Antibiotic and Chemotherapy Expert Consult 9e 9th Edition Roger G. Finch MB Bs FRCP FRCP (Ed) Frcpath FFPM Download PDF
Antibiotic and Chemotherapy Expert Consult 9e 9th Edition Roger G. Finch MB Bs FRCP FRCP (Ed) Frcpath FFPM Download PDF
com
https://ebookname.com/product/antibiotic-and-chemotherapy-
expert-consult-9e-9th-edition-roger-g-finch-mb-bs-frcp-
frcped-frcpath-ffpm/
OR CLICK HERE
DOWLOAD NOW
https://ebookname.com/product/antibiotic-and-chemotherapy-9th-edition-
roger-g-finch/
ebookname.com
ebookname.com
https://ebookname.com/product/wedding-videography-start-to-finish-1st-
edition-joanna-silber/
ebookname.com
Extraterritorial Use of Force against Non State Actors 1st
Edition Noam Lubell
https://ebookname.com/product/extraterritorial-use-of-force-against-
non-state-actors-1st-edition-noam-lubell/
ebookname.com
https://ebookname.com/product/the-byzantine-aristocracy-and-its-
military-function-variorum-collected-studies-1st-edition-jean-claude-
cheynet/
ebookname.com
https://ebookname.com/product/the-poor-in-court-the-legal-services-
program-and-supreme-court-decision-making-susan-e-lawrence/
ebookname.com
https://ebookname.com/product/midnight-in-the-century-victor-serge/
ebookname.com
https://ebookname.com/product/mastering-arabic-1-3rd-edition-jane-
wightwick/
ebookname.com
Metal Complex DNA Interactions 1st Edition Nick
Hadjiliadis
https://ebookname.com/product/metal-complex-dna-interactions-1st-
edition-nick-hadjiliadis/
ebookname.com
Antibiotic and
Chemotherapy
Commissioning Editor: Sue Hodgson
Development Editor: Nani Clansey
Editorial Assistant: Poppy Garraway/Rachael Harrison
Project Manager: Jess Thompson
Design: Charles Gray
Illustration Manager: Bruce Hogarth
Illustrator: Merlyn Harvey
Marketing Manager (USA): Helena Mutak
Antibiotic and
Chemotherapy
Anti-infective agents and their use in therapy
N I N T H E D I T I O N
Roger G. Finch
MB BS FRCP FRCP(Ed) FRCPath FFPM
Professor of Infectious Diseases, School of Molecular Medical Sciences,
Division of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, University of Nottingham and
Nottingham University Hospitals, The City Hospital,
Nottingham, UK
David Greenwood
PhD DSc FRCPath
Emeritus Professor of Antimicrobial Science, University of Nottingham Medical School,
Nottingham, UK
S. Ragnar Norrby
MD PhD FRCP
Professor, The Swedish Institute for Infectious Disease Control, Stockholm, Sweden
Richard J. Whitley
MD
Distinguished Professor Loeb Scholar in Pediatrics, Professor of Pediatrics, Microbiology,
Medicine and Neurosurgery, The University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham,
Alabama, USA
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such
as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
http://www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
The chapter entitled ‘Antifungal Agents’ by David W. Warnock is in the public domain.
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment
may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and
knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described
herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of
others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
With respect to any drug or pharmaceutical products identified, readers are advised to check the most
current information provided (i) on procedures featured or (ii) by the manufacturer of each product to
be administered, to verify the recommended dose or formula, the method and duration of administration,
and contraindications. It is the responsibility of practitioners, relying on their own experience and
knowledge of their patients, to make diagnoses, to determine dosages and the best treatment for each
individual patient, and to take all appropriate safety precautions.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors,
assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-7020-4064-1
Printed in China
The first edition of this book was published almost half a century ago. Subsequent
editions have generally been published in response to the steady flow of novel antibacterial
compounds or the marketing of derivatives of existing classes of agents exhibiting
advantages, sometimes questionable, over their parent compound. In producing the ninth
edition of this book the rationale has been not so much in response to the availability
of new antibacterial compounds, but to capture advances in antiviral and, to a lesser
extent, antifungal chemotherapy and also to highlight a number of changing therapeutic
approaches to selected infections. For example, the recognition that combination therapy
has an expanded role in preventing the emergence of drug resistance; traditionally applied
to the treatment of tuberculosis, it is now being used in the management of HIV, hepatitis
B and C virus infections and, most notably, malaria among the protozoal infections.
The impact of antibiotic resistance has reached critical levels. Multidrug-resistant
pathogens are now commonplace in hospitals and not only affect therapeutic choice, but
also, in the seriously ill, can be life threatening. While methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus
aureus (MRSA) has been taxing healthcare systems and achieved prominence in the
media, resistance among Gram-negative bacillary pathogens is probably of considerably
greater importance. More specifically, resistance based on extended spectrum β-lactamase
production has reached epidemic proportions in some hospitals and has also been
recognized, somewhat belatedly, as a cause of much community infection. There are also
emerging links with overseas travel and possibly with the food chain. The dearth of novel
compounds to treat resistant Gram-negative bacillary infections is particularly worrying.
What is clear is that the appropriate use of antimicrobial drugs in the management of
human and animal disease has never been more important.
As in the past, the aim of this book is to provide an international repository of
information on the properties of antimicrobial drugs and authoritative advice on their
clinical application. The structure of the book remains unchanged, being divided into
three parts. Section 1 addresses the general aspects of antimicrobial chemotherapy
while Section 2 provides a detailed description of the agents, either by group and their
respective compounds, or by target microorganisms as in the case of non-antibacterial
agents. Section 3 deals with the treatment of all major infections by site, disease or target
pathogens as appropriate. Some new chapters have been introduced and others deleted.
The recommended International Non-proprietary Names (rINN) with minor exceptions has
once again been adopted to reflect the international relevance of the guidance provided.
viii Preface
Our thanks go to our international panel of authors who have been selected for their
expertise and who have shown patience with our deadlines and accommodated our
revisions. We also thank those who have contributed to earlier editions and whose legacy
lives on in some areas of the text. Here we wish to specifically thank both Francis O’Grady
and Harold Lambert who edited this book for many years and did much to establish
its international reputation. Their continued support and encouragement is gratefully
acknowledged. We also welcome and thank Tim Hill for his pharmacy expertise in ensuring
the accuracy of the information contained in the Preparation and Dosages boxes and
elsewhere in the text. Finally, we thank the Editorial Team at Elsevier Science for their
efficiency and professionalism in the production of this new edition.
February 2010
List of Contributors
Robert Davidson, MD FRCP DTM&H John M. Grange, MSc MD Donna M. Kraus, PharmD
Consultant Physician, Honorary Senior Lecturer Visiting Professor Associate Professor of Pharmacy Practice and
Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases Centre for Infectious Diseases and International Pediatrics
Northwick Park Hospital Health Colleges of Pharmacy and Medicine
Harrow, Middlesex, UK Royal Free and University College Medical University of Illinois at Chicago
School Chicago, USA
Peter G. Davey, MD FRCP Windeyer Institute for Medical Sciences
Professor in Pharmacoeconomics and London, UK Lucy Lamb, MA (Cantab)
Consultant in Infectious Diseases MRCP DTM&H
Ninewells Hospital and Medical School David Greenwood, PhD DSc FRCPath Specialist Registrar Infectious Diseases and
University of Dundee Emeritus Professor of Antimicrobial Science General Medicine
Dundee, UK University of Nottingham Medical School Northwick Park Hospital
Nottingham, UK Middlesex, UK
Olivier Denis, MD PhD
Scientific Advice Unit Phillip Hay, MD Saba Lambert, MBChB
European Centre for Disease Senior Lecturer in Genitourinary Medicine Doctor
Prevention and Control Courtyard Clinic London, UK
Stockholm, Sweden St George’s Hospital
London, UK Giancarlo Lancini, PhD
Linda Ficker, BSc FRCS FRCOphth EBOD Consultant Microbial Chemistry
Consultant Ophthalmologist Roderick J. Hay Lecturer in Microbial Biotechnology
Moorfield Eye Hospital Honorary Professor, Clinical Research Unit University Varese
London, UK London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine Gerenzano (VA), Italy
Consultant Dermatologist
Roger G. Finch, MB BS FRCP FRCP(Ed) Infectious Disease Clinic Dermatology Department David Leaper, MD ChM FRCS FACS
FRCPath FFPM King’s College Hospital Visiting Professor
Professor of Infectious Diseases Chairman Cardiff University
School of Molecular Medical Sciences International Foundation for Dermatology Department of Wound Healing
Division of Microbiology and Infectious London, UK Cardiff Medicentre
Diseases Cardiff, UK
University of Nottingham and Nottingham Tim Hills, BPharm MRPharmS
University Hospitals Lead Pharmacist Antimicrobials and Infection Diana Lockwood, BSc MD FRCP
The City Hospital Control Professor of Tropical Medicine
Nottingham, UK Pharmacy Department London School of Hygiene and Tropical
Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust Medicine
Arne Forsgren, MD PhD Queens Campus Consultant Physician and Leprologist
Professor of Clinical Bacteriology Nottingham, UK Hospital for Tropical Diseases
Department of Laboratory Medicine Department of Infectious and Tropical
Medical Microbiology Peter J. Jenks, PhD MRCP FRCPath Diseases, Clinical Research Unit
Lund University Director of Infection Prevention and Control London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine
Malmö University Hospital Department of Microbiology London, UK
Malmö, Sweden Plymouth Hospitals NHS Trust
Derriford Hospital Andrew M. Lovering, BSc PhD
Adam P. Fraise, MB BS FRCPath Plymouth, UK Consultant Clinical Scientist
Consultant Microbiologist Department of Medical Microbiology
University Hospital Birmingham Gunnar Kahlmeter, MD PhD Southmead Hospital
Microbiology Department Professor of Clinical Bacteriology Westbury on Trym
Queen’s Elizabeth Hospital Head of Department of Clinical Microbiology Bristol, UK
Birmingham, UK Central Hospital
Växjö, Sweden Alasdair P. MacGowan, BMedBiol MD
Nicholas A. Francis, BA MD PG Dip FRCP(Ed) FRCPath
(Epidemiology) PhD MRCGP Chris C. Kibbler, MA FRCP FRCPath Professor of Clinical Microbiology and
Clinical Lecturer Professor of Medical Microbiology Antimicrobial Therapeutics
South East Wales Trials Unit Centre for Medical Microbiology Department of Medical Microbiology
Department of Primary Care and Public Health University College London Bristol Centre for Antimicrobial Research and
School of Medicine, Cardiff University Clinical Lead Evaluation
Cardiff, UK Department of Medical Microbiology North Bristol NHS Trust
Royal Free Hospital NHS Trust Southmead Hospital
Kate Gould, MB BS FRCPath London, UK Bristol, UK
Consultant in Medical Microbiology
Honorary Professor in Medical Microbiology Sheena Kakar, MBBS Grad Dip Med (STD/HIV) Janice Main, MB ChB FRCP (Edin & Lond)
Regional Microbiologist, Health Protection Research Fellow/Registrar Reader and Consultant Physician in Infectious
Agency Sexually Transmitted Infections Research Diseases and General Medicine
Department of Microbiology Centre (STIRC) Department of Medicine
Freeman Hospital Westmead Hospital Imperial College
Newcastle upon Tyne, UK Westmead, Australia St Mary’s Hospital
London, UK
List of Contributors xi
Lionel A. Mandell, MD FRCPC FRCP (Lond) Anna Norrby-Teglund, PhD Kristian Riesbeck, MD PhD
Professor, Division of Infectious Diseases Professor of Medical Microbial Pathogenesis Professor of Clinical Bacteriology
Director, International Health and Tropical Karolinska Institute Head, Department of Laboratory Medicine
Diseases Clinic at Hamilton Health Center for Infectious Medicine, Medical Microbiology, Lund University
Sciences Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge Malmö University Hospital
Member, IDSA Practice Guidelines Stockholm, Sweden Malmö, Sweden
Committee
Chairman, Community Acquired Pneumonia Tim O’Dempsey, MB ChB FRCP DObS DCH Keith A. Rodvold, PharmD FCCP FIDSA
Guideline Committee of IDSA and DTCH DTM&H Professor of Pharmacy Practice and
Canadian Infectious Disease Society Senior Lecturer in Clinical Tropical Medicine Medicine
McMasters University Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine Colleges of Pharmacy and Medicine
Hamilton, ON, Canada Pembroke Place University of Illinois at Chicago
Liverpool, UK Chicago, USA
Sharon Marlowe, MB ChB MRCP DTM&H
Clinical Research Fellow L. Peter Ormerod, BSc(Hons) MBChB(Hons) Hector Rodriguez-Villalobos, MD
Clinical Research Unit, Infectious and Tropical MD DSc(Med) FRCP Clinical Microbiologist
Diseases Dept Consultant Respiratory and General Physician Laboratory of Medical Microbiology
London School of Hygiene and Tropical Professor of Respiratory Medicine Erasme University Hospital
Medicine Chest Clinic Universite Libre de Bruxelles
London, UK Blackburn Royal Infirmary Brussels, Belgium
Lancashire, UK
Michael Millar, MB ChB MD MA FRCPath Ethan Rubinstein, MD LLb
Consultant Microbiologist Peter G. Pappas, MD FACP Sellers Professor and Head
Division of Infection Professor of Medicine Section of Infectious Diseases
Barts and the London NHS Trust Principal Investigator, Mycoses Study Group Faculty of Medicine
London, UK Division of Infectious Diseases University of Manitoba
University of Alabama at Birmingham Winnipeg, Canada
Adrian Mindel, MD FRCP FRACP Birmingham, Alabama, USA
Professor of Sexual Health Medicine, Anita K. Satyaprakash, MD
University of Sydney Francesco Parenti, PhD Clinical Research Fellow
Director, Sexually Transmitted Infections Director Center for Clinical Studies
Research Centre (STIRC) Newron Pharmaceuticals Webster, USA
Westmead Hospital Bresso, Italy
Westmead, Australia W. Michael Scheld, MD
Rüdiger Pittrof, MRCOG Bayer-Gerald L Mandell Professor of Infectious
Peter Moss, MD FRCP DTMH Specialist Registrar Diseases
Consultant in Infectious Diseases and St George’s Hospital Professor of Neurosurgery
Honorary Senior Lecturer in Medicine London, UK Director, Pfizer Initiative in International
Department of Infection and Tropical Medicine Health
Hull and East Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust Anton Pozniak, MD FRCP University of Virginia Health System
Castle Hill Hospital Consultant Physician and Director of HIV Services; Charlottesville, USA
Cottingham, East Riding of Yorkshire, UK Executive Director of HIV Research
Department of HIV and Genitourinary Medicine David V. Seal, MD FRCOphth FRCPath MIBiol
Johan W. Mouton, MD PhD Chelsea and Westminster Hospital Dip Bact
Consultant-Medical Microbiologist London, UK Retired Medical Microbiologist
Department Medical Microbiology and Anzère, Switzerland
Infectious Diseases Parisa Ravanfar, MD
Canisius Wilhelmina Hospital and Department Clinical Research Fellow Paula S. Seal, MD MPH
of Microbiology Center for Clinical Studies Fellow
Radboud University Webster, USA Department of Infectious Diseases
Nijmegen Medical Centre The University of Alabama at Birmingham
Nijmegen, The Netherlands Robert C. Read Birmingham, Alabama, USA
Professor of Infectious Diseases
Dilip Nathwani, MB DTM&H FRCP University of Sheffield Medical School Karin Seifert, Mag. pharm. Dr.rer.nat
(Edin, Glas, Lond) Sheffield, UK Lecturer
Consultant Physician and Honorary Professor Department of Infectious and Tropical Diseases
David S. Reeves, MD FRCPath London School of Hygiene and Tropical
of Infection
Honorary Consultant Medical Microbiologist Medicine
Infection Unit
North Bristol NHS Trust London, UK
Ninewells Hospital and Medical School
Honorary Professor of Medical Microbiology
University of Dundee
University of Bristol Francisco Soriano, MD PhD
Dundee, UK
Bristol, UK Professor of Medical Microbiology
S. Ragnar Norrby, MD PhD FRCP Department of Medical Microbiology and
Una Ni Riain, FRCPath
Professor Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
Consultant Medical Microbiologist
The Swedish Institute for Infectious Fundacion Jiminez Diaz-Capio
Department of Medical Microbiology
Disease Control Madrid, Spain
University College Hospital
Stockholm, Sweden
Galway, Ireland
xii List of Contributors
Stephen J. Streat, BSc MB ChB FRACP Mark G. Thomas, MBChB MD FRACP Nicholas J. White, OBE DSc MD FRCP
Special Intensivist, Department Associate Professor in Infectious Diseases FMedSci FRS
of Critical Care Medicine, Auckland Department of Molecular Medicine and Professor of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol
City Hospital Pathology University and Oxford University
Clinical Associate Professor Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences Faculty of Tropical Medicine
Department of Surgery The University of Auckland Mahidol University
University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand Bangkok, Thailand
Auckland, New Zealand
Carl Johan Treutiger, MD PhD Richard J. Whitley, MD
Marc J. Struelens, MD PhD FSHEA Consultant in Infectious Diseases Distinguished Professor Loeb Scholar in Pediatrics
Professor of Clinical Microbiology Department of Infectious Diseases Professor of Pediatrics, Microbiology, Medicine
Head, Department of Microbiology Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge and Neurosurgery
Erasme University Hospital Stockholm, Sweden The University of Alabama at Birmingham
Universite Libre de Bruxelles Birmingham, Alabama, USA
Brussels, Belgium Stephen K. Tyring, MD PhD
Medical Director, Center for Clinical Studies Mark H. Wilcox, BMedSci BM BS MD FRCPath
Lars Sundström, PhD Professor of Dermatology, Microbiology/ Consultant/Clinical Director of Microbiology/
Associate Professor in Microbiology Molecular Genetics and Internal Pathology
Department of Medical Biochemistry and Medicine Professor of Medical Microbiology
Microbiology Department of Dermatology University of Leeds
IMBIM, Uppsala University University of Texas Health Science Center Department of Microbiology
Uppsala, Sweden Houston, USA Old Medical School
Leeds General Infirmary
Göte Swedberg, PhD David Wareham, MB BS MSc PhD MRCP Leeds, UK
Associate Professor in Microbiology FRCPath
Department of Medical Biochemistry and Senior Clinical Lecturer (Honorary Consultant) Peng Wong, MB ChB MD MRCS
Microbiology in Microbiology Surgical Specialist Registrar
Biomedical Centre, Uppsala University Queen Mary University London Sunderland Royal Hospital
Uppsala, Sweden Centre for Infectious Disease Billingham
London, UK Cleveland, UK
Jeffrey Tessier, MD FACP
Assistant Professor of Research David W. Warnock, PhD Neil Woodford, BSc PhD FRCPath
Division of Infectious Diseases and International Director, Division of Foodborne, Bacterial and Consultant Clinical Scientist
Health Mycotic Diseases Antibiotic Resistance Monitoring & Reference
University of Virginia National Center for Zoonotic, Vector-borne Laboratory
Charlottesville, USA and Enteric Diseases Health Protection Agency – Centre for Infections
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention London, UK
Howard C. Thomas, BSc MB BS PhD Atlanta, USA
FRCP(Lond & Glas) FRCPath FMedSci Werner Zimmerli, MD
Professor of Medicine Emmanuel Wey, MB BS MRCPCH MSc Professor of Internal Medicine and Infectious
Department of Medicine DLSHTM Diseases
Imperial College School of Medicine Specialist Registrar Microbiology and Virology Medical University Clinic
St Mary’s Hospital Royal Free Hospital NHS Trust Kantonsspital
London, UK London, UK Liestal, Switzerland
Chapter
1 Historical introduction
David Greenwood
The first part of this chapter was written by Professor Lawrence Paul This subject is chemotherapy, which may be defined
Garrod (1895–1979), co-author of the first five editions of Antibiotic as the administration of a substance with a systemic anti-
and Chemotherapy. Garrod, after serving as a surgeon probationer microbic action. Some would confine the term to synthetic
in the Navy during the 1914–18 war, then qualified and practiced drugs, and the distinction is recognized in the title of this
clinical medicine before specializing in bacteriology, later achieving book, but since some all-embracing term is needed, this
world recognition as the foremost authority on antimicrobial che- one might with advantage be understood also to include
motherapy. He witnessed, and studied profoundly, the whole devel- substances of natural origin. Several antibiotics can now be
opment of modern chemotherapy. A selection of over 300 leading synthesized, and it would be ludicrous if their use should
articles written by him (but published anonymously) for the British qualify for description as chemotherapy only because they
Medical Journal between 1933 and 1979, was reprinted in a supple- happened to be prepared in this way. The essence of the
ment to the Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy in 1985.* These term is that the effect must be systemic, the substance
articles themselves provide a remarkable insight into the history of being absorbed, whether from the alimentary tract or a site
antimicrobial chemotherapy as it happened. of injection, and reaching the infected area by way of the
Garrod’s original historical introduction was written in 1968 for blood stream. ‘Local chemotherapy’ is in this sense a con-
the second edition of Antibiotic and Chemotherapy and updated for tradiction in terms: any application to a surface, even of
the fifth edition just before his death in 1979. It is reproduced here something capable of exerting a systemic effect, is better
as a tribute to his memory. The development of antimicrobial che- described as antisepsis.
motherapy is summarized so well, and with such characteristic lucid-
ity, that to add anything seems superfluous, but a brief summary of
events that have occurred since about 1975 has been added to com-
THE THREE ERAS OF CHEMOTHERAPY
plete the historical perspective.
There are three distinct periods in the history of this subject. In
the first, which is of great antiquity, the only substances capa-
ble of curing an infection by systemic action were natural plant
THE EVOLUTION OF ANTIMICROBIC products. The second was the era of synthesis, and in the third
DRUGS we return to natural plant products, although from plants of a
much lower order; the moulds and bacteria forming antibiotics.
No one recently qualified, even with the liveliest imagination, 1. Alkaloids. This era may be dated from 1619, since it is
can picture the ravages of bacterial infection which continued from this year that the first record is derived of the success-
until rather less than 40 years ago. To take only two examples, ful treatment of malaria with an extract of cinchona bark,
lobar pneumonia was a common cause of death even in young the patient being the wife of the Spanish governor of Peru.†
and vigorous patients, and puerperal septicaemia and other Another South American discovery was the efficacy of ipecac-
forms of acute streptococcal sepsis had a high mortality, little uanha root in amoebic dysentery. Until the early years of this
affected by any treatment then available. One purpose of this century these extracts, and in more recent times the alkaloids,
introduction is therefore to place the subject of this book in quinine and emetine, derived from them, provided the only
historical perspective. curative chemotherapy known.
2. Synthetic compounds. Therapeutic progress in this field, other human infections were undertaken, and not until the
which initially and for many years after was due almost evidence afforded by these was conclusive did the discover-
entirely to research in Germany, dates from the discovery of ers make their announcement. Domagk (1935) published the
salvarsan by Ehrlich in 1909. His successors produced ger- original claims, and the same information was communicated
manin for trypanosomiasis and other drugs effective in proto- by Hörlein (1935) to a notable meeting in London.‡
zoal infections. A common view at that time was that protozoa These claims, which initially concerned only the treatment
were susceptible to chemotherapeutic attack, but that bacteria of haemolytic streptococcal infections, were soon confirmed
were not: the treponemata, which had been shown to be sus- in other countries, and one of the most notable early stud-
ceptible to organic arsenicals, are no ordinary bacteria, and ies was that of Colebrook and Kenny (1936) in England, who
were regarded as a class apart. demonstrated the efficacy of the drug in puerperal fever. This
The belief that bacteria are by nature insusceptible to any infection had until then been taking a steady toll of about 1000
drug which is not also prohibitively toxic to the human body young lives per annum in England and Wales, despite every
was finally destroyed by the discovery of Prontosil. This, the effort to prevent it by hygiene measures and futile efforts to
forerunner of the sulphonamides, was again a product of overcome it by serotherapy. The immediate effect of the adop-
German research, and its discovery was publicly announced tion of this treatment can be seen in Figure 1.1: a steep fall
in 1935. All the work with which this book is concerned is in mortality began in 1935, and continued as the treatment
subsequent to this year: it saw the beginning of the effective became universal and better understood, and as more potent
treatment of bacterial infections. sulphonamides were introduced, until the present-day low
Progress in the synthesis of antimicrobic drugs has contin- level had almost been reached before penicillin became generally
ued to the present day. Apart from many new sulphonamides, available. The effect of penicillin between 1945 and 1950 is
perhaps the most notable additions have been the synthetic perhaps more evident on incidence: its widespread use tends
compounds used in the treatment of tuberculosis. completely to banish haemolytic streptococci from the envi-
3. Antibiotics. The therapeutic revolution produced by the ronment. The apparent rise in incidence after 1950 is due to
sulphonamides, which included the conquest of haemolytic the redefinition of puerperal pyrexia as any rise of temperature
streptococcal and pneumococcal infections and of gonor- to 38°C, whereas previously the term was only applied when
rhoea and cerebrospinal fever, was still in progress and even the temperature was maintained for 24 h or recurred. Needless
causing some bewilderment when the first report appeared to say, fever so defined is frequently not of uterine origin.
of a study which was to have even wider consequences. This
was not the discovery of penicillin – that had been made by
Fleming in 1929 – but the demonstration by Florey and his
Infection during childbirth and the puerperium
colleagues that it was a chemotherapeutic agent of unexam-
pled potency. The first announcement of this, made in 1940, Sulphonamides Penicillin Deaths per 100000 total births
was the beginning of the antibiotic era, and the unimagined Notifications of puerperal
fever and pyrexia per 100000
developments from it are still in progress. We little knew at
population
the time that penicillin, besides providing a remedy for infec- 120 30
tions insusceptible to sulphonamide treatment, was also a
necessary second line of defence against those fully suscepti- 100 25
ble to it. During the early 1940s, resistance to sulphonamides
appeared successively in gonococci, haemolytic streptococci 80 20
and pneumococci: nearly 20 years later it has appeared also Notifications
Deaths
60 15
in meningococci. But for the advent of the antibiotics, all the
benefits stemming from Domagk’s discovery might by now
40 10
have been lost, and bacterial infections have regained their
pre-1935 prevalence and mortality. 20 5
The earlier history of two of these discoveries calls for
further description. 0 0
1930 1935 1940 1945 1950 1955
Fig. 1.1 Puerperal pyrexia. Deaths per 100 000 total births and
Sulphonamides incidence per 100 000 population in England and Wales, 1930–1957.
N.B. The apparent rise in incidence in 1950 is due to the fact that the
Prontosil, or sulphonamido-chrysoidin, was first synthesized definition of puerperal pyrexia was changed in this year (see text).
by Klarer and Mietzsch in 1932, and was one of a series of (Reproduced with permission from Barber 1960 Journal of Obstetrics
azo dyes examined by Domagk for possible effects on hae- and Gynaecology 67:727 by kind permission of the editor.)
molytic streptococcal infection. When a curative effect in
mice had been demonstrated, cautious trials in erysipelas and ‡
A meeting at which Garrod was present.
4 CHAPTER 1 Historical introduction
Prontosil had no antibacterial action in vitro, and it was icro-organisms antagonistic to the growth or life of others
m
soon suggested by workers in Paris (Tréfouël et al 1935) that in high dilution (the last clause being necessary to exclude
it owed its activity to the liberation from it in the body of such metabolic products as organic acids, hydrogen perox-
p-aminobenzene sulphonamide (sulphanilamide); that this ide and alcohol). To define an antibiotic simply as an antibac-
compound is so formed was subsequently proved by Fuller terial substance from a living source would embrace gastric
(1937). Sulphanilamide had a demonstrable inhibitory action juice, antibodies and lysozyme from man, essential oils and
on streptococci in vitro, much dependent on the medium and alkaloids from plants, and such oddities as the substance in
particularly on the size of the inoculum, facts which are readily the faeces of blowfly larvae which exerts an antiseptic effect
understandable in the light of modern knowledge. This expla- in wounds. All substances known as antibiotics which are in
nation of the therapeutic action of Prontosil was hotly con- clinical use and capable of exerting systemic effect are in fact
tested by Domagk. It must be remembered that it relegated products of micro-organisms.
the chrysoidin component to an inert role, whereas the affin-
ity of dyes for bacteria had been a basis of German research
since the time of Ehrlich, and was the doctrine underlying the Early history
choice of this series of compounds for examination. German
workers also took the attitude that there must be something
The study of intermicrobic antagonism is almost as old as
mysterious about the action of a true chemotherapeutic agent:
microbiology itself: several instances of it were described,
an effect easily demonstrable in a test tube by any tyro was
one by Pasteur himself, in the seventies of the last century.§
too banal altogether to explain it. Finally, they felt justifiable
Therapeutic applications followed, some employing actual living
resentment that sulphanilamide, as a compound which had
cultures, others extracts of bacteria or moulds which had been
been described many years earlier, could be freely manufac-
found active. One of the best known products was an extract
tured by anyone.
of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, first used as a local application by
Every enterprising pharmaceutical house in the world
Czech workers, Honl and Bukovsky, in 1899: this was com-
was soon making this drug, and at one time it was on the
mercially available as ‘pyocyanase’ on the continent for many
market under at least 70 different proprietary names. What
years. Other investigators used extracts of species of Penicillium
was more important, chemists were soon busy modifying
and Aspergillus which probably or certainly contained antibiot-
the molecule to improve its performance. Early advances
ics, but in too low a concentration to exert more than a local
so secured were of two kinds, the first being higher activity
and transient effect. Florey (1945) gave a revealing account of
against a wider range of bacteria: sulphapyridine (M and B
these early developments in a lecture with the intriguing title
693), discovered in 1938, was the greatest single advance,
‘The Use of Micro-organisms as Therapeutic Agents’: this was
since it was the first drug to be effective in pneumococcal
amplified in a later publication (Florey 1949).
pneumonia. The next stage, the introduction of sulphathi-
The systemic search, by an ingenious method, for an organ-
azole and sulphadiazine, while retaining and enhancing
ism which could attack pyogenic cocci, conducted by Dubos
antibacterial activity, eliminated the frequent nausea and
(1939) in New York, led to the discovery of tyrothricin (gram-
cyanosis caused by earlier drugs. Further developments,
icidin + tyrocidine), formed by Bacillus brevis, a substance
mainly in the direction of altered pharmacokinetic proper-
which, although too toxic for systemic use in man, had in fact
ties, have continued to the present day and are described in
a systemic curative effect in mice. This work exerted a strong
Chapter 1 (now Ch. 29).
influence in inducing Florey and his colleagues to embark on
a study of naturally formed antibacterial substances, and pen-
icillin was the second on their list.
ANTIBIOTICS
a dministered to animals, and finally to prove its systemic effi- Table 1.1 Date of discovery and source of natural antibiotics
cacy in mouse infections. There then remained the gigantic
Name Date of Microbe
task, seemingly impossible except on a factory scale, of pro-
discovery
ducing in the School of Pathology at Oxford enough of a sub-
stance, which was known to be excreted with unexampled Penicillin 1929–40 Penicillium notatum
rapidity, for the treatment of human disease. One means of
maintaining supplies was extraction from the patients’ urine } }
Tyrothricin Gramicidin 1939
Tyrocidine
Bacillus brevis
and re-administration.
It was several years before penicillin was fully purified, its Griseofulvin 1939 Penicillium griseofulvum
structure ascertained, and its large-scale commercial pro- Dierckx
1945 Penicillium janczewski
duction achieved. That this was of necessity first entrusted
to manufacturers in the USA gave them a lead in a highly Streptomycin 1944 Streptomyces griseus
profitable industry which was not to be overtaken for many Bacitracin 1945 Bacillus licheniformis
years.
Chloramphenicol 1947 Streptomyces venezuelae
EUTERPE.
Antes de pasar Heródoto a referir la conquista de Egipto por Cambises, hijo de Ciro, que
reserva para el libro siguiente, traza en este segundo una descripción topográfica de
Egipto. — El Nilo, su origen, extensión y avenidas. — Costumbres civiles y religiosas de los
egipcios. — Heracles. — Animales sagrados. — Métodos de embalsamar los cadáveres. —
Reyes antiguos de Egipto: Menes, Nitocris, Meris. — Sesostris, sus conquistas, repartición
del Egipto. — Proteo hospeda en Menfis a Helena, robada por Alejandro, entretanto que los
griegos destruyen a Troya. — Rampsinito. — Queops obliga a los egipcios a construir las
pirámides. — Micerino manda abrir los templos. — Invasión de los etíopes. — Setón
sacerdote y rey. — Cronología de los egipcios. — División del Egipto en doce partes. — E
Laberinto. — Psamético se apodera de todo el Egipto: su descendencia: Neco, Psamis
Apríes. — Amasis vence a Apríes y con su buena administración hace prosperar al Egipto.
Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.
ebookname.com