Discover Geoscience

Case Study

Subsurface flow pathway and hydrochemistry of a geographically

isolated depression wetland in the Serra Geral Diabase Formation, São
Paulo State, Brazil
Isabella de Oliveira Franco1 · Diego de Souza Sardinha2 · Lucas Moreira Furlan1 · Matheus Felipe
Stanfoca Casagrande1 · César Augusto Moreira1 · Vania Rosolen3

Received: 26 February 2024 / Accepted: 13 June 2024

© The Author(s) 2024  OPEN

Abstract
Connectivity among water bodies is crucial for hydrological and ecological processes and fundamental for water man-
agement. Hydrochemistry and potentiometric studies on an isolated wetland allow to assess landscape influence, flow
pathways, and subsurface connection. This study focuses on an isolated wetland over diabase on a topographic depres-
sion, with no visible river connection, and aims to determine the influence of rainfall and landscape on water composi-
tion and investigate subsurface flow toward the Santa Gertrudes stream. Water levels were monitored, and samples
were collected from four wells during wet and dry seasons. Physical and chemical water parameters were measured,
and ion concentrations determined. Pearson’s correlations highlighted codependence between physical and chemical
parameters and ions and Piper’s diagram classified water composition. Six potentiometric maps were generated using
interpolated hydraulic loads from monitoring campaigns. The findings show fluctuations in water level (0.11 to 0.93 m
during wet periods and 1.25 to 1.79 m during dry periods), indicating rainwater directly affects water availability. Water
composition was categorized as Sodium Bicarbonate and electrical conductivity values (greater than 100 µS/cm) may
indicate that upstream wells are retaining salts from the surrounding crops. Strong positive correlation between sodium,
bicarbonate and carbonate, and sulfate with electrical conductivity suggests simultaneous release of ions due to rock
and soil mineral alteration. Potentiometric data reinforce the hypothesis of a subsurface connection between the studied
area and the Santa Gertrudes stream. Future studies could benefit from expanding the monitoring network to include
more GIWs and applying additional methods, such as isotope tracers.

Keywords Geographically Isolated wetlands · Hydrochemistry · Potenciomety · Subsuperficial connectivity · Diabase ·

Seasonal hydrodynamics

1 Introduction

The water flow connectivity plays a crucial role in controlling the hydrogeological and hydrochemical processes in the
landscape, influencing ecosystem diversity, nutrient mobilization and water availability, which causes great social impact
[1]. The presence of isolated waterlogged topographic depressions, known as geographically isolated wetlands (GIW) in
a topographic depression within a hydrographic basin, particularly in the interfluves, often does not clearly indicate their

* Isabella de Oliveira Franco, [email protected] | 1Department of Geology, São Paulo State University, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil. 2Federal
University of Alfenas (Institute of Science and Technology), Poços de Caldas, MG, Brazil. 3Department of Environmental Engineering, São
Paulo State University, Rio Claro, SP, Brazil.

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hydrological connectivity with other water bodies of water within the integrated system [2]. According to the authors, the
multiple interactions in the space and time between GIW and river channel can occur through subsurface water movement
in the same direction as the surface water, as well as through lateral flows exchanged with associated floodplain and riparian
areas. Understanding connectivity is of particular interest in the study of catchment hydrology, and this subject is relevant
to protect hydric resources and aquatic ecosystem [3]. When isolation, or absence of a surface connection, is recognized, the
variation in water level (hydroperiod) in isolated wetlands is associated with various possible flow pathways that must be
evaluated within a conceptual framework [4]. Hydrochemistry and potentiometry flow studies can facilitate the understand-
ing of the hydrological context and connectivity within the landscape [5].
In the Paulista Peripheral Depression, a sedimentary geological-geomorphological compartment between the crystalline
Atlantic Plateau and the basaltic cuesta, small wetlands apparently disconnected with river channels are widespread in the
smoothed hills. In the field, the topographic depression covered by grassy vegetation are the main characteristics to distin-
guish small wetlands from the surround agricultural soil which originally was covered with a mosaic of vegetation comprising
Savanna and Atlantic Forest. In the municipality of Cordeirópolis, located in São Paulo State, Brazil, isolated wetlands have
developed over diabase rock from Serra Geral Formation and are surrounded by intensive sugar cane agriculture. These
isolated topographic depressions fill with rainwater, which, due to the local climate and rainfall pattern, accumulates dur-
ing the months of October to March (encompassed in the spring and summer seasons), and lose water during the months
of April to September (encompassed in the autumn and winter seasons), thereby characterizing them as seasonal isolated
wetlands [6]. Because there is no visible connection between wetland, river and groundwater, eventual subsurface flow can
be a major factor affecting the hydrochemical composition of wetland soil–water, which also varies in quality due to chang-
ing dry and wet seasons [7].
In this region, the intensive land use conversion has exacerbated environmental degradation. Soil erosion, deforestation
of native vegetation, and consequently, the vulnerability of springs and rivers have reduced the water storage and availability
potential. Similarly, small, isolated wetlands are strongly affected, both directly and indirectly, by changes in land use and land
cover [8]. The integration of small wetlands in the anthropogenic landscape mischaracterizes these ecosystems, impacting
water quality and storage. Under these conditions, wetlands are vulnerable to the input of sediments, nutrients, inorganic
and organic toxic elements, as well as the lowering of the water table, which affects aquifer recharge and river flow [9].
In Brazil, where 20% of the territory is covered by various types of wetlands, the lack of effective measures or legislation
regulating their protection and management is a precondition for their destruction [10]. The environmental condition is more
critical for small wetlands as they are more susceptible to be conversion than large ones [11]. Conservation is a challenge
because the information on status, inventory, and accuracy of wetland delineations is still limited [12]. In addition to anthro-
pogenic pressures, uncertainty regarding the hydrological dynamics of natural wetlands and their connections among surface
soil water and aquifers contributes to disrupting the water cycle, thereby affecting biodiversity in small wetlands [8, 13].
The objectives of this study were (1) investigate the subsurface connection between a GIW with the adjacent water body
to understand water connectivity in the slope and (2) evaluate the hydrochemical composition in the GIW to assess the
contribution of surface water and groundwater to the wetland supply.
The hydrochemical and potentiometric results of this study will enhance the understanding of sustainable management
of water resources. Additionally, it will support future research on the conservation and ecological management of GIW in
the Paulista Peripheral Depression, which have been degraded since the mid-1970s due to intensified land use for urban
development, mining, and intensive agriculture.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 Study area

The geographically isolated wetland (GIW) studied (Fig. 1) has approximately 56.5 m ­ 2 located in the southwest
Cordeirópolis municipality (22º 29′ 22″ S, 47º 29′ 14″ W), adjacent to the Santa Gertrudes municipality, in the São
Paulo State.
Both municipalities have economic significance due to ceramic production and agroindustry, with a particular
focus on sugarcane for ethanol production. Sugarcane accounts for 83.8% of the GDP in the agricultural sector of
Cordeirópolis [18]. Geologically, the studied area is in the context of the Paraná Sedimentary Basin [19], locally out-
cropping the Serra Geral Formation [6] which is represented by diabase dykes and sills [20]. The presence of faults and
fractures, resulting from magmatic intrusions in underlying units and their subsequent crystallization, is common.

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These structures play a significant role in the hydrodynamics of a topographic depression because fractures and faults
tend to accelerate chemical weathering by increasing the contact between water and rock or soil interactions [21].
The diabase of the Serra Geral Formation is composed, on average, of 40% of plagioclase (labradorite to oligo-
clase—(Na, Ca)Al(Si, Al)Si2O8)); 23% of pyroxene (augite—Ca(Mg, Fe, Al)(Al, Si)2O6); 4% of pyroxene (pigeonite—(Mg,
Fe2 + , Ca)(Mg, Fe2 +)Si2O6); 7% of opaques (magnetite (Fe3O4), ilmenite (FeTiO3) and sulfides); 0.5% of olivine ((Mg,
Fe)2SiO4); and 25.5% of quartz-feldspathic mesostasis and vitreous material [22].
Geomorphologically, the study area is in the Western Geomorphological Province, called Paulista Peripheral Depres-
sion [19]. This compartment is situated between outstanding topographical structures, from the Atlantic Plateau and
the crests of the basaltic Cuestas. On a local scale, Casagrande et al. (2021) presented the Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
in which the authors characterized three surface compartments in the landscape which the same nomenclatures will
be adopted in this work: (i) Uplands, (ii) Wetland (flooding area), and (iii) potential expansion of the flooded area (Fig. 2).
In Fig. 2a (August 2021), taken after the wetland was burned, the flooding area (dashed line and white arrows) shows
burnt vegetation, the zone of potential expansion of the flooded area (marked with yellow dotted lines) exhibits dry
vegetation and uplands zone is characterized by sugarcane cultivation (outlined by the red dashed line). In the Fig. 2b
(September 2021) the flooding area (dashed line and white arrows) displays healthy green vegetation, with soil still
darkened by the burning; the potential expansion of the flooded area zone features dry vegetation (yellow dotted line);
and uplands zone continues to show fully grown sugarcane cultivation (red dashed line).
The region’s climate is humid subtropical with hot summers (Cwa), according to the Koppen classification (1931) for
Brazil [23], with two well-defined seasons: a dry season during the coldest months (April to September) and a rainy in

Fig. 1  Hydrographic map and location of studied area. [14–17] Source: elaborated by authors based on base maps

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Fig. 2  Photographs of the studied area (looking south) highlighting its topography ((a) corresponds to the image photographed on
08/2021 and (b) on 09/2021). The dashed lines and white arrows correspond to the delimitation of the flooding area; the yellow dotted lines
correspond to the potential expansion of the flooded area and the red dashed line delimits the uplands

Table 1  Data from wells Monitoring Well UTM (m)—X UTM (m)—Y Elevation (m) Depth (cm) Azimuth
installed in the study area
MW-01 244,059 7,510,942 717 260 Northwest
MW-02 244,048 7,510,799 719 340 Southeast
MW-03 244,157 7,510,906 717 190 Northeast
MW-04 244,146 7,510,801 718 380 Southwest

the hottest months (October to March). The highest rainfall record in the municipality of Cordeirópolis was in January
2022 (344.17 mm) and the lowest in July of the same year, with no precipitation [24].
The GIW is located near the source of the Santa Gertrudes Stream, a tributary of Corumbataí River, responsible for
the water supply, along with three groundwater wells (Santa Gertrudes City Council [25]). As a result, the study area
has a more significant influence on Santa Gertrudes due to its proximity and possible subsurface connection with the
homonymous stream than on the municipality in which it is geographically located.
Water balance data, released by the River Basin Commitee [26], indicated that a sub-basin neighboring the studied
area has been classified as a region of very high criticality. This classification occurs when the water balance between
demand and water availability is zero or negative. The water balance represents the equilibrium between water avail-
ability, consumptive demands, and return flows.

2.2 Field procedures: well installation and water monitoring

Four monitoring wells (MW) were installed in the month July 21 (during the dry season), within the GIW’s inner
perimeter. They were strategically positioned to represent the northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest
quadrants (Fig. 1). Drilling was carried out using a manual auger until reaching the impenetrable material, which
is the diabase of the Serra Geral Formation. The depths achieved and the characteristics of the wells are detailed
in Table 1.
The wells were lined with PVC tube (50 mm diameter), containing a filter at the lower end corresponding to holes
of about 2 mm in diameter. To avoid clogging, the tubes were covered with fine yarn synthetic fabric and sealed with
bentonite solution. At the end of the installation, the wells were drained with a bailer for cleaning and developed
to ensure the representativeness and samples quality.

2.3 Sampling and hydrochemical analysis

Water Level (WL) and the following physical and chemical parameters were measured in situ: temperature (T), dis-
solved oxygen (DO), electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) and hydrogen potential (pH).

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A measuring tape was used to measure the water level, and a Pro2030 multiparameter meter (YSI) was employed
for measuring physical and chemical parameters. YSI was previously calibrated in the laboratory for EC and TDS with
a KCl standard solution (1.0 mmol/L), EC (147 μS/cm at 25 °C) and DO with sodium sulfite solution ­(Na2SO3) < 0.1 mg
­L−1 of O
­ 2. The detection limits are as follows: -5 to 55ºC ± 0.3ºC for T; 0 to 20 mg L­ −1 ± 0.2 mg ­L−1 for DO; 0 to 500 µS/
cm ± 1 µS/cm for EC; 0 to 100 g/L ± 0.1 g/L for TDS. For pH measurement, a Kasvi K39-0014PA portable pH meter was
used, calibrated in the laboratory for pH 4.00 (4.01 ± 0.01 at 25 ± 0.2 ºC) and 7.00 (7.01 ± 0.01 at 25 ± 0.2 ºC) from 0
to 14 pH units ± 0.1.
The campaigns were conducted three times per semester, spanning one year, resulting in a total of six monitor-
ing campaigns and five sampling campaigns, due to the low water level in September (dry period), insufficient for
sampling. Thus, samples where representative of different hydrological periods. One day before each sampling
campaign, the wells were drained to ensure the homogeneity and representativeness samples, so that they accu-
rately reflected the aquifer composition.
For water sampling, a 96 cm long, 40 mm diameter bailer sampler was used. It was lifted using a 0.3 mm nylon
thread. The collected samples were stored in opaque white polyethylene bottles, which were previously cleaned in
the laboratory using a deionized water and hydrochloric acid (0.1 M) solution. The cleaning process was repeated
three times with deionized water before the bottles were left to dry (upside down) for approximately four days.
Subsequently, the bottles were placed in a thermal box maintained at a temperature of 4 °C, located at the Aquatic
Ecosystems and Soils Laboratory (LEAS, Brazil).
The substances investigated in laboratory analysis were sodium (­ Na+), potassium (­ K+), calcium (­ Ca2+), magnesium
­(Mg2+), chloride ­(Cl−), sulfate ­(SO42−), bicarbonate ­(HCO3−), phosphate ­(PO43−), nitrate ­(NO3−) and carbonate ­(CO32−),
following the NBR9898 standard guidelines [27]. In the laboratory, the samples were filtered using a glass fiber
microfilter, model GF-1, 47 mm (pore 0.7 µm) in diameter.
Bicarbonate ­( HCO 3−) concentrations were obtained by titrimetric method, titration with sulfuric acid 0.02 N
between 1.0 and 500 ± 1.7% [28]; Carbonate ­(CO32−) was calculated by ­H+ in ­HCO3− subtraction [29]; Chloride ­(Cl−)
was assessed using either argentometric Mohr’s method with titration in a standard 0.0141 M silver nitrate solution
for the concentration range between 0.0 and 100 ± 1.7% [28]; The Sodium (­ Na+) and Potassium ­(K+) were determined
using the Flame Photometer MOD. 910 MS (20 and 100 ppm ­Na+ and ­K+ standard) 1.0 ppm ± 0.1 ppm resolution [30].
Using a Hach Company model DR 890 spectrophotometer [31] were quantifeid; Calcium ­(Ca2+) and magnesium
­(Mg2+) by colorimetric calagite method (0.0 to 4.00 mg ­L−1, ­Ca2+ ± 0.09 mg ­L−1 and M ­ g2+ ± 0.08 mg ­L−1 with C­ aCO3);
Nitrate ­(NO3 ) by cadmium reduction method 0 to 5.0 ± 0.2 mg ­L ; Phosphate ­(PO43−) using ascorbic acid method
− −1

from 0 to 2.5 ± 0.05 mg ­L−1; and Sulfate ­(SO42−) by sulfaver4 method 0 to 70 mg ­L−1 ± 0.5 mg ­L−1. For results above
the concentration range, sample dilution techniques were performed.
Hardness is a measurement based on the calcium and magnesium content of the water. The hardness relative to
CaCO3 (mg ­L−1) is obtained according to Eq. 1 by [32]:
Th = 2.5 ⋅ Ca + 4.1 ⋅ Mg (1)
where: Th is the total hardness (mg ­L−1); Ca is calcium content (mg ­L−1); and Mg the magnesium content (mg ­L−1).
To classify and compare various water groups based on dominant ion compositions, Piper’s diagram was gener-
ated through QualiGraf software [33].

2.4 Statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics consisted of calculating the mean, median, maximum, minimum, amplitude, interquartile range, stand-
ard deviation, variance, asymmetry and kurtosis according to [34].
To correlate the variables, the calculation of Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r) was applied, a measure of linear association
between two variables defined by Eqs. 2 and 3:
∑n ( )( )
r= x − x yi − y
i=1 i
(2)

√∑
n ) 2 ∑n ( )2
(3)
(
xi − x yi − y
i=1 i=1

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where: r is Pearson’s correlation coefficient; x­ i and y­ i are the values of the observations on the two variables; and x̄ and ȳ
are the means of the observations on the two variables.
The correlation coefficient (r) varies between − 1 and + 1, where zero means that there is no correlation, where 1 means a
complete correlation and the sign of the coefficient shows the direction of the correlation, with negative r meaning that the
variables are inversely related and although there is no specific rule for the qualitative interpretation of the coefficient [35],
in this work the following meanings for the strength of the correlation will be adopted (Table 2):

2.5 Potentiometry and subsurface water flow

For the potentiometric map, it was necessary to calculate the hydraulic loads by subtracting the water level (measured in
meters) from the topographic elevation (also in meters) of each well. This calculation provided the topographic elevation
relative to sea level datum, following the method described by [36].
The water level (WL) used was the well static WL before sampling, and the elevation was obtained through the photo-
grammetric acquisition conducted in February 2020 by Casagrande et al. (2021) using a drone model Phantom 4 Pro DJI
(dji.com) coupled with dual GPS/GLONASS receiver and 20-megapixel RGB DJU 1’’ CMOS sensor. Precise coordinates for the
wells were acquired using GPS after their installation.
The hydraulic loads were interpolated by the mathematical method Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW), from the hydraulic
head data and UTM coordinates, using the ArcGis Pro 3.1 software [37], to estimate the hydraulic head in points not sampled
[38].
The interpolation map is the basis for the contour map of equipotential lines generated at intervals of 0.5 m. The flow
direction was determined according to Darcy’s Law, knowing that the components of the flow vector are tangential to the
equipotential line (Qs) and normal to the equipotential (Qn) in relation to the coordinate system (s,n), as seen in Eq. 4 [39]:
𝜕𝚽 𝜕𝚽
QS = − eQn = − (4)
𝜕s 𝜕n
where: QS is the tangential component of flow in the direction of flow (or parallel to the equipotential line); Qn is the
normal component of the flow perpendicular to the flow direction (or perpendicular to the equipotential line); 𝜕𝚽 𝜕s
is the
partial derivative of hydraulic potential (𝚽 ) in relation to the coordinate s ; and 𝜕𝚽
𝜕n
is the partial derivative of hydraulic
potential ( 𝚽 ) in relation to the coordinate n.

3 Results

3.1 Water physical and chemical parameters

The water level fluctuates by 1.68 cm between the wet season (October to April) and the dry season (May to September).
Notably, the water level recorded in November, at the start of the wet season, exhibits characteristics similar to those of
the dry season. This observation suggests a gap between rainwater percolation and the water level response, which can
influence the availability of water volume in the area and in the wells (water levels) (Table 3).
In general, the water level ranged from 0.11 m (lowest of all campaigns) to 0.93 m (wet period maximum) below the
land surface in the wet periods and from 1.25 m (dry period minimum) to 1.79 m (highest of all campaigns) in the dry
periods (Table 4).

Table 2  Qualitative Correlation coefficient Interpretation

interpretation adopted
for Pearson’s correlation 0.00 a 0.19 Very weak
coefficient values
0.20 a 0.39 Weak
0.40 a 0.69 Moderate
0.70 a 0.89 Strong
0.90 a 1.00 Very strong

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Temperature showed a 4 °C total and slight seasonal variation, higher during wet and warmer months and lower in
the dry periods. The values of dissolved oxygen (DO) are within the expected for groundwater [40], ranging from 0.1
(lowest of all campaigns) to 5.6 (highest of all campaigns) and showed variation according to temperature oscillation.
The electrical conductivity (EC) showed seasonal variation with higher values in wet periods (520 μS ­cm−1) and lower
values in dry periods (min: 24.8 μS ­cm−1). Second campaign had exceptionally high values due to specific wells MW-01
and MW-02, this may indicate that the upstream portion, where these wells are located, is receiving and retaining salts
from the surrounding crops due to surface runoff. Amplitude in each campaign exceeded 200 μS c­ m−1, influenced by
well discrepancies. Total dissolved solids (TDS) values closely followed electrical conductivity oscillations indicated high
salinity and dissolved solids presence. Wet period had a maximum value of 327.4 mg L­ −1, while the dry season had a
minimum of 12.3 mg ­L−1. Wells MW-02 and MW-01 influenced the TDS amplitudes significantly.
The pH values varied between 5.1 and 6.8 during the same campaign. Slight variation was also determined in
the means values of each campaign, with the exception of the last campaign, which showed higher values, less
acidic, than the previous campaigns. Slight seasonal variation was observed, with the most acidic pH values during
the wet periods.

3.2 Hydrochemical assessment

Considering the anions and cations, the most abundant, above 5.0 mg ­L−1, were bicarbonate ­(HCO3−) and carbonate
­(CO32−) followed by sodium (­ Na+), sulfate (­ SO42−) and chloride (­ Cl−). The least abundant constituents were potassium
­(K+), calcium ­(Ca2+), magnesium ­(Mg2+), phosphate ­(PO43−) and nitrate ­(NO3−) (Tables 5 and 6).
The maximum average concentrations of bicarbonate and carbonate (188.16 mg/L, 4th campaign) were observed
during the rainy season, correlating with the rise in water levels within the topographic depression. These values were

Table 3  Water physical and Monitoring campaign Water physical and chemical parameters
chemical parameters for the
studied area Monitoring Well WL T DO Ec TDS pH
(m) (°C) (mg ­L−1) (µS/cm) (mg ­L−1)

MW-01 1.75 19.7 0.1 119.5 101 6.3

1ª MW-02 1.63 20.3 0.4 270.2 228.1 6.1
9/23/2021 MW-03 1.45 20.5 0.5 96.4 79.1 5.1
MW-04 1.45 19.8 0.3 65.7 55.6 5.8
MW-01 1.62 22.8 1.8 409.9 327.4 5.5
2ª MW-02 1.57 21.8 1.3 426 284.2 6.1
11/15/2021 MW-03 1.36 21.6 0.5 77.4 53.7 5.5
MW-04 1.3 21.9 1.7 56.5 39 5.5
MW-01 0.39 22.6 0.7 87.9 41.4 5.3
3ª MW-02 0.29 22.1 0.4 520 247.7 5.8
1/26/2022 MW-03 0.36 22.5 1.3 86.1 40.7 6.4
MW-04 0.11 22.4 1.1 88.6 42 5.4
MW-01 0.93 22.8 0.3 209.2 98.3 5.6
4ª MW-02 0.9 23 0.4 415.7 194.5 5.8
3/23/2022 MW-03 0.82 23.3 0.4 49.3 23 5.5
MW-04 0.85 23.4 0.1 236.6 109.8 5.8
MW-01 1.44 21.2 1.85 114.5 55.7 5.5
5ª MW-02 1.46 21.2 1.58 449.1 218 6
5/27/2022 MW-03 1.31 21.8 2.59 31.8 15.2 5.7
MW-04 1.25 21.6 0.96 136.4 65.7 5.9
MW-01 1.61 19.4 4.23 57.3 28.9 6.2
6ª MW-02 1.79 19.7 5.6 477 238.7 6.8
9/16/2022 MW-03 1.38 20.1 4.63 24.8 12.3 6.7
MW-04 1.76 19.9 4.9 74.1 37 6.6

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Table 4  Descriptive statistical analysis for the values of the physical and chemical parameters for the studied area
Monitoring Campaign Parameter Avg Median Max Min Amplitude Interquar- SD Var Asymmetry Kurtosis
tile range

1st—dry WL (m) 1.57 1.54 1.75 1.45 0.3 0.21 0.15 0.02 0.54 − 2.94
2nd—wet WL (m) 1.46 1.47 1.62 1.3 0.32 0.24 0.16 0.02 − 0.04 − 4.8
3rd—wet WL (m) 0.29 0.33 0.39 0.11 0.28 0.12 0.13 0.02 − 1.39 1.68
4th—wet WL (m) 0.88 0.88 0.93 0.82 0.11 0.06 0.05 0 0 − 2.76
5th—dry WL (m) 1.37 1.38 1.46 1.25 0.21 0.15 0.1 0.01 − 0.26 − 4.16
6th—dry WL (m) 1.64 1.69 1.79 1.38 0.41 0.22 0.19 0.04 − 1.11 0.16
All campaigns WL (m) 1.2 1.37 1.79 0.11 1.68 0.69 0.5 0.25 − 0.91 − 0.29
1st—dry T (ºC) 20.08 20.05 20.5 19.7 0.8 0.58 0.39 0.15 0.17 − 4.41
2nd—wet T (ºC) 22.03 21.85 22.8 21.6 1.2 0.38 0.53 0.28 1.67 3.05
3rd—wet T (ºC) 22.4 22.45 22.6 22.1 0.5 0.2 0.22 0.05 − 1.19 1.5
4th—wet T (ºC) 23.13 23.15 23.4 22.8 0.6 0.38 0.28 0.08 − 0.32 − 3.03
5th—dry T (ºC) 21.45 21.4 21.8 21.2 0.6 0.45 0.3 0.09 0.37 − 3.9
6th—dry T (ºC) 19.78 19.8 20.1 19.4 0.7 0.32 0.3 0.09 − 0.42 − 0.42
All campaigns T (ºC) 21.48 21.7 23.4 19.4 4 2.28 1.27 1.61 − 0.2 − 1.29
1st—dry DO (mg ­L−1) 0.33 0.35 0.5 0.1 0.4 0.18 0.17 0.03 − 0.75 0.34
2nd—wet DO (mg ­L−1) 1.33 1.5 1.8 0.5 1.3 0.63 0.59 0.35 − 1.3 1.1
3rd—wet DO (mg ­L−1) 0.88 0.9 1.3 0.4 0.9 0.53 0.4 0.16 − 0.25 − 2.51
4th—wet DO (mg ­L−1) 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.15 0.14 0.02 − 1.41 1.5
5th—dry DO (mg ­L−1) 1.75 1.72 2.59 0.96 1.63 0.61 0.68 0.46 0.25 0.76
6th—dry DO (mg ­L−1) 4.84 4.77 5.6 4.23 1.37 0.55 0.58 0.33 0.71 0.8
All campaigns DO (mg ­L−1) 1.57 1.03 5.6 0.1 5.5 1.41 1.64 2.69 1.41 0.89
1st—dry Ec (µS/cm) 137.95 107.95 270.2 65.7 204.5 68.45 90.88 8258.98 1.65 2.93
2nd—wet Ec (µS/cm) 242.45 243.65 426 56.5 369.5 341.75 202.94 41,183 0 − 5.92
3rd—wet Ec (µS/cm) 195.65 88.25 520 86.1 433.9 109 216.24 46,757.96 2 4
4th—wet Ec (µS/cm) 227.7 222.9 415.7 49.3 366.4 112.15 150.1 22,530.67 0.19 1.35
5th—dry Ec (µS/cm) 182.95 125.45 449.1 31.8 417.3 120.75 183.06 33,511.48 1.63 3.02
6th—dry Ec (µS/cm) 158.3 65.7 477 24.8 452.2 125.65 213.45 45,560.86 1.94 3.82
All campaigns Ec (µS/cm) 190.83 105.45 520 24.8 495.2 233.13 164.88 27,185.4 0.9 − 0.81
1st—dry TDS (mg ­L−1) 115.95 90.05 228.1 55.6 172.5 59.55 77.03 5933.72 1.66 2.91
2nd—wet TDS (mg ­L−1) 176.08 168.95 327.4 39 288.4 244.98 150.95 22,785.16 0.06 − 5.55
3rd—wet TDS (mg ­L−1) 92.95 41.7 247.7 40.7 207 52.2 103.17 10,643.64 2 4
4th—wet TDS (mg ­L−1) 106.4 104.05 194.5 23 171.5 51.5 70.22 4931.45 0.2 1.39
5th—dry TDS (mg ­L−1) 88.65 60.7 218 15.2 202.8 58.2 88.95 7912.91 1.63 3.03
6th—dry TDS (mg ­L−1) 79.23 32.95 238.7 12.3 226.4 62.68 106.81 11,408.93 1.94 3.82
All campaigns TDS (mg ­L−1) 109.88 60.7 327.4 12.3 315.1 160.1 96.75 9359.94 0.97 -0.47
1st—dry pH 5.83 5.95 6.3 5.1 1.2 0.52 0.53 0.28 − 1.16 1.09
2nd—wet pH 5.65 5.5 6.1 5.5 0.6 0.15 0.3 0.09 2 4
3rd—wet pH 5.73 5.6 6.4 5.3 1.1 0.58 0.5 0.25 1.06 0
4th—wet pH 5.68 5.7 5.8 5.5 0.3 0.23 0.15 0.02 − 0.37 − 3.9
5th—dry pH 5.78 5.8 6 5.5 0.5 0.28 0.22 0.05 − 0.48 − 1.7
6th—dry pH 6.58 6.65 6.8 6.2 0.6 0.23 0.26 0.07 − 1.44 2.23
All campaigns pH 5.87 5.8 6.8 5.1 1.7 0.63 0.45 0.21 0.52 − 0.44

All campaigns represents the statistics for each parameter for the entire investigation period (all 6 monitoring campaigns)

approximately 2.7 times higher than the concentrations observed at the end of the dry season (70.38 mg/L, 2nd cam-
paign), likely due to the influx of water into the system. Conversely, the average concentrations of sodium (11.90 mg/L,
2nd campaign) and chloride (8.17 mg/L, 5th campaign) reached their peaks at the end and during the dry seasons,
respectively, indicating that there is a greater concentration of salts retained as the water level decreases.

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Samples collected from well MW-02 consistently exhibited carbonate, bicarbonate, and sodium concentrations approx-
imately one order of magnitude higher than those in other wells. Carbonate, bicarbonate, and sulfate were also detected
in wells MW-01 and MW-04 during the early and dry seasons, specifically in the 03/23 and 05/27/2022 campaigns. Slight
concentrations of chloride and sodium were observed in well MW-03 during the first campaign in September 2021,
still within the dry season. These results align with the electrical conductivity values, which similarly indicated higher
concentrations in MW-02 and MW-01.
Analyzing the Piper diagram (Fig. 3), all samples were categorized as Sodium Bicarbonate, except for the MW-03 sample
in the first campaign, which exhibited a classification of Mixed Sodic. This classification was due to the slight presence
of chloride and sodium in that particular sample.

3.3 Correlations with variable

Correlations were conducted using all the samples, exploring relationships between physical and chemical parameters
and ion concentrations (Fig. 4), as well as correlations among the ions themselves (Fig. 5). These procedures allowed us to
assess interdependencies and gain a better understanding of the mutual influences between the analyzed parameters.

3.4 Potentiometry and water flow direction

The potentiometry results, when combined with the drainage map and topography, aimed to establish a relationship
between water flow and rock fractures or surface drainage axes. Given that a topographic depression situated in an
interfluvial position can be generated and oriented along fault lines, this positioning can determine the preferred
paths for the flow of stored water.

Table 5  Analytical results for the substances of interest

Sampling campaign Monitoring well Hydrochemical results (mg L­ −1)
Na + K+ Ca2 + Mg2 + Cl− SO42− HCO3− PO43− NO3− CO32− DT

MW-01 9.4 6.6 0.1 1.04 22.12 13 31.73 0.1 0.5 30.72 4.51
1ª MW-02 32.2 1.4 0.2 1.02 16.39 64 109.83 0.17 0.6 108.82 4.68
9/23/2021 MW-03 25.6 2.8 0.74 0.61 46.71 13 25.63 0.2 2 24.62 4.35
MW-04 7.7 2.4 0.78 0.68 13.11 15 14.64 0.13 0.7 13.64 4.74
MW-01 3.9 3.5 1.9 0.74 10.65 3 9.15 0.07 0.45 8.14 7.78
2ª MW-02 31 0.3 0.54 1.08 7.37 48 111.66 0.08 0.47 110.65 5.78
11/15/2021 MW-03 7.2 2.5 1.08 0.92 11.06 5 10.98 0.08 0.41 9.98 6.47
MW-04 5.5 1.5 1.42 0.64 7.37 3 10.98 0.05 0.63 9.98 6.17
MW-01 2.9 5 0.36 0.4 10.79 2 21.97 0.24 0.8 20.97 2.54
3ª MW-02 31.8 0.4 0.21 0.46 11.15 33 200.14 0.22 0 199.14 2.41
1/26/2022 MW-03 8.3 1.1 0.42 0.46 10.79 0 30.51 0.24 0.2 29.51 2.94
MW-04 5 2.8 0.47 0.28 9.71 3 24.41 0.19 1.2 23.41 2.32
MW-01 7.6 2.4 0.03 0.42 11.92 36 58.58 0.29 2.6 57.58 1.8
4ª MW-02 28.8 0.4 0 0.4 10.09 38 207.46 0.24 0.8 206.46 1.64
3/23/2022 MW-03 3.1 0.7 0.74 0.42 7.34 1 12.2 0.23 1 11.2 3.57
MW-04 11.7 2.1 0 0.33 7.8 21 100.07 0.32 4.2 99.07 1.35
MW-01 8.1 2.7 0.08 0.74 7.42 21 34.17 0.51 1.2 33.16 3.23
5ª MW-02 36.6 0.7 0.04 0.67 7.92 58 256.27 0.41 0.5 255.26 2.85
5/27/2022 MW-03 4.2 0.6 0.76 0.43 8.41 0 10.98 0.29 1.2 9.97 3.66
MW-04 13.1 1.5 0.06 0.31 8.91 18 62.24 0.56 1.3 61.23 1.42

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Table 6  Descriptive statistical analysis for the analytical results. All campaigns represents the statistics for each parameter for the entire
investigation period (all 5 sampling campaigns)
Sampling Campaign Ions (Mg ­L−1) Avg Median Max Min Amplitude Interquartile SD Var Asymmetry Kurtosis
range

1st—dry Ca2+ 0.46 0.47 0.78 0.1 0.68 0.58 0.35 0.13 − 0.06 − 5.55
2nd—wet Ca2+ 1.24 1.25 1.9 0.54 1.36 0.6 0.57 0.33 − 0.14 − 0.14
3rd—wet Ca2+ 0.37 0.39 0.47 0.21 0.26 0.11 0.11 0.01 − 1.12 1.13
4th—wet Ca2+ 0.19 0.02 0.74 0 0.74 0.21 0.37 0.13 1.99 3.97
5th—dry Ca2+ 0.24 0.07 0.76 0.04 0.72 0.2 0.35 0.12 1.99 3.96
All campaigns Ca2+ 0.5 0.39 1.9 0 1.9 0.67 0.52 0.27 1.32 1.6
1st—dry Cl- 24.58 19.26 46.71 13.11 33.6 12.7 15.21 231.48 1.66 2.77
2nd—wet Cl- 9.11 9.01 11.06 7.37 3.69 3.38 2.02 4.08 0.04 − 5.79
3rd—wet Cl- 10.61 10.79 11.15 9.71 1.44 0.36 0.62 0.39 − 1.54 2.89
4th—wet Cl- 9.29 8.95 11.92 7.34 4.58 2.86 2.13 4.53 0.56 − 2.48
5th—dry Cl- 8.17 8.17 8.91 7.42 1.49 0.74 0.64 0.41 0 − 1.14
All campaigns Cl- 12.35 10.37 46.71 7.34 39.37 3.45 8.83 78.04 3.46 13.15
1st—dry CO32−+HCO3- 89.91 56.35 218.65 28.28 190.37 56.74 86.99 7566.4 1.84 3.51
2nd—wet CO32−+HCO3- 70.38 20.96 222.31 17.29 205.02 51.26 101.3 10,261.98 2 3.99
3rd—wet CO32−+HCO3- 137.52 53.92 399.28 42.94 356.34 98.24 174.66 30,505.34 1.99 3.97
4th—wet CO32−+HCO3- 188.16 157.65 413.92 23.4 390.52 159.87 166.75 27,806 0.96 0.99
5th—dry CO32−+HCO3- 180.82 95.4 511.53 20.95 490.58 164.75 224.42 50,365.51 1.79 3.31
All campaigns CO32−+HCO3- 133.36 61.24 511.53 17.29 494.24 176.96 149.39 22,317 1.5 1.24
1st—dry PO43− 0.15 0.15 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.06 0.04 0 0 − 2.07
2nd—wet PO43− 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.01 0 − 1.41 1.5
3rd—wet PO43− 0.22 0.23 0.24 0.19 0.05 0.03 0.02 0 − 1.19 0.44
4th—wet PO43− 0.27 0.27 0.32 0.23 0.09 0.06 0.04 0 0.37 − 3.44
5th—dry PO43− 0.44 0.46 0.56 0.29 0.27 0.14 0.12 0.01 − 0.65 − 1.09
All campaigns PO43− 0.23 0.23 0.56 0.05 0.51 0.17 0.14 0.02 0.93 0.64
1st—dry Mg2+ 0.84 0.85 1.04 0.61 0.43 0.36 0.22 0.05 − 0.08 − 5.48
2nd—wet Mg2+ 0.85 0.83 1.08 0.64 0.44 0.25 0.19 0.04 0.33 − 2.01
3rd—wet Mg2+ 0.4 0.43 0.46 0.28 0.18 0.09 0.08 0.01 − 1.41 1.5
4th—wet Mg2+ 0.39 0.41 0.42 0.33 0.09 0.04 0.04 0 − 1.73 2.92
5th—dry Mg2+ 0.54 0.55 0.74 0.31 0.43 0.29 0.2 0.04 − 0.19 − 3.8
All campaigns Mg2+ 0.6 0.54 1.08 0.28 0.8 0.33 0.25 0.06 0.66 − 0.75
1st—dry Na+ + ­K+ 22.03 22.2 33.6 10.1 23.5 15.18 10.85 117.71 − 0.05 − 3.6
2nd—wet Na+ + ­K+ 13.85 8.55 31.3 7 24.3 7.8 11.69 136.75 1.94 3.78
3rd—wet Na+ + ­K+ 14.33 8.65 32.2 7.8 24.4 7.23 11.94 142.54 1.98 3.92
4th—wet Na+ + ­K+ 14.2 11.9 29.2 3.8 25.4 9.2 10.82 116.99 1.15 1.76
5th—dry Na+ + ­K+ 16.88 12.7 37.3 4.8 32.5 10.98 14.2 201.69 1.52 2.62
All campaigns Na+ + ­K+ 16.26 10.45 37.3 3.8 33.5 20.73 11.09 122.98 0.8 − 1.03
1st—dry NO3- 0.95 0.65 2 0.5 1.5 0.45 0.7 0.5 1.92 3.73
2nd—wet NO3- 0.49 0.46 0.63 0.41 0.22 0.07 0.1 0.01 1.6 2.87
3rd—wet NO3- 0.55 0.5 1.2 0 1.2 0.75 0.55 0.3 0.32 − 3.03
4th—wet NO3- 2.15 1.8 4.2 0.8 3.4 2.05 1.59 2.52 0.79 − 1.51
5th—dry NO3- 1.05 1.2 1.3 0.5 0.8 0.2 0.37 0.14 − 1.9 3.71
All campaigns NO3- 1.04 0.75 4.2 0 4.2 0.71 0.96 0.92 2.21 5.73
1st—dry SO42− 26.25 14 64 13 51 14.25 25.18 634.25 1.99 3.97
2nd—wet SO42− 14.75 4 48 3 45 12.75 22.19 492.25 1.99 3.96
3rd—wet SO42− 9.5 2.5 33 0 33 9 15.72 247 1.96 3.88
4th—wet SO42− 24 28.5 38 1 37 20.5 17.11 292.67 − 1.03 − 0.3
5th—dry SO42− 24.25 19.5 58 0 58 16.75 24.34 592.25 1.11 2.13
All campaigns SO42− 19.75 14 64 0 64 30.75 20.02 400.93 0.96 − 0.11

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Fig. 3  Piper’s diagram for the

analyzed samples. Source:
prepared with software Qual-
iGraf [33]

Fig. 4  Pearson’s correlation coefficient between the values of physical and chemical parameters and ion concentrations (considering all
campaigns)

The hydraulic interpolation results indicated a predominant direction to the East (Fig. 6), with slight oscillations
towards the northeast in the 3rd campaign (January—wet) (Fig. 6b) and towards the southeast in the 6th cam-
paign (September—dry) (Fig. 6f ). Considering the layout of the monitoring wells in the area, the flow direction
begins from wells MW-01 and MW-02 (west) towards MW-03 and MW-04 (east). It is also important to consider the
movement of groundwater by gravity, since in wet areas the groundwater table is usually a moderate reflection of
climate and topography [41].

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Fig. 5  Pearson’s correlation

coefficient between ion con-
centrations (considering all
campaigns)

Fig. 6  Potentiometry and flow pathways for each monitoring campaign, being them: a 1st campaign (09/23/2021); b 2nd campaign
(11/15/2021); c 3rd campaign (01/26/2022); d 4th campaign (03/23/2022); e 5th campaign (05/27/2022); f 6th campaign (09/16/2022)

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4 Discussion

4.1 Influence of landscape dynamics on physical and chemical parameters

Water level values demonstrate a direct rainwater contribution to the maintenance of the wetland, resulting in expan-
sion during rainy periods and contraction in the dry season. This recurring dynamic defines the hydroperiod, which
is influenced by hydrological and climatic processes.
Temperature values suggest that the collected water is influenced by atmospheric conditions rather than confined
aquifers, where variations would be more closely linked to sampling depth (geothermal gradient) than ambient
temperature [42].
The hydroperiod, influenced by rainwater, exhibits a monomodal flooding pulse, as described by Junk et al. [10],
which corresponds to the wet months. While further monitoring is needed, groundwater fluctuation values have
not exceeded the land surface, possibly due to climate change or intensive agriculture, which can impact soil water
holding capacity [43, 44]. This wetland provides numerous environmental, social, economic, and water ecosystem
services, including water storage and recharge, flood regulation, and mitigation of the effects of climate change and
land use [45].
According to CETESB [40], electrical conductivity values exceeding 100 μS/cm generally indicate a high presence
of salts. This suggests that these wells, located upstream in the watershed, are receiving, and retaining salts from
the surrounding crops, a typical characteristic of wet areas. Additionally, the increased salinity of wetland waters is
often attributed to the enrichment of ions such as ­Na+, ­Mg2+, and ­SO42− through weathering and groundwater flow
[46]. Therefore, considering the heterogeneity, it is plausible that the introduction of sulfates through surface runoff
(leaching) plays a substantial role in the rise of salt concentration in certain wells.

4.2 Hydrogeological context and the hydrochemical signatures

Seasonal influences are readily apparent in the water composition Bicarbonate in water can originate from two
primary sources: (1) the dissociation of atmospheric CO2, involving the gaseous diffusion of CO2, and (2) by the
dissolution of carbonates [47]. In the studied area, the first source is probably predominant. Bicarbonate stands out
as the most abundant anion in water bodies, while chloride is reported as relatively prominent in lakes, stemming
from natural sources due to mineral weathering or anthropogenic sources linked to agricultural fertilizer use [48, 49].
In a hydrogeological context similar to the one studied, an unconfined aquifer within the Serra Geral Formation,
Gastmans et al. [50] demonstrated that groundwater flow is primarily influenced by topography and local drainage
of discharge. Water composition in such aquifers typically features low solute content, with bicarbonate being the
dominant anion and calcium and magnesium as the primary cations. There may be increases in sodium related to total
dissolved solids, a characteristic also observed in the waters of the studied GIW. In the region, rainwater composition
is predominantly composed of H ­ CO3− (bicarbonate) and other ions of both natural and anthropogenic origin [51], a
trend similar to that found in this research.
According to the piper diagram, the fractured aquifer Serra Geral waters are predominantly calcium or magnesian
bicarbonates and, secondarily, sodium bicarbonates and the recharge occurs through rainfall on the basaltic soils,
which reaches the alteration zones and fissures of the parent rock [52], the latter being consistent with the clas-
sification obtained in this study. Although there is no evidence of an intense vertical water flow at the level of rock
substrate to characterize the studied area aquifer as fractured, the water percolates in soil of diabase alteration (rock
of the Serra Geral aquifer), and the main source of water input is also rainfall.

4.3 Correlations between geological framework, seasonal hydrodynamics, and water parameters

The existence and dynamics of the GIW are dependent on meteoric water input. Precipitation serves as the primary
water source for the topographic depression, justifying the seasonal variations in water levels and the extent of flood-
ing during both dry and wet seasons. Due to this origin, it is expected that the water composition collected in the
wells will be directly influenced by the composition of rainwater and by the chemical and mineralogical characteristics

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of the soil resulting from diabase alteration. Additionally, it may also be influenced by land use, which has been
dominated by intensive sugarcane agriculture and conventional management practices for decades.
The chemical concentration pattern of water in a GIW is exceedingly complex due to various conditions and processes,
including: (i) an increase in chemical concentration as a result of runoff from slopes directed toward the wetland during
the rainy season, (ii) an increase in chemical concentration in response to evapotranspiration during the dry season,
(iii) a decrease in chemical concentration during the wet period due to dilution, and (iv) variation in concentration as a
response to nutrient absorption by the rhizosphere [53, 54]. Furthermore, correlating these concentrations with physical
and chemical parameters is essential for assessing the condition, productivity, and sustainability of the environment, as
well as contributing to its management [55].
The diabase, due to its mineralogical composition and commonly associated faults, is intensely susceptible to chemi-
cal weathering since its mineralogy is mostly dominated by less stable minerals (augite and plagioclase) according to
the Goldich [56] series. In the region, according to Machado et al. [22], diabase is composed by plagioclase (labradorite
and oligoclase), pyroxene (Augite and Pigeonite), opaque minerals, olivine and quartz-feldspathic mesostasis. These
minerals, when undergoing weather changes in a humid environment, as studied by Clemente e Marconi [57], tend to
release soluble ions such as ­Ca2+, ­Mg2+, ­K+ and N­ a+ into the water and aluminum and iron remain immobile, forming the
soil constituent alteration minerals such as kaolinite and oxides, respectively. The diabase chemical weathering can be
triggered by several chemical reactions (dissolution, hydrolysis, acidolysis and oxidation), and hydrolysis is one of the
main responsible for changing the aqueous composition medium through the interaction of ­H+ or hydroxyl ions ­(OH−)
present in the water with the unchanged rock minerals.
The silicate minerals chemical alteration, such as feldspars, is processed through the incongruent reaction of plagio-
clase, where the alkaline ions (­ Na+ and C
­ a2+) present in the feldspar structure are exchanged for the H
­ + solution, increasing
the water pH, giving rise to an amorphous phase that will be transformed into kaolinite (Eqs. 5 and 6) [58]:
CaAl2 Si2 O8
+2H+ ⇌ H2 Al2 Si2 O8 + Ca2+ (5)
Anorthite

NaAlSi3 O8
+H+ ⇌ HAlSi3 O8 + Na+ (6)
Albite
It is worth mentioning that the Serra Geral aquifer waters composition, according to Gastmans et al. [50], may reflect
water–rock/soil interactions due to the incongruous dissolution of diabase minerals such as plagioclase (labradorite, with
30 to 50% albite) [59] and pyroxene (augite) that in the presence of atmospheric CO2, lead to the secondary formation
of kaolinite, quartz minerals and clay, releasing calcium, sodium, magnesium, silica and bicarbonate (soil constituents),
according to the reactions (Eqs. 7, 8 and 9):
CaAl2 Si2 O8 Al Si O (OH)4
+2CO2 + 3H2 O → 2 2 5 +Ca2+ + 2HCO−3 (7)
Anorthite Kaolinite

2NaAlSi3 O8 Al Si O (OH)4
+2CO2 + 3H2 O → 2 2 5 +2Na+ + 2HCO−3 + 4Si(OH)4 (8)
Albite Kaolinite

(Ca, Mg, Fe)2 Si2 O6

+2CO2 + 5H2 O → 2 Ca2+ , Mg2+ , Fe2+ + 2HCO3− + 2Si(OH)4 + 21 O2
( )
Augite (9)

In this sense, the sodium concentration, in non-confined conditions as it is considered, can be interpreted as a result of
the exchange reactions consistent with the limit between ­Na+ and ­Ca2+ (forming secondary minerals with the elements
mentioned), since it is more difficult to reach the limits of calcite saturation.
The strong positive correlation among Na + (plagioclase), C ­ O32−+HCO3-, and ­SO42− (sulfate) ions, as well as their positive
correlations with electrical conductivity, suggests that these ions are released into the water concurrently, likely due to
mineral alteration processes occurring in the diabase and soil. Additionally, the moderate negative correlation between
magnesium and temperature indicates that this ion is released in higher quantities during periods of drought, when
there is reduced inflow and exchange with rainwater.
The transport or accumulation of solutes in a humid area is dependent on evapotranspiration [60]. Solute concen-
tration increases until saturation during dry weather conditions and decreases during wet weather conditions [61]. In

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wetlands where water volume primarily comes from precipitation and runoff from slopes, water loss occurs through
evapotranspiration. For example, in the Okavango Delta in Senegal, approximately 98% of the wetland’s water volume
originates from rain, while only an average of 2% represents the inflow from distal parts, and some is absorbed by plants
[60]. According to the authors, plants play a significant role in solute assimilation and nutrient retention, which also affects
the quantity and distribution pattern of solutes [60].
In the studied GIW, the low levels of ­Ca2+ and ­Mg2+ cations suggest that saprolite or rock is not the dominant source of
ions dissolved in water. However, the increase in ­Mg2+ concentrations (associated with pyroxenes) during the dry period
may indicate this association due to the greater interaction of stored water with rock (augite) and/or soil (clay minerals).
The soil’s mineralogical composition can also influence the chemical composition of water through the alteration
of secondary minerals, as they come into contact with water for an extended period. This is a significant aspect of GIW
hydrology, where a mixture of meteoric, interstitial, and groundwater occurs. Considering the mineralogical constitution
of the soil within the studied area, which originates from diabase alteration, its composition comprises minerals, such
as kaolinite/halloysite, quartz, gibbsite, goethite, hematite, cristobalite, anatase, chlorite-serpentine, ilmenite, montmo-
rillonite-chlorite, and nontronite. Both the rock substrate and soil play pivotal roles in influencing water composition.
Chemical weathering reactions of these minerals may culminate in the liberation of cations into the aqueous medium.
The clay minerals formed during the diabase alteration in the soil can influence the composition of groundwater through
processes such as adsorption, ion exchange, and chemical reactions. These processes can lead to changes in water
concentration as well as the release or retention of chemical elements. Adsorption occurs when ions in the water bind
to the surface of clay minerals, while ion exchange involves the replacement of adsorbed ions with other ions present
in the water.
The smectites group (in this case, montmorillonite and nontronite) can adsorb and exchange ions ­(Na+, ­K+, ­Ca2+, ­Mg2+
and ­H+) with water, which can affect its composition. In addition, with the advancement of weathering these minerals also
release cations when changed to kaolinite [62]. Chlorite and serpentine can also interact with groundwater and release
ions ­(Fe2+, ­Fe3+, ­Mg2+, ­Al3+ and ­H+) during the alteration process. Kaolinite is a clay mineral that has a low ion exchange
capacity and usually represents the final product of weathering.
These processes are influenced by water availability, as measured at the monitoring well level, and water quality, which
is determined by physical and chemical parameters [63]. Therefore, the duration of interaction between water and mineral
surfaces, the composition of the mineral assembly, and the degree of weathering all directly influence hydrochemistry.
This hydrochemistry can vary significantly from the composition of rainwater [64].
It is noteworthy that despite being a wet area, the strong seasonality and the mineral composition of the soil suggest
an oxidizing environment that allows for significant chemical changes. Oxide-reduction features resulting from the remo-
bilization of iron in soil horizons are common characteristics across all profiles. However, it’s important to mention that
the presence of low chroma colors (< 2), which typically indicate prolonged saturation periods [65], were not described.
Regarding the influence of NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) fertilizers on water quality, the moderate
negative correlation between ­PO43− and ­Ca2+ and ­PO43− and ­Mg2+ suggests that the wetland is fulfilling the function of
a biogeochemical reactor, where the P ­ O43− concentration tends to be controlled by its calcium phosphate (­ Ca3(PO4)2
adsorption and precipitation [66] and ­Mg3(PO4)2 and ­MgHPO4 [67], which may also corroborate the low ­Ca2+ and ­Mg2+
water concentration.

4.4 Potentiometry and flow pathways

The shallow water level and its fluctuations observed during different hydrological periods in the GIW indicate that the
studied aquifer is unconfined and characterized by significant interactions and storage of meteoric water [68].
The GIWs, flooded or not, are the evolution landscapes result formed by natural or anthropic processes [69]. In the case
of natural evolution, such as in the studied area, with no visible connection to rivers, the hydroperiod may be directly
related to the behavior (flow and direction) of the unconfined aquifer, which is fed by precipitation.
Wetlands can receive flow inputs, recharge aquifers or both depending on the fluctuation of the water table that can
advance and retreat, discharging and recharging, and the same wetland can be a discharge zone in a time of high flow
and a recharge zone in periods of drought [70]. Considering these factors, the studied feature can be compared with
a flow lake model, where it receives discharge from upstream areas and acts as a recharge zone downstream through
subsurface and lateral flow.
The proximity with the Santa Gertrudes Stream source to the east, suggests a subsurface connection between the
water bodies, with the possible availability of water at the spring being dependent on the flow from the GIW, which

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would act as a sinkhole. Springs are natural outlets of groundwater, typically occurring when the water table is close
to the surface due to impermeable layers intersecting it. They are often found in lowlands, geological faults, or karst
formations. Contact springs are common, forming on slopes, hills, or depressions, with defined points (water sources)
or diffuse areas forming wetlands and ponds from water accumulation [71].
The potentiometric maps provide an initial flow simulation in the shallow aquifer and suggest a connection, through
subsurface flow, between the GIW and the Santa Gertrudes Stream. This discovery is significant since the stream, which
may be partially fed by the GIW, contributes to ensuring water security in the Cordeirópolis and Santa Gertrudes munici-
palities, both of which face recurring water scarcity during seasonal drought periods. However, to establish the spatio-
temporal relationship between the flow of the wetland and the stream, it is necessary to quantify the residence time
of soil water and the shallow aquifer [64]. Additionally, given that the aquifer is shallow in the wetland, a portion of the
interstitial water is likely absorbed by plant roots, which is of great importance for ecological characterization and struc-
tural function, and it can also contribute to flow regulation [72].

5 Limitations and future aspects

One of the limitations of this study is the spatial and temporal restriction of the data sampled, which focuses on a limited
number of wells and specific monitoring periods within a single GIW. The hydrochemical and potentiometric analyses
were conducted over a single hydrological cycle, which may not fully capture seasonal and interannual variations. Addi-
tionally, the lack of a broader monitoring network constrains the understanding of subsurface connectivity on a larger
scale.
Future studies could benefit from expanding the monitoring network to include more GIWs and integrating continuous
water level and quality sensors. Furthermore, applying additional methods, such as isotope tracers, could enhance the
accuracy of inferences regarding hydrogeological processes and connectivity between water bodies. This would provide
a more comprehensive understanding of the dynamics at play and support more effective water resource management.

6 Conclusion

The results obtained through the measurement of physical and chemical parameters of water, assessments of water
composition, and potentiometry have significantly enhanced the understanding of the ecological context of the study
area. These findings have also aided in the development of hypotheses regarding its hydrogeological characteristics and
potential socio-environmental significance. Notably, the results support the hypothesis of a possible subsurface con-
nection between the study area and the Santa Gertrudes stream, a crucial water source for the city of the same name,
indicating the relevance of this research in understanding hydrological dynamics in such environments. Additionally,
this insight contributes significantly to the development of strategies for the conservation and management of water
resources in the region, which is extremely important for promoting environmental and social sustainability.
The monitoring campaigns allowed identifying that water level showed variations between the rainy and dry periods,
suggesting that the wetland receives a direct contribution from rainwater, and that the electrical conductivity values
(greater than 100 µS/cm) may indicate that wells MW-01 and MW-02 (upstream) are receiving and retaining salts from
the surrounding cultivation due to surface runoff.
With the hydrochemical results it was possible to notice seasonal influence on ion concentrations and the Piper’s
diagram showed that the water composition can be classified as Sodium Bicarbonate. Additionally, Low levels of calcium
and magnesium suggests the non-dominance of saprolite or rock as primary sources of ions dissolved in water, although
the increase in magnesium (from pyroxene) concentrations of the dry period samples may lead to this association.
The correlations allowed the interpretation that the strong positive correlation between sodium (from plagioclase),
bicarbonate and carbonate, and sulfate (from sulfides) with the electrical conductivity (Ce) and among themselves sug-
gests that these are being released into the water simultaneously due to the alteration of the minerals present in the
diabase and soil. Furthermore, the moderate negative correlation between phosphate and calcium, and phosphate and
magnesium suggest that phosphate concentration may be controlled by its adsorption and precipitation of calcium
phosphate and magnesium phosphate. This highlights the function of the wetlad as a biogeochemical reactor, as the land
use can be the source of some ions and compounds due to the use of agrochemicals such as fertilizers (NPK, nitrogen-
phosphorus-potassium), nutrients, pesticides, salts, metals, among others.

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The potentiometry results showed predominant flow direction to the East, from wells MW-01 and MW-02 to MW-03
and MW-04 and the characterization of the flow suggests that the studied feature can be compared with the flow lake
model, which supports the hypothesis of subsurface connection with the Santa Gertrudes stream. Furthermore, the
shallow water level and the fluctuations in the hydrological wet and dry periods suggest that the studied aquifer is a
free, phreatic aquifer, with strong conditioning and storage of rainwater.

7 Recommendations

It is important to highlight that there are several tools and modeling capable of expanding knowledge regarding water
dynamics in wetlands that can be a field of study for further research, highlighting the quantification of the residence
time of groundwater and the study of isotopes to investigate hydrological and geochemical processes, aiming to provide
more detailed information about the origin, flow, and evolution of water in these areas.

Acknowledgements The authors are especially grateful to the Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (Process n. 2020/03207-
9) for funding the Project. We also would like to thank the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) for financial
support on the PhD scholarships of Lucas Moreira Furlan and Matheus Felipe Stanfoca Casagrande.

Author contributions Conceptualization: Isabella de Oliveira Franco, Diego de Souza Sardinha, Lucas Moreira Furlan, Matheus Felipe Stanfoca
Casagrande, César Augusto Moreira, and Vania Rosolen; Methodology: Isabella de Oliveira Franco, Diego de Souza Sardinha, Lucas Moreira
Furlan, Matheus Felipe Stanfoca Casagrande, César Augusto Moreira, and Vania Rosolen; Software: Isabella de Oliveira Franco, Matheus Felipe
Stanfoca Casagrande, and Lucas Moreira Furlan; Validation: Isabella de Oliveira Franco, Diego de Souza Sardinha, and Vania Rosolen; Formal
analysis Investigation: Isabella de Oliveira Franco, Diego de Souza Sardinha, and Vania Rosolen; Resources: Diego de Souza Sardinha and Vania
Rosolen; Data curation: Isabella de Oliveira Franco and Vania Rosolen; Writing—original draft preparation: Isabella de Oliveira Franco and
Vania Rosolen; Writing—review and editing: Isabella de Oliveira Franco, Diego de Souza Sardinha, Lucas Moreira Furlan, and Vania Rosolen;
Visualization: Isabella de Oliveira Franco and Lucas Moreira Furlan; Supervision: Vania Rosolen; Project administration: Vania Rosolen; Funding
acquisition: Vania Rosolen. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Funding This work was funded by the FAPESP—Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (Process n. 2020/03207–9).

Data availability The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, Isabella Franco.

Code availability ArcGis Pro. License ID: 7303261929.

Declarations
Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article
are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://c​ reati​ vecom
​ mons.o
​ rg/l​ icens​ es/b
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​ /.

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