max min
Visibility Ratio
Imin
'max t ain
min

max
12
-+ 1
(F)-(E
Imin
12 12
A,
A,
10 Destructive interference
9 Constructive Interference
cos = = coso =
1 18O° -1
Tmin = I, +
I, - 2I,,
2

Amay = A, + Ag
Amin = A, Ag
= =
I I, Io

=
2n(T) even ¢ =
(2n+1)r odd
=
Ax n(2) integral Ax = (2n+1) odd
n = 0, 1, 2, 3,.... 2
n =0, 1, 2, 3,...
MR
• YDSE:
• YDSE:
AD
AD Y= (2n-1) Posit" of nh Dark.
Y= n Posit" of n'h Bright. 2d
d
• NOTE:
= a
1> "n" source of same intensity Neet I,
Find lResuleni =
net = nlo (scalar Add") Visibility Ratio
2> "n" source of same intensity
l intensity res
then find lmari (Const. Inter.) * Two wave of I"
phase diff is ¢:
 Path Difference (Ax) :
(I= 4I,cos
=
Ax dsinb
=
dtan

32 Ax =
2A Yd
2 31

Positions of Bright -
and Dark Fringes
/Minima =
(2n-1) The position of the n-th bright fringe (nB)
2 2 On the screen is given by:
8
nAD
= O
Ax d
+
The position of the n-th dark fringe is
Maxima = (n2) 2
given by:
D
(n

=
32
2 Ax 22 2
3B
Young Double SN2 Dark
11 slit Experiment 22D
22 2B
d 3N2 Dark
Basic
Setup : D
1B
AD
+
S1 and S2 are two slits separated by a N2 Dark
distance d. CB = O
Ax
+
A Screen is placed at a distance D from
the slits.
Light waves passing through the slits
interfere and create a pattern of bright
and dark fringes On the screen. Fringe width (B):

B= Ynth Y(n-1)th
Bright Bright

S, AD
B=
d
d
Central Angular Fringe Width:
Ax Maxima

= D
=
D
 * Used to find central maxima.
MR*
aap "D" se
* Angular kuch bhi puche Fringe
divide kardena!
Nearest Central Farthest
* air Bvacuum

1
Ba .:.
ln acuum,
interference with large "B" seen!
Blue Red.

YDSE in liq. White

YDSE in air

AD
1> B= 1> p'=
d
12 Shapes of fringes
2
2> = d
2> '= Two slit used:

nD nD
3> Max: - Yn= 3> Yn'=
d ud

Min:
Yn'= 2n-1)7D
2ud
(f= samne
AD
Yn= (2n-1)
2d

Q.1 Two light of A, 2, is used in YDSE,

>
"Hyperbolic" Fringes
then central Maxima & 1* Maxima
will2.
Two pin holed used:
Sol. Central Maxima At same position.
at same place.
1t Maxima:- Not

= nD
Jiska A Y :Y d
:. 1, = dur rahega!
White light:

* sabse pahle maxima violet ka ayega.

=

= "Perfectly Fringes"
* sabse pahle dikhega red.
 two hole is along the line joining of
When MR*
source and Screen:- Jiske path mein slab jayega woh "ut"
jyada chalega agar Ax = o krna hai toh
usko niche lao yaneki kam karo toh S, ke
path ko badao dono barabar hojayenge
aur AX = 0!
Position of CB:

S
S

"Circular Dt(p-1)
Y=
Fringes"

Kuch nai Normal YDSE ka

B3Optical path =
A
(u-1)t rakhdo! 33
&
Number of bright dark fringes:
=
air:- A 2rtt Total No. of: -
2T 2d
Medm- ' = (ut) (a) Bright Fringe = + 1

YDSE when a slab of "u" R.l. inserted in =

d 1
(b) Dark Fringe +
path of S,:

dsine =
d 2.4=2
t(u-1) =
minimum integer 2.5-2

Majduri se duri MR
*

dy AD hai jaruri
- t(p-1) B=
d
DF
=
Ax O

s(let) CB -DF
Ho BF
Y
S. -DF
d

dsin
DF

27
D
 2(22) 15 Brewster's Law
No. of BF
=
+
1= S (Polarisation by reflection)
Integer
=
No. of DF 2 IR
AIR RR
=
=
2 (2+0.5) 2 [2]=4

UPL 100%
14 Polarisation Polarised
(Only for Transverse wave) Lr to plane of
E = cB incidence
negligible B90 denser
compared to E.F medium
= Polaris".
Restricting of E

Law of malus: Partially

= Polarised
Io Intensity of unpolarised light.
light
e =
Angle b/n Analyser & Polarizer. Refracted
I = Ray
Intensity of light transmitted through
the polariser.
*I =I, cos?e.*
=
Rotate
=
tan(e) tan i,,

16 Diffraction
UPL Bending of wave around an object.
Polariser Analyser
(E I
Plane polarized light
I
Diffrac^
s Awave

Unploarize light

Fresnel Fraunhoffer
I= Icose = cose
2 2 & screen
• Source & screen at •Source
Finite disth at o dist"
wave front
PP/ • Spherical wave • Planar
After Analyser
After polaroid front
 Fraunhoffer Diffraction:-
Important points:
+
1 inch = 2.54 Cm
s(let) minima +
For max R.L. We use max A.

+
gir
YnE

2AD de
YDF do.,
Planar
WAve PCB. +
If two coherent source of equal intensity
Fringe are taken then fringe visibility is 1O07%.
D
> screen because =0.
I YDSE T! 18 Doppler's effect of light
Neet
Width of C.B. 22D
Fringe

* Angular width
Minima (D.)
of C.B.F. = 22
| L+
C
(C.) Maxima
asin =
n asine = (2n-1) Ar
2

n= 1,2,3,4... n = 2,3,4...
19 Interference

tano = -4T +2c

-2T +4T
D

* asin atan

17 Validity of ray-optics

-STc -3Tc -TL +T +3Tt +5Tt

Z =
Interference due to thin filim.
Iske pahile ray Iske baad wave +
For reflected light:
Dist" of source & screen (Z) Maxima - 2ut cos r =
(2n + 1)
2
a= width of C.B. Fringe. Mininima - 2ut cos r = nd
 For transmitted light: Polarisation by scattering
Maxima - 2ut cos r d =
Q N, Molecule
unpolarised
Minima- 2ut cos r (2n-1)
=
polarised
2
20 Diffraction

B
B
B B

- CB à

22
 32 Dual Nature
Dual Nature of light: O
Moving mass of photon m=
Newtonaba - Light is a Particle (corpuscule) C

- Eqplain reflection
/ refraction
O
Photon does not deviate
electromagnetic field but deviate in
Huygen Light is a mechanical wave
Chacha gravitational field.
Ether medium Propsed by
Huygen Power of
light:
Explain Diffraction /
refraction. Total energy falling per second is called
power of light beam.
Maxwell, Light is a Non-mechanical
Chacha
transverse wave. P=E nhv
No medium required. t t
de Broglie Nature loves Symmetry No. of photons emitted per unit time =
t
Bhaiya Light have dual Nature. PA
pavission &
verification
Geomer e is a Wave exp m hc

GP. thomson verification of electron as wave. Intensity of light:

2 Photon Total energy falling per unit area per-sec is

called intensity.
E = hv =hc -2x10J12400 A(A°) eV nE nhv nhc Power
At At 7At Area
1
Vphoton If source is same, frequency is same.
JPofoindepedent no.
of
frequency
Ia of photons.
QiIf Intensity and frequency both becomes double
then no. of Photon will be??
Ans. n =
remains same
Energy of light beam: lc nf
Q2 For a given source. Intensity becomes double then
E-nhfnhc n= no. of Photons
no. of Photon wil(2

Ans. becomes double <n

= x
leV 1.6 1O* joule Fractional change in frequency of photon
Properties of Photon:
when it travels "h" distance on
earth surface:
O
charge and rest mass =0
Av gh hv,
O
Momentum of Photon P =
V
gh = hv, o
 +
Radiation pressure: For Photoelectric effect:
(Jyada hogil
+ P= [2-p] [kam hogi]
(KE) = eVo
"Complete Absorption : (p =
1) =
V, Stopping Potential
P= Ephoton = +
(KE),e
IA Power hv =
hvo + evo
=
F= PA
C C hc
+ Mev?
P=[o+1] 2
MR
*Complete Reflective : o =
1
(ntensity no. of Photon z no f
21
P= electron Photocurrent
Frequency o energy of Photon #. energy
21A 2Power
F= |of e (K.E) «
stopping potential
Where, + Photocurrent
depends on Intensity rot or
l= Intensity of light Beam frequency.
C= Speed of light +
Stopping Potential depends on freqvery
P= Pressure not on lntensity
p= Absorption coefficient
o = Reflection coefficient Graphs:
V= const
3 Photoelectric effects: |= change

+ Conversion of light energy to electrical Photocurrent

energy.
+ Explained by Einstein
+ Instantaneous process; time lag b/w
Vo EMF
falling of photon and emiting of electron is
Stopping
10 Sec.
Photocurrent
+ no of electron =
Efficiency =
10 to 10 intensity
no of photon
+ One to one intraction one photon can
LSame
Change
eject only one electron.
+ =
Work Function, Material Properties
hc V

VaV

where vo and o
are thereshold
frequency and wavelength.
EMF
 Vol

Const for
any metal

=
(tan

(ntensity)

(Prequency) (KE),mar

(lntensity)
+ If distanceb/w Source and plate becomes
(lntensity)
double then stopping potential remains
same but photocurrent becomes one
fourth.
+ If frequency becomes double then K.E of

V
electrons becomes more than double.
(frequeney) Q.3 Saturation Current and stopping Potential
are
lo and V, when frequency of light is 1.s times of
(KE)mae
threshold frequency. Now if frequency becomes half
then saturation current and stopping potential will?
Sol. Both becomes zero, Photoelectric effect hoga hi
Nahi

(frequency)
 4 Matter waves:
wave-like behavior of particles. Illustratina
Matter waves, or de Broglie waves, describe the motion.
every particle has a wavelength associated with its
that
hJi-ve
(Ap .286 A°
mV
parti
Classical Particle
elativistic h
O.101 J2mKE
A°
Kel

Charge is in
O.202 Ao h
Jr P electrostatics J2may
Charge
at
Molecule

restisat
A

12.27 Gas qEt

Jv
h
nh qRB
J2m(13.6) J3mkT

V. imp. A /s O= Aways Reactangular S Compton Effect:

:
Ky x -28
hyperbola 1.38 10
E 2ev Visible Region
Photoelectric Effect:
E= 10eV X-ray Region
=
h
m,c(-cos ).
scattering angle
h
e 2.44 pm
Wavelength of revolving for Bohv's orbit: m,C
Pair Production:E 1.02 MeV
6X-ray:
(Neutral) E = KeV

X-RAY
A = HARD SOFT
1 A° (E1) A= 4 A° (E)
CONTINUOUS
CHARACTERISTICcs (Collision b/n accelerated
(Retard" of e) e e
and bonded )

7Inverse Phenomena of Photoectric effect

X-ray target atom - High atomic number, High melting Point, High Conductivity
Intensity of X-ray a Tube Current|Frequency of X-ray a Tube Voltage

X-RAY
CHARACTERISTICS
CONTINUOUS
(Retard" of e) (Collision b/n accelerated
e
and bonded e)

(KE),- =. hc
eut off -(Voa
cut-off -(Vos
wavelength, oa
Acpelerating e >
tube voltag (Voa (Vo):

Q.4 Wavelength is A for K line for atomic no z = 43 then

find wavelength for K line for atonic no z = 29.

e)-(
2

Sol. 29-2
2 43-1)
4
Series:
K°(2 - 1 4
 (c) Both Statemnent -l and Statement
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: are true -I

h h (d) Statement-l is truetbut Statement-

Ax.ap z
is false.
4T 2Tt
AL.AQ At.AE 2 Ans. (d)
2
Where, Q.b. A
2mWlaser operates at a
= wavelength
Ax uncertainity in position of nm. The numnber of
150O photons
Ap uncertainity in momentum
=
that willbe emitted per second is
AL = uncertainity in angular
[Given Planck'sconstant h =
momentum -34
6.6 x
10 Js, speed of light c = 3.0x 10
Graph is given for two different atom A m/s]
and of atomic no. Z, and Za at cut-off x 10° x
(a) 2 (b) 1.5 10'6
voltage Va and Vg
(c) s x 1os (d) 1 x
1o'6
Ans. (d)
=
P= 2mW 2
x
10s W nhe
n2x1oxÀ
t hc
2x10-3 x500x1.o
2 x
1O -25

=5x 10
VA< Vg cut-off voltage, Za > Z
atomic no.
Q7. Given below are two statements:
Q.5. Given below are two statements:
Statements-l: Two photons having
Statements-l: Two photons having
equal linear momenta have equal
equal linear momenta have equal
wavelengths.
wavelengths.
Statements -l: the wavelength
If
Statements
-Il: the wavelength of photon decreased, then the
is
of photon is decreased, then the momentum and energy of a photon
momentum and energy of a photon willalso decrease.
will also decrease.
statements,
In the light of the above
In the light of the above statements,
choose the correct answer from the
choose the correct answer from the
options given below.
options given below.
(a) Both Statement-l and Statement-ll
(a) Both Statement-l and Statement-ll
are fasle are false
Statement-ll
(b) Statement-tisfalse but Statement-l (b)Statement-lis false but
is true
 tBoth statement-l and Statement-ll Choose the correct answer from the
are trUe options given below:
(Statement-l is true but statement-ll (a) B, C only (b) A, C, D only
is false. B (d) A, B, D only
(c) only
Ans. (d) P= h & Et = hc = o+
Ans. (c) Ep
0.8. A 2 mW laser operates at a wavelength
of 500 nm. The number of photons Q.10. Given below are two statements:
that will be emitted per second is Statements-l: Stopping potential in
= x photoelectric effect does not depend on
[Given Planck's constant h 6.6
the power of the light source.
1034 Js, c =
speed of light 3.0x 10
m/s] Statements-ll: For a qiven metal,
x the maximum kinetic energy of
(a) 2 x
10 (b) 1.5 106 the photoclectron depends On the
(c) s x 10's (d) 1 x
106 wavelength of the incident light.
=
2 x
10 (a) Statement-l is incorrect but
Ans. (c) P= 2mW w =
Statenent-ll is correct
x
2 10 (a)Both Statement-Iand Statement-ll
hc are incorrect
(c) Statement-l is correct but
2x 10-3 x SOOx 10g
10-25 Statement-Il is incorrect
2x
(d) Both Statement-l and Statement-ll
(5) x
1os are correct
photoelectric
the effect Stopping potential,
Q9. From Sol. (d)
experiment, following observations hc
are made. ldentify which of these are P V, =
correct
A. The stopping potential depends only nhf (K.E)max -¢
on the work function of the metal. At
B. The saturation current increases
as the intensity of incident light Q.11.In photo electric effect
increases. A. The photocurrent is proportional
C. The maximum kinetic energy of to the intensity of the incident
a photo electron depends on the radiation
intensity of the incident light. B. Maximum Kinetic energy with which
D. Photoelectric effect can be explained photoelectrons are emitted depends
on the intensity of incident light.
using wave theory of light.
 Q.13..The stopping potential in the
C. Max. K.E with which photoclectrons of photoclectric effect context
depends
arecmitted depends on the the following property of
frequency of incident light. incident
electromagnetic radiation
D. The emission of photoelectrons
(a) Frequency
require a minimum threshold
intensity of incident (b) Amplitude
E. Max. KE of the photoelectrons is (c) lntensity
independent of the frequency of the
incident light Choose the correct (d) Phase
answer from the options given Ans. (a)
below:

(a) A
(b) A and E only Q.14. Two identical photocathodes receive
andC only
the light of frequencies f. and f.

(c) B and C only (d) A and B only respectively. If the

velocities of the
Ans. (a) photo-electrons cOming out are v, and
Vy respectively, then

Q.12.The threshold frequency of metal is 2h

fo When the light of frequency 2fo (a)v-, m

is incident on the metal plate, the

maximum velocity of photoelectron 2h
(b),+ m
is v, When the frequency of incident
radiation is increased to sf The 1/2

imaximum velocity of photoelectrons

emitted is v, The ratio of v, to v, is:
1
(a)=.
V2
1
2
(b)

Ans. (d)
1
(c)= 16
(d)
V2 4
Q.1S. When radiation of wavelength
suurtace,
A

is incident on a metallic
ejectea
= mV the stopping potential of sane
Ans. 2hf, (hf
2 photoelectrons is 4.8 V. If the e
Surface is illuminated by radiation
then
shi, double the previous wavelength,
=mvi 2 the stopping potential
becomes 16
netal
V.

The threshold wavelength of the

4hfo
(a) 6 (b) s1
(c) 27 (d) +À
Ans(c)
hc he 2c
(a) (b)
48ev 2c
hc hc 16ev 3
22 Ao
(c) (d)
3c
) Ans. (a)e v
=
2,
3 1
21 =
hc
Ep

mV
9.16.Electron beam used in an electron
Ep = meVc
microscope, accelerated by a voltage
of 20 kv has a de-Broglie wavelength 1
K.E
of If the voltage is increased to 40
Ep m,VC
kv then the de-Broglie wavelength
associated with the electron beam Q.19.A particle is traveling 4 times as fast
would be: as an electron. Assuming the ratio of
(a) 32, (b) 94o de-Broglie wavelength of a particle to
that of electron is 2: 1, the mass of the
(c) 7/2 (d) AA2 particle is:

Ans.(d) A a (a) 1/16 times the mass of e

(b) &
times the mass of e

Q.17.An a-particle, a proton and an electron

have the same kinetic energy. Which (c) 1/8 times the mass of e

One of the following is correct in case

(d) 16 times the mass of e
of their De-Broglie wavelength
Ans. (c) Vp = 4V
< <
(b) A,
2
1

Ans. (b) a = h
A, =
V2m K.E mplp
Q18.An electron moving with speed v and
a photon moving with speed c have
me 2
mpVp 1 mp 4
same de -Broglie wavelength. The ratio
of kinetic energy of electron to that of m

= 8
photon is
mp
 move. at
Q.22.Two particle right angle
Q.20.An electron (of mass m) and a photon de -Broglie toeach
other. Their wavelengths
have the same energy E in the range of are A, and A, respectively. The particles
a few ev. The ratio of the de -Broglie
suffer perfectly inelastic collision. The
wavelength associated with the electron
de-Broglie wavelength a, of the final
and the wavelength of the photon is
particle, is given by
(c = speed of light in vacuum)
1/2 =
(a) A
(b) 2

1/2 2 1
+
(c) c(2mE*2 (d)
h
Ans. (b)
J2m E E E_
hc c2 m 1 2 1
Em
E
(a), 2
Q.21.An clectron, a doubly ionized helium Ans. (d)
ion (He) and a proton
are having
the same kinetic enerqy. The relation
between their respective de-Broglie Pz
wavelengths ptt and p, is ,,
,
(a)2, > et+ >y () a, < < Ayett

(c) 2, >
p uett
>
(a) a, <
yett = , P +P =P. JP? P? =p

Ans. (c)
A
a
Jm
Since,
me
mHe m, 1 +

Therefore (c) is correct

MRS

Kismat sath de ya na de lekin

kabiliyat jarur sath deti hai. )
 recived the nobel prize for discoveryof electron and bit son GP Thonton get nobel prize for
JJThomson
experimental variticatio of wave naturt of electvon, whole thoson family in the busiress of electron

33 Atoms

Postulates of Thonson's
Jatomic model Detector
-B
Postulate 1: An atom consists of a positivel Beam of a
charged sphere with electrons embedded in particles
Gold foil
Postulate 2: An atom as a whole is
clectrically neutral because the negative
and positive charges are cqual in magnitude
Thomson atomic model is compared to Rutherford's Experinent
watermelon.
. Where he considered:
Watermelon seeds as negatively charged Radioactive source
particles
After hitting the foil, the scattering of these
+
The red part of the watermelon as alpha particles could be studied by the brief
positively charged flashes on the screen. They expected to learn
more about the structure of the atom from
Limitations of Thomson's atomic model : the results of this experiment:
. Most of the positively charged alpha
It failed to explain the stability of an atom
because his model of atom failed to explain particles went undeflected through the
foil. This shows that most of the space in
how a positive charge holds the negatively
charged electrons in an atom. Therefore, an atowm is empty.
This theory also failed to account for the Few positively charged alpha particles
position of the nucleus in an atom deflected through small and large angles.
Thomson's model failed to explain the This shows that there is presence
of
scattering of alpha particles by thin metal positive center in the atom. This positive
foils center known as nucleus.
is
• No Very few positively charged
experimental evidence in its support alpha
particles bounced back. This is because
the nucleus is very dense and does not
2 Rutherford Alpha allow the alpha particles to pass
through
Particle Scattering Exp it.

Rutherford and his team took a thin gold foil The volume occupied by the nucleus is
having a thickness of 2.1×10 7 m and placed negligible compared to the
of the atom. This shows
total volume
It in the centre of a rotatable'.
detector made atom is
that radius of
of zinc sulfide and a microscope. much higher than that of the
Then, they nucleus.
directed a beam of s.5MeV alpha particles
tmitted from a radioactive source at the foil. No. of Scattered a-Particle:
Lead bricks collimated these
alpha particles
as they
passed through them. N a Sin" 1
(0/2)
 energy level and the electron loses
its
energy as it jumps from the higher energy
to a lower energy level.
The electron's angular momentum is
TT quantized in its orbitals. So, electrons can
move only those permissible orbits
Q that
should be an integral multiple of h
Distance of closest approach (ro)i where h is planks constant
2Tc'

a-particle
(i.e., L= nh
K142 2Kze? 2Tt Kze?
2 ro ro Postulate 1
bombarding
nh
Particle Postulate 2: wvr
=

2Tt
Q.1 What are the drawbacks of the :
rutherford atomic model? Radius of N
Orbit
Ans.Rutherford's atomic model failed toa
explain the stability of electrons in
TEMez2
n = 0.53 n
circular path. He stated that electrons
a :
revolve around the nucleus in circular Orbit
N
Velocity of
would
path, but particles in motioncause energy nh
undergo acceleration and V, =
radiation. Eventually, electrons should 2TTmrn 2€h n
lose energy and fall into the nucleus. But V, = 2.18 x10° n ws
it never happens.
Bohr's Atomic Model
Energies of N" orbit :
3 mez
KE
=my,“=
Bohr proposed that in an atoma electron
revolves around the nucleus in definite
circular path called orbits or shells. Potential energy: Kinetic energy Total
:

These orbits are called 'stationary orbits' energy

and each orbit or shell possesses fixed =
-2: 1: -1
energy.
+
The energy levels are represented by
an ev
T.E. = E, = -13.6
integer called quantum numbers where
these integers indicate principal quantum
En =
+
V,= Volt
numbers i.e. orbits that can be assigned e
as K, L, M, N, corrosponding integer no. Energy
n = 1, 2, 3, 4 Ka Ta Pa
KE
The change in energy occur when the -n
electron jumps from one orbit to another TE
orbit.' PE
. The electron gains energy when it jumps
from a lower energy level to a higher
 Srecial Relations:- Energy Level Diagram i
:
Tiime Period
21Tr
T= Ta
:
Acceleration

. Angular Velocity
:
" No. of Spectral Line
:

w =
27T/T
wa z2/n3 (n, -n) (n, -n, +1)
N=
:
2 n,
e Angular freq"
n(n-2)(
w =
21T fa n
N=
2
Current : GS.

4 Recoiling of an atom
it i a
n

• : When photon of momentum P emitted

Magnetic dipole Moment
from stationary atom then, recoil
M = = eV eVr momentum and energy of atom can be
i.A Tr2
2TTr 2 given as follow:
M
an
+ Recoil Momentum
Relation B/N Magnetic Moment &
Angqular
Momentum : P= h Rzh 1 1 (Momentum
conserves here)
n2
1
Magnetic Field Ba n
Recoil Energy :

eVr el E
2ma? m: mass of Recoil
M= (L = mvr) atom. 2m
2 2m

M= -e s H-Spectrum
2m
Radiation Energy : For lyman series (K-series)
e n, (lnitia)
Emax [Limit Line: last line of K -series
Photon
n, =1
n, (Final) ng
=2
1Line of K-series
AR= 1/hc
13.6 1
V== hc n2
Lyman Series : [UV
me 1
x A,in 412 A°
R =
2, 3
=
1.097 10/m R
 Brackelt Series : [IR]
4 =
3R 1216 A°
16 =
R
14592 A°
Balmer Series : [Visible]
400 =
4 = 9R
40533 A°
R 3648 A°
Bohr's Quantum Condition from Debroqlie
36 A°
Hypothesis :
SR
=656S
= nh P
2TTr d=
Paschen Series : [IR]
nh
L= 2TT
P
8208 A°
+
When H-atom is raised from the ground
144 = state to 3rd excited state then potential
18761.1 Ao
7R energy increases and K.E. decreases

Spectral Series of Atom

n = 0

n = 7

n
=6

n = 5
-

Pfund
far infrared
n = 4
1* line
|last line Brackett
far infrared
n =3
Paschen
last line near infrared
1 line
n =2
Balmer Visible region
last line 4st line

n = 4000A SOOOA 6O0OA 7O00A

1
Lyman
Ultraviolet Kob
 The radius of electron's second Q.s The ratio for the speed of the electron
2
stationary orbit in Bohr's atom is R. in the 3 orbit of He to the speed of
The radius of 3rd orbit will be
the electron in the 3 orbit of hydrogen
atom will be:
(a) R/3 (b) 2.25 R

(c) 3R (d) 9R
(a)
1: 1 (b) 1: 2
: :
(c) 4 1 (d) 2 1
= =
sol. (6) (n 2, R), (n 3, R1)
Sol. (d)v a
Since, R an, therefore
VHe
n
(2)
Ra R4
R
HH.
R*a (3) Q.6 A hydrogen atom in its ground state
=
2.25R absorbs 10.2 eV of energy. Theangular
momentum of electron of the hydrogen
atom will increase by the value of:
Q.3 A small particle of mass m moves in
such a way that its potential energy (Given, Planck's constant
where w constant and
=6.6 x 1034 Js).
=mw'r
U
is
r
2
is
(a) 2.10x1034 Js
the distance of the particle from
origin. Assuming Bohr's quantization (b) 1.0S x
10 Js
of momentum and circular orbit the
radius of n" orbit will be proportional
(c)3.1s x 1034 Js
(d)4.2 1034 Js
x
to:
(a) sn (b) n Sol. (b) Change in angular momentum
(c) n2 (d) 1/n = 2hh:h
AL 2Tt 2Tt 2T
-34
6.6x1O -=1.05 x
10*J.s
Sol. (a) U
=mu'
2
-
nh
2Tt
2x3.14
F= d mw'r mr nh
dr x r =
2Tc Q7 The momentum of an electron revolving
mv:- mw'r an in nth orbit is given by: (Symbols have
ra sn their usual meanings)
(a) (b) nh
Var 2Tr 2r
Q4 The radius of 2"n orbit of He+ of Bohr's (c) nh (d) 2rer
model is r, and that of fourth orbit of 2Tc nh
Be is represented as r,. Now the ratio =
x Sol. (a) L = mVr nh
r,/r, is x:1. The value of is 2Tt
P= nh
2 2Ttr
>o. r Q.8 In Bohr's atomic model of hydrogen,
let K, P and E are the kinetic energy,
potential energy and total energy of
22XX
11 =2 the electron respectively. Choose the
 of rrevolution
Q11 The time period electron of
correct option when athe electron in its ground state 16
orbit in a hydrogen
undergoes transitions to higher level: atom is 1.6 10 5. The
x

frequency
(a) AllK, P and E increase of revolution of
the electron in
excited state (in s) is:
its first
(b) K decreases, P and E increase.
(a) 6.2
x 1015 (b) S.6 x
(c) P decreases, K and E increase. 102
(c) 7.8
x 1014 (d) 1.6 x
(d) k increases, P and E decrease. 104
= x 1016
Sol. K.EJ Sol. (c) T= T, 1.6
(b) 2

T.E
f=osx1o4 (2)
Q.9 lmagine that the electron in a hydrogen 2x 106
atom is replaced by a muon (u). The 3x 8
mass of muon particle is 207 times
that of an electron anand chargeTheis x 7.8 x
101
equal to the charge of electron.
ionization potential of this hydrogen
atom will be Q12 A hydrogen atom, initially in the
ground state is excited by absorbing
(a) 13.6 eV (b) 331.2 eV a photon of wavelength 980 A. The
eV (d) 27.2 ev radius of the atom in the excited state.
(c) 2815.2
in terms of Bohr radius ag will be
-
(h, = 12500 eV )
Sol. (c) .P = T.E = K .E|
4_2
me'z (a) 25a, (b) 9a
x
=13.6 eV 207
8€h?2 (c) 16a, (d) 4a

Q.10 Which level of the single ionized carbon Sol. (c) En - E,

= 12500
has the same energy as the ground 480
state energy of hydrogen atom?
(a) 6 (b) 8
n =
(c) 4 (d) 1 4

Sol. (a) For Hydrogen atom, New radius, r = n´ag =

16ao
state. lts
E =
6-15.6
-13.6=
(2)
-13.6 Q.13 A He+ ion is in its first excited
n ionization energy is:
For Carbon atom, z =
6
(a) 6.04 ev (b) 13.60 ev
E=-13.6 (c) s4.40 ev (d) 48.36 eV
n
= 2
-13.6= -13.6:
n
n= Z=6 Sol. (4)|TE|= (3.6 ev
 Speed of an electron in Bohr's 7" orbit
414 x n, :4 n, =
4
for Hydrogen atom is 3.6 10° m/s. Sol. (d) n, = 3
The corresponding speed of the electron
1
in 3 orbit, in ws is:1

(a) (1.8 x 10) A, =16 A, = 144

15 R 7R
(b) (7.5 x 10)
(c) (3.6 x 10)
:A, =7:135
A,

atom irst
Q.16 The electron in hydrogen
a
state to the
(a)(8.4 x 10) jumps from the third excitedsubseguently
second excited state and
Sol. (d)v a n to the first excited state. The ratio of
wavelengths, A,/n,, of
3.6 x the respective process is
10 -= V,= 8.4 x
10 the photons emitted in this
Vo
(a) 20/7 (b) 7/5
15 If A, and A, are the wavelength of
the third member of Lyman and (c) 9/7 (d) 27/s
first member of the Paschen series -
respectively, then the value of A,
is::, Sol. (a) Since,

(a) 1
:3 Therefore,
(6) 7: 108
(c) 1 :
9 20
7
(d) 7: 135

MR
6
Kaam karo aisa ki pehchan
nishaan ban
ban jaye...chalo to aisa ki
are zindagi to har koi kaat leta h
jaye., agar misaal
yaha..., dam hai to jiyo aise ki
ban jaye.J
 Nuclei
34
Nucleus
Rest Mass Energy :
Energy stored in the body due to
The nucicus the tiny center of an atom
is their
where almost all the positive charge and Mass
maSS are located.
Conmposition: (E=me
• The nucleus is made up of protons and
Q.1 Find rest mass energY of object havins
ncutrons. Together, these particles are
known as nucleons. mass O.5 kq.
• Protons: These carry a positive charge. me
Sol. E =
Neutrons: These are neutral, meaning = x = x
they haVe no charge.
0.5 (3 10") 4.5 10J
:
Mass of Proton : Atomic Mass Unit
mp =
1.67 x 10 Kq =
1.0073 amu
Mass of Neutron : 931.5 MeV
1 amu =
12
= x Kq = 1.0087 amu
m
L.67 10
Mass of an electron :
m, =
q.1 x
10* Ka Nuclear Size

Mass of comparison :

Important points related to nucleus Nuclear Density :

2
Atomie Number (Z)
(p=10* Kalm) Constant because it does nat
mass number
This is the number of protons in the depend on the
nucleus of an atom. It defines the identity
of the element. Volume aA
Mass Number (A)

. This is the total number of protons and

neutrons in the nucleus of an atom. It
- la
represents the fal.
 Muclear Binding Energy (Mass Defect) 4 Nuclear Force

Mass of all the Mass of\ Shortrange, Non-central, Non conservative

MASsdefect
s/
nucleons of nucleus \nucleus
+
Does not follow inverse square law
Charge independent
Am =
(ZMp +
(A-Z)M, - Mnucleuc] 4

Saturation dependent,
Fnuckear =
BE= Amc 10 Faraity
+
Weak nuclear force shortest range
(10*°m), repulsive, Mediated by Boson
B.E. (Binding energy per
Stability a
A mass number) Strong nuclear force Range - 1om,
more stable „x° and attractive, mediated by Meson
0.2 Which is Yhaving
Always attractive.
B.E. 24eV and 36eV respectively.
FNN = Fpp = FNP
B.E. 24 .= 4ev =
Sol. Range 1 Fm
A
FNuclear = 100 Electrostatics !

B.E. 36 -= (X is more
3eV
A 12 stable than ) 5Q-Value
Q= [BEp - BER]
Binding Energy Curve:
Q= +ve (Exo) Q= -ve(Endo)
BE 8.7 MeV =
BE, Energy Release
A
Fission Q = [MReactant - Mproductl c

Fusion
Nuclear reaction coresponding given graph
A B+D
B.E/A
Energy released B
+
A=30 FeS6 A=1 70 A
C D+B
(Size) Energy released
A
+ 2BC
• As mass number increases then stability A
Energy absorbed
increase then decreases.
Q-Value of the reaction
Nucleons of lower mass nmber fuse for
A+B C+D+Q
stability and release energ9
• Nucleons
of higher mass number break
(fission) for stability. Q= [B.E(C) +
B.E(D)] - [(B.E(A)
+ B.E.
(B)]
• If Half-Life :
[m]> (mpm) -
Cnergy
• If [B.E.(C+D)] > B.E.(A+B) released No. of Nucleons Noi

In 2
• If B.E. (C+D) <B.E.
energy ty2A
(A+B) absorbed

Law of Radioactive Decay

tuz tyzln2r)
Number of nucleon becomes less and less but
always some left.
Rate of decay a remaining no. of nucleons
A= decay const t
-dN = AN
dt Material Activity
properties 7
(Rate of disintegrat" of a sample).
(N,=Ne
LBq = 1 decay/s

dN slope =
No
1 Rutherford 10° dps
dt
= x Bq
1 Curie 3.7 10

t t =
A, AN,
= Aoe
No. of nucleons decayed : A,

No -N, =
No-Nge
-At No SO.
= No [1-ey N(2)
ti/2 t

In A

t loge\Ao
=
-t

Mean Life :
Suddenly some
nucleons added
I=No. of nucleons becomes 37% of
at timeT
initial.
 MR

Time No. of nuclei No. of dis-integrated N,

at "t" N, Nuclei (N - N) N,
(Remaining) No-N,
[Remain initial initial
decay remain decay

No
No/2 Ng/2 1:1 2.:1 2.1
Ng/4 3N,/4 1:3 4:1 4:3
No/8 7N/8 1:7 8:1 8:7
No/16 15N,/16 1:15 16: 1 16:15
= No -
No
2"
(1:2" 1) (2": 1)
No
nt/z - 2
:
a-decay t,ta
Recoil velocity of
: (ty,) =
daughter Nuclei t,+t,
=
Q
Released energy in a-decay
A =
Mass no. of original nuclei (tsr2ls

-4Va t,tz
(A-4) (ts/2la t, ta

-: Nuclear Reactor :
KED =
n =
2.5 nucleons/fission
b-decay : Rate of Prod" of nucleon
K =
Rate of loss of neutron
• Q-value in terms of Atomic Mass :

K= 1 Critical
•B:Q= [Me - M]c }
same!
K<1 Controlled
•
B:Q= [Mg - Mp - 2M] c
K>1 Uncontrolled
Parallel Disintegration :
-: Power of Reactor :

In parallel disintegration nMe

= nE
P
t t
 Neutron v/s Proton graph:
Mass
No.
Unstable A>>>>1
(n> P)
-2n
|-n
-2P
+p

+p -n

+p -n +n
Unstable
-p P>>>>n

decay

(B
No
change
(e")
(e) V
(Neutrino)
(Antineutrino)

Condition of fusion
=
1. High temperature 10'K
2. High Pressure
 Thermal Power Plant

Stack

Turbine

A
Boiler Electric
Generator

Warm Water
Hot

Consider Pump
Feed water
Pump
Cold
Cold Water Cooling Tower

-: Nuclear Bomb:

H-bomb Atom Bomb

(Fusion) (Fission)
= E = 2OO Mev
E 26.7 MeV

Uncontrolled Controlled!
Chain rx^
 Ans. (d)
IMP PYQ Fraction remains after n half livec

Q.1 Radioactive material A has de cay

constant sd_and material B has decay No
N
-(4-()
constant d lnitially, they have same
number of nuclei. After what time, the Given N =
No
N()
eNo
ratio of nunber of nuclei of material B S/T
to that
A
will be ?
or )
we qet
1=-7At Taking log on both sides,
N =
Noe -st
No N =
Noe
-At log 1 - log e = log

+
At
e =e -St -1 = (-log 2)
No
e =e -7t T: 5 log, 2
Q.2Aradioactive nucleus of mass M

emits a be the time after which

Now, let t'
photon of frcquency y and the nucleus activity reduces to half
recoils. The recoil energy will be t7slog, 2
(a) h'v/2 Me? ()-) t= 5
log, 2

(6) zero Q.4 Two radioactive materials

X, and X, have decay Save Time
(c) hv
constants s and a trick
(d) Mc-hv respectively. If initially Power of
t=
Ans. (a) they have the same
number of nuclei, then
MOmentum of a photon
the ratio of the number
of nuclei of X, to that of
X, will be after a time
e
Hence, recoil energy, E =
2M (a) 7 (6)

.. c)
47
(a) e
E or E

2Me
2M Q.s ln compound X(n, a) Li, the
a sample is
Q.3 The activity of radioactive element X is

measured as counts per minute at

N

(b) B'o
per minute at (a) „He
t =0and Ne counts (c) „B (d) „Be1
t= 5 min. The time (in minute) at which
value is
the activity reduces to half its Ans. (b)
can be
(b) The given nuclear reaction
(a) log, 2/5 log, 2 written as
(d) s log, 2 on „Li + ,He
(c) 5 log1o 2
 mass number gives,
QINuclear fission can
of
Conservation be explained by
4 =

+1 7+ 10 A
=
A
(a) proton -proton cycle
Conservation of charge number/Atomic
(b) liquid drop model of nucleus
No. gives,
(c) independent of nuclear particle
Z+0= 2 +3 Z= s
model
HEnce, Z = 5, A =
10 corresponds to (d) nuclear shell model
boron (,8*).
Ans. (b)
A The activity of a radioactive sample is
as a
Q.8 Which of the following is used
=
measured as 9750 cOunts/min at t O
and as 975 counts/min at t =5 min. moderator in nuclear reactors ?
The decay constant is approximately
(a) Plutonium (b) Cadmium
o.922/min
(a) (b) O.691.min
(c) Heavy water (d) Uranium
ve) 0.461/min (d) 0.230/min
Ans. (c)
Ans. (c)
According to law of radioactivity Q.A Energy released in the fission ofa
Single nucleus is 20O MeV. The
U

N ..()
No fission rate of a a,U filled reactor

No operating at a power level of 5 W is

N
final concentration
(a) 1.56
x
1oo
[N
No =
initial concentration
(b) 1.5G
x
10!
A = decay constant (C) 1.56
x
10l6
Taking logarithm On both sides of (d) 1.SG
x
117
Eq. (), we have Ans. (b)
P
log. log. (e) = At log, e = At M%-)
As we know that, total nuclear power
Fission rate= energy
log, x =
2.3026 logso X produced/fission
Making substitution, we get
Here, total nuclear power =
SW
2.3026 (9750
lo910 q75 Energy released per fission =
=
200 Mev
rate =
: No =
4750 counts/min and Fission
200 Mev
N= 475 counts/min]
2.3026 logso 1O = 2.3026 min 200 x
1.6 x
10 : 1 MeV J]

= 1.56 x
101
=0.461 min
 = M,V,
Q.10 Read the following statements: M,V,
A. Volume of the nucleus is directly m 2
proportional to the mass number. m V2 3
B. Volunne of thenucleus is independent
From the formula of Nuclear mass
of mass number.
C. Density of the nucleus is directly
density, constant
R
proportional to the mass number. Therefore,
D. Density of nucleus is directly 1/3 1/3

proportional to the cube root of the

imass number. R

E. Density of the nucleus is independent 2

of the mass number. K=
Choose the correct option from the o.13 Given below are two statements: one is

following options. labelled as Assertion A and the other it

labelled as Reason R
(a) (A) and (D) only.
Assertion A: The binding enargy per
(b) (A) and (E) only.
nucleon is practically independent of
(c) (B) and (E) only. the atowmic number for nuclei of mass
(a) (A) and (C) only number in the range 30 to 170.
Reason R: Nuclear force short ranged. is
Ans. (b) Volume, vaR° aA
In the light of the above state ments,
Q.11 The ratio of the density of oxygen
choose the correct answer from the
nucleus (O) and helium nucleus
CHe) is options given below
(a) 4:1 (b) 8:1 (a) Both A
andRare true but R is not
the correct explanation of A
(c) 1:1 (d) 2:1
(b) A is true butR is false
Ans. (c) Density isindependent of wmass
number (A), Therefore ratio would (c) A is false but R is true
be 1: 1 (d) Both andR are true and Ris
A
the
Q.12 A nucleus disintegrates into two correct explanation of A
Smaller parts, which have their Ans. (d)
:
velocities in the ratio 3 2. The ratio
Q.14 Ifthe Net force between two proton,
of their nuclear sizes wil be two neutrons and between a proton
The value of 'x is and a neutron is denoted by Fp rn
and Fpns respectively, then:
V 3
Ans. (a) Fyp Fn Fpn
2
(b) Fpy Fpn and Fp = Fn
(c) Fpp = Fn = Fpn
(M,V)
(d) Fpp
Fn Fpn
Ans. (b)
 Ener3y released in the fission of a single (a) 15 10'
15
nucleus is 200 Mev The fission 1gs
(c) 15 105 (d) 3

rate of a ozU*s filled reactor operating

at a power level of s w is Ans. (a) 4.82 10*-( 200 16 10

(a) 1.56
x
10 io Q.18 Fusion reaction takes place at a higher
temperature because
(6) 1.56x 10'1 high
(a) atoms get ionized at
(c) 1.56 x 10 i6 temperatures.
x
10i7 (b) Kinetic energy is high enough to
(d) 1.56 overcome the Coulomb repulsion
E between nuclei.
Ans. (b) P=
t (c) molecules break up at a high
P temperature.
t E 200x1ox1.6x1013 (d) nuclei break up at high
temperature.
=
1.56x 10**
Ans. (b)
Q.16 The power obtained in a reactor
Q.19 For the nuclear reaction:
using u disintegration is 1o00 kw. ...
+
The mass decay of U
per hour is: -3n
The blank space can be Alled by:
(a) 2 microgram (6) 10microgram (a) 2ckr? (b)
(c) 20 microgram (d) 40microgram (a) .Sro (a) 3gSp
me?
Ans. (d)
P= 10 10 Ans. (a) 236 92
t
-147 -56
10°x t
+ 89 26
10°x GOx 60 Q.20 How many alpha and beta particles are
(3 × 10°) emitted when Uranium decays
m =
4 x
10 ka to lead , Pboep
m =
4x 10 ka x
1O (a) 3 alpha particles and
=
s beta
10 v, 10 = 40 ug
40 x particles
Q17 If in nuclear reactor (b) 6 alpha particles and ¢ beta
using as
U

fuel, the power output is particles

4.8 MW, the
number of fissions per second is: (c) 4 alpha particles
and s beta
(Energy released per fission particles
=
of U

200 MeV watts, 1 eV= 1.6 x (d) 8 alpha particles and o beta
10 J) particles
Ans.
s
Ans. (a) K+Q=o
238 Q=K.E, + K.E,
No. of alpha -particle
-206 cmitted Q.24 Two lighter nuclei combine form to
No. of Beta -particle comparatively heavier nucleus by the
32
Cimitted =
82-76 =
6 relation given below:
No
Q.21 In the following nuclear reaction
ix ix =Y
The binding energies per nucleon for
D D. D, D, , D,
2x and Y
are 1.1 MeV and 76 Mey
Mass number of D is 182 and atomic respectively. The energy released in this
number is 74. Mass number and atomic process is MeV.
number of D, respectively will be
Ans. Q =
4(7.6)Mev - 4(2.1)Mev
(a) 174 and 71 (b) 174 and 69
= - .
= Mev
(30. 4 4
4) 26
(c) 172 and 6q (d) 172 and 71
178 174
Q.25 The mass of proton, neutron and helium
Ans. (a) D
D, nucleus are respectively 1.0073 u,

Q22 Consider the following radioactive 1.0087 u and 4.0015 u. The binding
energy of heliu nucleus is:
decay process
238 A S A,
5 A, A, A, Ag As (a) 14.2 MeV (b) 28.4 Mev
84

The mass numnber and the atomic (c) S6.8 MeVx (d) 7.1 MeV
xc
number Ag are given by: Ans. BE=[2mp + 2mp ÇHe)

(a) 210 and 82 (b) 21O and g4 = (2 x -

1.0073 +2x 1.0087 4.0015)
(c) 21O and 20 (d) 211 and 8O = 2.0146 4.032O
Ans. (c) 2.0174 4.0015
Q.23 The Q-value of a nuclear reaction and
kineticenergy of the projectile particle, O.030S
Ky are related as:
B.E = O.0205 x931.S MeV
=
(a) Q K
(b) (K, + Q) <o O.305 x
43.15
(c) Q< Kp (d) (K, t+
Q) >o =
28.4 MeV

MR
GParinde ruk mat, tujhme
jaan baki
manjil dur hai abhi, bahut udan bakihai,
hai?
35 Semiconductor

L Types of Material Examples: Pure Silicon (S) and Germaniuwm

(Ge).
Conductor:
[Pure] Si & Ge
=
Materials that allow electricity to flow At T oK insulator.
casily through them. Band diagram
. CB E, = (E)win -
& VBOverlap: The energy levels of the (Ey)anax
electrons (called the Conduction Band and
Conduction Band
the Valence Band) overlap, so electrons
all electrons are free
can move freely. & current flows due
(E)ain to these electrons
Conductivity, o = 10 to 10 Sm
(Siemens per meter) (Ej).max
Semi-Conductor : Valance Band
all electrons are fixed,
Materials that can conduct electricity current does not flows
under certain conditions but not as well as due to these electrons
conductors. Electric Current in intrinsic Semi
Examples: Silicon (S) and Germanium conductor
(Ge).
• EnergY gap, Ea < 3eV Si & Ge n =
ny n= no. of intrinsic charge density
+o= 10 to 1o Sm-1
•E (EcB)min- (EvB)mak
J= en (H t H)E ;i=i, + ih
•
AtoK current can flowthroughconductor o = en
but can not flow through semi-conductor.
( t
Insulators:
et (Melhote >
Materials that do not allow electricity to m (Mee
flow
through them easily. Condition for intrinsic
Semi-Conductor:
Examples: Rubber,
glass.
Energy gap, E, 3eV
Extrinsic Semi-Conductor:
to 1019 Sm-1 intrinsic S.C. +
Intrinsic Semi-Conduct impurities = E.S.C
:
Puresemiconductors without any Impurities
Impurities. added
Trivalent
Pentavalent
 Statement-l: Thenn-typesemiconductor
o P-type (+) O N-type (-) has net negative charge. In the liaht ac
o "B-Family" o the above statements, choose the most
"N-Family"
O Neutral O Neutral appropriate answer trom the optione
O n.2 Np given below:
O N, = no. of acceptor O N, no. of donor ion
=

ion density
(a) Statement-l is talse but statement-l!
density
O Fixed -ve ion O Fixed +ve ion true
is

Acceptor 1e accept O Donor 1e- donate (b) Statement-l is true but statement -!
udhar lega Ge/Si se kar ke Ge/Si se bond is false
phir bond bnayga bna lega
(c) Both statement-l and statement-l
are true
2 Law of Mass Action
(d) Both statement-l and statement -ll|
is false

Ans. (6)

N-Type P-Type () Doping silicon with pentavalent

n Np (Donar)
n,Na (Acceptor) inpurity result in an extra electron,
therefore electron density increases.
n Np nnh NA (I) The net charge on either type of

semiconductor is zero.
Q1 ln a semiconductor,the number density
of intrinsic charge carriers at 27°C is Q.3 The effect of increase in temperature
x m -3
1.5 10 If the semiconductor
.
On the number of electrons in
is doped with impurity atom, the hole conduction band (n) and resistance of
density increases to 4.5
x
10 m -3 a
semiconductor will be as:
The electron density in the doped
(a) Bothn, and resistance decrease
semiconductor is
(b) Both n, and resistance increase
Ans. nnh (c) n, increases, resistance decrease
x
(2.5 1o*9 (a) n, decreases, resistance increases
4.5 x
102 rises,
Ans. (c) When the temperature
2.5 x 1.5 1o
x

n, electrons in the valence band move to t

4.5 x 1o2 conduction band, increasing the number
of

10 resistivity
n, =Sx electrons there. As a result, the
to
Q2 Statement -t: Bydoping slicon semiconductor of a semiconductor decreases, leading
goes
with pentavalent material, the electrons lower resistance as temperature
the
density increases up.
 Graphs :
p-N Junction Diode
Charge density
P N P -side N-side

free hole
e
eo e Free electron
distance
Fixed -ve s2
e ++ +t Fixed +ve
acceptor donar ion
IOn distance
after soOme time

piffusion current from P to N due to distance

[some electron diffuse from N toP side
Rk some hole diffuse from P to N side? Electric Field
AV(Potential Barrier)
N
+
distance distance
0 0.-- + +:

Depletion region
no free carriers
Contains fixed
ions creating Knee Voltage : (Vgl
an electric field Vin to flow
e
& hole pairs
and a potential "y" above wiz. current rises rapidly.
barrier. ev
Si = 0.7 V= 0.7
=
> Formed due to immobile Ge = O.34 V 0.34 eV
Potential
barrier fixed acceptor and donor ion
Biasing :

N Forward Reverse
i =0
P N PN
High Low Low High
Ge Si i| FC.
mA)
• Electric Field formed from N to P side Breakdown
voltage
within
:
O.7V
Depletion region
O.34V O.7V

• Width of depletion a 1 « Temp' Va Knee Voltage

doping level
|R.C.
(uA)
to
Drift current now from N to P due Dynamic Rg
Kesistanee =aV
electric field Depr layer width
• At equilibrium iprift = 'piffsion "O.Sum to 1um"
 Q.4 Find the current through the battery
R. Biasing
No Biasing in cach of the circuits shown in figure.
F. Biasing 102 102
dist"

102 102

sV SV
:
MR Feel Table () (i)
Ans. In fig. () Both diodes are forward
Biasing Electric Potential Width of ipiffusion 'prit
Field diff Depletion biased. Thus the net diode resistance
Forward is O.

Reverse
x
(10 x 1O)/10 10
In fig (i) One diode is forward biased
Zener Diode Avalanche
Breakdown and other is reverse biased. Current
In high doped In low doped passes through the forward biased
semi-C semi-C
diode only.
revese bias at
ln reverse bias as V ln
the e s hole becomevary high voltage V
Rnet
5
10+00.5A
free due to breaking
of co-valent bond Q.5 ln the figure, potential diference
Reversible Not reversible B is
between A and

Diode Biasing (a) sv (b) 10 V

(d) 15 V
R.B. (c) zero
2V
10 k2
R.B.
10 kal
F30 V Ž10 k2
F.B.

biased,
F.B. forward
Ans. lHere, diode is in conductive
like a
therefore, it behaves
R.B.
wire,
 potential difference between
Full wave rectifier
A
and B:

RAB Center tapped rectifier : (2-Diode use)

VA - Vg = Vx Rtotal
D4

10 x1O
x 10 +1O = 10V
=
30 10 x10 input R

AC
\10 +1LO Toutputl
DC

Rectifier D.

AC

alf-wave rectifier : (1
Diode use)
input
5OHz,

Diode
aput R DC^
A/C output
Output 10OHz
DC

Vo
AC ^
Ripple frequency = 2x finput
input
SOHz
= P/P; x
100
2V%
Vavg
T
DC^
output J2
SOHz
When capacitor is connected parallel
with load resistance then output voltage
remains constant.

Vpc Bridge rectifier : (4-Diode use)

ipms Vrs
2 2 R

P
x 100 P= V= R D,
 Vout Q7 Statement -1: To get a steady de
out-
put fromn the pulsating voltage received
D,D, D,D, D,D, D,D, from a full wave rectifier we can
con-
nect a capacitor across the output
par-
allel to the load RL.
Statement-ll: To get a steady dc output
Zener Diode as a Regulator : from the pulsating voltage received fron
Works in reverse baised cOndition
a
full wave rectitier we can Connect an
inductor in series with RL. In the liaht of
• Acts as a voltage requlator.
the above statements, choose the moct
appropriate answer from the options
Vs given below:
(a) Statement-l is talse but statenent-I!
true
is
(b) Statement-l is true but statement-l|
Parallel is false
V=same
(c) Both statement-l and statement-ll
is = iz + i V, =
iR are true
V,= Vs + V, (d) Both statement-l and statement-l|
Rs
Vout = Vy = is false
=iR, Constant Ans. (b) A
photodiode, when exposed to light
When diode is working.
and under reverse bias, generates
Q.6 For the circuit shown below, the current
charge carriers. The change in
through the zener diode is:
minority carriers is noticeable
R,=SKN
because the starting current is very
W low.
120 V

R4=10K Q.8 Choose the correct statement about

Zener diode:
Ans. Assuming Z.D. does not (a) lt work as a voltage regulator in
undergo
reverse bias and behaves like simple
breakdown, current in circuit = 120
p-n junction diode in forward bias
15000
(b) It works as a voltage regulator i
Voltage drop across diode = 80V >
both forward and reverse bias.
sO V. The diode undergo breakdown. (c) It works a only in
voltage regulator
Current in R, = 70 = forward bias.
SOOO
14 mA
(d) works as a voltage regulator
Current in R, = SO it
10000
=S mA
forward bias and behaves like sinple
Current through diode = q mA P-n junction diode in reverse bias
Ans. (a)
 Application of Diodes

Phatodiode Solar Cel

LED
hv > Eq
hv s Eg

Reverse Biased Conneted in No Biasing Forward Biasing

open circuit
Voe Voltage

isc
Short circuit
CUrrent Ga-As = Infrared
Ga-As-P Red,
lntensity Photo Yellow
Currentt Ga, P
Red, Green
•
Act as Liqht Sensor

Q9 Which of the following statement is not

Q.10 The photodiode is used to detect
correct in the case of light emitting
the optical signals. These diodes are
diodes?
preferably operated in reverse biased
A. It is a heavily doped p -n
junction. mode because
B. It emits light only when it is forward
(a) Fractional change in
majority
biased.
C. It enits light only when it is reverse carriers produce higher forward
biased. bias current
D. The energy of the light emitted is (b) Fraction change in majority
carriers
equal to or slightly less than the produce higher reverse bias current
energy gap of the semiconductor (c) Fractional change in
majority
used. carriers produce higher forward
Choose the correct answer
from the bias current
options given below:
(d) Fractional change in minority
(a) C and D (b) A only
carriers produce higher reverse bias
(c) C only
(d) B only Current
Ans. (c)
Ans. (d)
 Gates :
Q11 Asertion(A) Photodiodesartpreferabty | Fundamental
operated in rverse bias condition (1) OR-ate :
for liht intensity measurcnent A

Reason (R) The ciurrent in the forward

bias in more than the current in the :

(2) AND-Gate
reverse bias for a p -n junction diode
In the liaht of the above statement, AB

choose the correct answer frorm the

(3) NOT-Gate:
options given below. Single
(a) A is false bu R is truc. output
A
and R are true but R is not
(6) Botih A
Single
the correct cxplanation of A input
(c) A is true butRis false Universal Gate :

(d) Both A and R arc true and Ris the

:

(1) NAND-Gate
correct cxplanation of A - AB
-A-B
Ans. (b) B•

6 Logic Gates 4 NOT

:
Q.
12 MR and Ramlal ne bank me joint (2) NOR-Gate
account open kiya, dono ko different
atm password mila. Atm me dono
ka password match hone ke bad
paisa nilega then atm me Koin sa
gate use huaa hai..? :
Exclusive Gates
Ans. AND gate :
(2) XNOR
Q.
13 MR audi car se ja raha hai, Ramlal
apna truck le ke nikla MR ko takkar
marne, Jo aage ya piche khi se
takkar mar skta hai, air bag open (2) XOR:
karne ke liya car me koin sa gate AB Y(outyuf)
+AB
wse hoga
Truth table for all gate i- De Morgan Principle:

input Output
OR NOR |ANDNANDX-ORX-NOR
A/B
Gate| Gate |Gate Gate Gate Gate
Special Case :
lolo 1 1 1
+ B = A •B
1 1
AB = + B
A
1 1 1 Electrical equivalent circuit :
Key Key
1 1 1
LED LED
Key
Time Scale for different gate :
(NOT gate)
(AND gate)
A
1

A K
1

+OR gate Bulb Bulb

Y

Y
AND gate (NAND gate)
(OR gate)

Y
-NOR gate

E
eNAND gate Bulb

(NOR gate)
Y ieX-OR gate
Y Formation of Different gates using NAND
ieX-NOR gate
gate:
Gate NOT AND OR NOR
7 Basic Boolean Exp No. of NAND
gate required 1
O+ A = A = O = O 2 3 4
0.A O.1
=
=
1+A 1 A.A A 1.1 =
1 Formation of Different qates usinq NOR
A +
A = A 1.A = A I=0 gate:
A + =
1
A =
0 1=1 Gate NOT AND OR NAND
1+0 = 1 No. of NOR
O= 1
1+ 1 = A = gate required
1 A 1 3 2
 (a) NAND (b) NOR
Single input NAND
(c) AND (d) OR
- and Single input
NOR gate will
behave as NOT gate
Sol. (c)

•B
=A
D
NAND gate
A

AND gate
Q.16 The following logic gate is equivalent

to:
OR gate

Q.14

The logic circuit shown above is (a) NOR gate

equivalent to: (b) NAND gate
Ao gate
(a) Bo Dooc (c) OR
(d) AND gate

(b)
Sol. (a)
•B=ÕBB
=A+
(c) Bo NOT

(d) BO
Sol. (a) NOT
•B Q.17 Find the truth for the function
Y of

A+B A+B=
•B- A and B represented in the following

AO figure:

Checking with option (a)

Ao A BY ABY 1
BO B
(a) 1 (b) 1
out 1
Q.15 ldentify the logic operation carried L 1
by the given circuit:
A B Y A BY
(c) 1 (a) o
1
B 1 1 1 1
 Sol. (a)
sol (6)
AB 1

A
+
Y= AB B

ABY B lo ole
1
1
1 1 1

D18 The logic operations performed by the Q.20 Name the logic gate equivalent to the
qiven digital circuit is equivalent to: diagram attached.
SV
Bo
LED
= Glow
B Y
(a) AND (b) NOR

(c) OR (d) NAND wll

R

Sol. (a)
(a) OR
Ao A+B (b) NOR
BO

(c) NAND
A•B Y=
=
(A+B)•A•B (d) AND
AAB + ABB = AB + AB
= AB(1 + Sol. (b)
1) = AB

Q.19 A logic Q.21 The logic gate equivalent to the given

gate circuit has two inputs
A and B and output Y.
circuit diagram is:
The voltage
waveforms of A, B and Y are + SV
shown
below. The logic gate
circuit is:
As
1= Glow
B, qdo
A

(a) OR
Y (b) NAND
(a) AND gate (c) NOr
(b) OR gate
(c) NOR qate (d) AND
(d) NANA gate Sol. (b)
 (c) A
1, B 0, C= 1
Q22 Find the output boolean function for
the loaic circuit. (d) A = 0, B
=
1, C=o
Ans. (c) The boolean expression of the atgiven
• C.
logic circuit y
= +
B)
(A

Q.24 A combination of logic gates is shonn

in the circuit. If is at oV and Bis ot
A

SV, then the potential ofRis:

Sol. X = ABC
=
Q.23 To get output Y 1 for the following
circuit,the correct choice for the input
Ao
is: BO
A
(a) ov (b) sv
(c) 10 V (d) Any of these
(a) A =
1, B = O, C = o
(b) A =
1, B
=
1, C= 0 Ans. (a)

MR
6Manjil Mile na mile yah to kismat ki bat h
hum koshish hi na kare ye to galt bat hai.