Chapter – II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

 66

Chapter – II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

A study of related literature is an inevitable and essential step to get a full

picture of what has been done concerning the problem under study and acts as a

guideline to understand the general trends in the research work already done in the

field. Review of related literature serves as buckle between the old and new

between known and unknown and between the already investigated and to be

investigated. Such a review brings about a deep and clear perspective of the

overall field. The main purpose of this review of related literature is to have more

knowledge and clear insight into the overall field. The investigator traces out

different types of research like published and unpublished thesis, national and

international journals, relevant books on tribal and tribal communities‟ and

magazines. There have been many tribal studies in India based on tribal economy,
 67

land alienation, socio-economic development, tribal culture, etc. This chapter

attempts to give an insight into the tribal studies in India and Tripura.

2.1 Reviews Related to Indigenous Games and Sports

Debbarma (2011) assessed the status of tribal in the Tripura State of

North- East India-An overview. The study is an overview of different tribes in the

state of Tripura. It is located between 22056 NI to 24032 NI Latitude and 91009

El to 92020 El Longitude. The total population of tribes in Tripura is 9 93,426.

From the population census we can see that the percent population of tribal is

decreasing (Year 1881 was 87.06 % and Year 2001 was 33.52 %). From the study

Tripuriis big tribe in terms of population Bhutia tribe is the least in the state. The

Kuki tribe has the first rank followed by Garo and Reang being the lowest in

literacy point of view. The main occupation of the tribal is farming and maximum

practice jhuming. The Tripura tribal women are more empowered than the other

tribal women of the country. The health status of Tripura tribal is better than the

tribes of other states in North-East India. Child marriage is very rarely found in

these tribes. The migration of refugees is continuing in the state, there is an urgent

need for the state government to take initiation to stop the influx of refugees and

attempt to safeguard the indigenous tribal community from the adverse effects as

well as a series of administrative changes. Tribal population accounts for only 31

percent of the total population, balance between tribal and non-tribal is very

necessary to bring the harmony in the society. The rich historical, social and

cultural heritage of tribal of Tripura should be preserved which their ancestors

have bestowed upon them. Though the literacy rate of tribal is higher than the
 68

national average, female literacy (44.6 %) is a major concern to be taken care of

which is below the national average. Jhum cultivation is the main farming practice

of tribal in Tripura. Though the empowerment of tribal women is in steady

progress, immediate action by the government, society, and tribal community is

very necessary to empower the tribal women. The Tripura Tribal Area

Autonomous District Council (TTAADC) should consist of tribal people only so

that proper welfare programs can be revolutionized.

Ota (2011) analyzed the study on the Concept of Indigenous Sports and

Games in Tribal India: The Case of the Dongria Kondhs. The relevance of Sports

and Games in Tribal Communities of India has been one of the least researched

domains in the sphere of Tribal Studies. The present paper analyzes the traditional

and indigenous sports and games being played by the Youths of Dongria Kondh

community and their socio-cultural significance. The formulation of this paper is

based on the collection of empirical data, interaction with community members,

and first-hand observations made by the Researcher. Dongria Kondhs do not view

sports and games as a mere source of entertainment but also believe that they

contribute towards mental growth and help in enhancing the general awareness

level of the children. Most of the games played by the community have a hidden

implication and indirectly contribute towards the augmentation of the existing

skill levels of the community members. To be precise, certain games are played

by the Dongria youths which help them in polishing their skills of identifying and

hunting the right animal during hunting sprees and certain others help in fine-

tuning or upgrading the existing quantitative aptitude (simple calculation skills) of

 69

its participants. This reflects the level of the indigenous knowledge system of the

Dongria Kondhs who have managed to invent and play games hundreds of years

back bearing a considerable degree of social significance which have relevance

even today. The Researcher has also mentioned a list of distinctive observations

that he has made during the Study pertaining to the sphere of study. Due to

increased exposure of the youths to the outer world through a variety of means

such as accelerated interactions with outsiders and an ever-growing viewership of

televisions in the Community coupled up with growing popularity for internet

surfing, the nature, and typology of the sports and games being played by the

Dongria Kondh youths have undergone a sea change. live telecast of popular

games such as Cricket and Football along with the glamour associated with them

have rubbed off the youths who have been influenced by these games to such an

extent that they have started accepting and playing them as their staple/ parent

games replacing the traditional games they used to play. Even within certain

traditional games, the nature and procedure of gameplay have undergone a

considerable amount of modification. Natural objects such as bamboo, tree leaves,

etc. which were being used in most games are getting replaced by factory-

manufactured equipment. Similarly, games such as „Kabada Khella‟ which

usually involved 10-15 youths are now being played with 11 players, and the

small pieces of sticks have been replaced by cricket balls which confirm the

growing influences of modem games on indigenous Dongria Kondh games. The

research at the end throws light on the recent changes that the traditional sports

and games in the community have undergone as well as the Plausible reasons for

such changes and the possible areas for future research in this domain.
 70

Jagadis Gan-Chaudhuri (2017) wrote and highlighted the traditional

games in Tripura. The hills peoples and plane peoples of Tripura have inherited a

large variety of games and sports which provide not only pastime and pleasure but

also call for certain qualities. Some games required physical strength and others

either skills or patience. Certain games are invented in imitation of the nature of

animals and birds. Some other games have been prepared as an imitation of

household chores. Still, certain other games indicate historical events, natural

calamities, social problems, economic crises and the like. The Tipra children have

many games (Thoonga) which are also common to the notia, the jamatia, the

reang, the uchai and the halam children. Some of the Tipra traditional sports may

be noted here. The tribes of Tripura place great value on games of strength,

wrestling matches and warfare.

Lourembam Saratchandra Singh (1998) studied in his Ph.D. thesis on a

history of indigenous games in Manipur and highlighted in detail the history of

indigenous games and sports of different sub-tribes inhabitants in various hilly

areas in Manipur especially their origin, the procedure of playing games, and

sports, equipment, rules of the games, etc.

Michael Dubnewick et al. (2018) studied on Cultural Pride through Our

Games”: Enhancing the Sport Experiences of Indigenous Youth in Canada

through Participation in Traditional Games. The purpose of this community-based

participatory research was to better understand how participation in traditional

games can enhance the sports experiences of Indigenous youth. Eight Indigenous
 71

youth (14-18 years) and 10 adults living in various communities in the Northwest

Territories, Canada, participated in either a one-on-one interview or group

interview. Data were analyzed using an inductive content analysis approach, and

findings suggest that participating in traditional games can enhance the sports

experiences of Indigenous youth by (a) promoting cultural pride, (b) interacting

with Elders, (c) supporting connection to the land, (d) developing personal

characteristics, and (e) developing a foundation for movement. This research

advances the sports literature and provides necessary insights regarding traditional

games for sports programmers and policymakers.

Devi P. (2021) studied on indigenous games of an area is the

representation of the ancestral legacy of that region. Games have been a vital

component of culture since ancient times. Indigenous games of a place are carried

over from generation to generation. But due to the impact of globalization,

modernization, and technological interventions, tech games and foreign games

have been paving their way in contemporary households. Consequently, the

indigenous games are being forgotten. This paper aims to present the

characteristics of local indigenous Indian games.

Sudhir K. R. (2016) stated that optimal performance requires a

combination of technical and tactical abilities as well as a high degree of physical

fitness. Aerobic and anaerobic fitness is the basic to indigenous and non-

indigenous games. So it was intended to determine the aerobic and anaerobic

fitness of indigenous games like kabaddi and non-indigenous game like volleyball
 72

players. Several different games are played in the country with their origin in

ancient times. Playing such games may aid in the promotion of physical prowess

and multilateral motor development. The sports of western origin became popular

due to their distinguishing features, utility, and having convinced their importance

extensively. Indigenous games of India have been largely unstudied and it would

appear timely pertinent to pursue research systematically. For the study, eighty

male players (indigenous sport-kabaddi N=40, non-indigenous game–volleyball

N=40) were selected randomly from the different levels of competition in Kerala

at the age of 16 to 18 years. The data was analyzed and compared with the help of

standard statistical procedure in which mean. Standard deviation (S.D), standard

error of the mean (S.E.M), and independent- t-test were used. The level of

significance was set at 0.05. The result of this study revealed that a significant

difference exists in anaerobic fitness & aerobic fitness between the two groups.

The results also showed that the indigenous sport (kabaddi) players were better

than nonindigenous game (volleyball) players. Indigenous games of India are

cost-effective, feasible, and easy to play and may have excellent application in

school physical education programs. Indigenous games like kabaddi can be an

excellent means to develop aerobic fitness & anaerobic fitness.

Ravindra Gouda S M and N D Virupaksha (2015) justified that spots

psychology as applied psychology has the greatest blessing of the modern-day

science, in this stage within a span of short time sports psychology has taken giant

stride. Sport psychology explores the on and off-field behavior of athletes. Sports

psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports, athletic

 73

performance, exercise, and physical activity. Some sports psychologists work with

professional athletes and coaches to improve performance and increase

motivation. Other professionals utilize exercise and sports to enhance people‟s

lives and well-being throughout their entire lifespan. Kho-Kho and Atya-Patya are

the most ancient forms of indigenous sports; these games were played by children

in the simplest form of chasing and running. The main objective of this study was

to compare the mood states and will to win concept of national-level Kho-Kho

and Atya-Patya male players. To achieve the purpose of the study data was

collected from sixty players of each game, who have represented Karnataka state

in Kho-Kho and Atya-Patya games. The age of the subjects were ranging from 18-

25 years. The data collected was treated with the statistical technique „t-test and

found there is a significant difference in mood states such as (anger & tension )

and will to win psychological aspect between Kho-Kho and Atya-Patya male

players.

Louisa R. Peralta et al. (2014) said that the primary aim of this study was

to investigate the effect of a community and school sports program (SCP) on

Indigenous adolescents‟ life skills and physical activity levels within program

sessions. A secondary aim was to determine the acceptability of the SCP.

Participants in the SCP (n =34; 89%) participated in a 10-week case study (age =

13.7 ± 1.16; 58% girls). Systematic observations of SCP sessions were conducted

to determine physical activity levels and a life skills questionnaire was

implemented. Acceptability measures included retention, implementation,

attendance rates, and interviews with participants [n = 18] and key stakeholders [n
 74

= 6]. Systematic observations indicated that Indigenous students were engaged in

MVPA for 58% of lesson time. Participants‟ life skills remained unchanged (p=

0.93). Interview data showed that Indigenous students and key stakeholders

believed the SCP was acceptable. This study highlights the need for partnerships

between Indigenous community organizations and schools to design sport-based

programs to promote Indigenous adolescents‟ MVPA

Arliene Stephanie et al. (2021) had confirmed the teaching of African-

Brazilian and Indigenous history and culture as mandatory in primary and

secondary schools, there has been a lack of proper contextualizing in PETE

programs [Corsino, L. N., & Conceição, W. L. (Eds.). (2016). Educação física

escolar e relações étnico-raciais: Subsídios para a implementação das leis 10.639-

03 e 11.645-08 [School physical education and ethnic-racial relations: Subsidies

for the implementation of laws 10.639-03 and 11.645-08]. CRV, v. 11]. There is

also a need to study how the recognition of African-Brazilian and Indigenous

ethnic-racial issues in primary and secondary physical education is mandated by

the law. The purpose of this research – framed as a pilot study – is to address the

invisibility of African-Brazilian and Indigenous history and culture in schools.

The objective is to analyze both the teachers‟ knowledge and the law application

in physical education classes concerning African and Indigenous games and

activities. We have addressed the invisibility of Black and Indigenous people in

Brazil, connections to the African diasporas and Indigenous cultures, ethnic-racial

inequalities in physical education, and the African-Brazilian and Indigenous

complexities as challenges for PETE. The research method is qualitatively

 75

oriented and descriptive. Data was generated from an online questionnaire

responded to by physical education teachers who work in primary schools.

Findings suggest that there is a lack of discussion on ethnic-racial issues in PETE

or permanent teacher education programs. Despite the law, there is a discrepancy

in its application in Brazilian education. Physical education opens space to reflect

upon the African-Brazilian and Indigenous cultures in the schools. Even teachers

who do not teach ethnic-racial issues at their schools affirm the importance to

teach. In conclusion, it is necessary to decolonize the curriculum, emphasizing the

ethnic-racial complexity in PETE. Transform pedagogies and prompt the

construction of new paths for social justice practices do require a more culturally

diverse physical education curriculum.

Fan Hong and Liu Li (2019), in their study of Asian history, there are

abundant and diverse indigenous, folk, or ethnic sports in various regions or

nations. The development of indigenous sports culture in Asian countries in the

past decades also reflects the transformation of Asian society in the context of

globalization and modernization. In the modern era, various types of Asian

indigenous sports and culture have been challenged in unprecedented fashion by

the expansion of Western sports cultures. Yet, Asian indigenous sports remain

dependent on their own cultures and ethnic customs to foster their national spirits

and cultural genes. Despite some changes to the forms and contents of Asian

indigenous sports in light of globalization and modernization, their key elements

remain intact. Since the 1990s, increasing national, regional, and international

interest in the topics of Asian indigenous sports and Asian cultures have
 76

culminated in conferences, seminars, and workshops that have given voices to

indigenous and ethnic sports and cultures in Asia. Many Asian countries have

begun to protect and disseminate national or regional sports cultures as

components in the preservation of their nation‟s cultural sports heritage at the

international level. Indigenous sports in Asia are seeking ways to survive and

develop.

Asha Kiran and Janice Knights (2010) investigated the effectiveness of

Traditional Indigenous Games (TIG) to improve physical activity and cultural

connectedness among primary school students in the community renewal areas of

Townsville in North Queensland. A cluster randomized control trial was

conducted in four primary schools in 2007. Baseline and post-implementation

surveys were conducted in two intervention and two control schools and the

results were compared. TIG delivered in primary schools every week over three

months did not contribute to any statistically significant improvement in

intervention and control groups in physical activity levels or cultural

connectedness. Further research specifically in terms of intensity and duration of

TIG may inform whether the physical activity may be improved. Enhancing the

Indigenous cultural features of the existing TIG kit might positively influence

Indigenous cultural connectedness.

Tara-Leigh F. McHugh et al. (2015) found a critical need to better

understand how to enhance sports participation among Indigenous youth and how

to provide sporting opportunities in ways that contribute positively to health and

 77

wellness. The purpose of this paper is to describe our attempts to „deeply engage‟

Indigenous youth in sports research via community-based participatory research

(CBPR) approach. Specifically, we describe how a range of qualitative data

generation techniques has been used in our research, that is focused on exploring

how communities can support sports opportunities for Indigenous youth in

Edmonton, Alberta. Our program of research, which included the use of one-on-

one interviews, sharing circles, and photovoice, provides direction for utilizing

collaborative research approaches that respect Indigenous youth as equal partners

in sports research. Furthermore, findings from our research have provided in-

depth insights into the experiences and meanings of sport for Indigenous youth

and contributed to further understandings of the necessary processes that are

foundational to engaging in relevant and respectful sports research with

Indigenous youth.

Mark William Bruner et al. (2019) had highlighted the cognitive,

physical, emotional, and spiritual benefits of sport and physical activity

participation for Indigenous youth (McHugh, Coppola, & Sinclair, 2013; Hanna,

2009; Lavallée, 2007). Despite the importance of Indigenous peoples participating

in sport and physical activity (e.g., Forsyth & Giles, 2013), the meaning of youth

development in this context is not well understood. The purpose of this research

was to understand Indigenous youth development within the context of sport and

physical activity through the voices, stories, and experiences of Indigenous youth.

Participants were 99 Indigenous youth (52 males and 47 females) between the
 78

ages of 15 and 25 years who took part in one of 13 sharing circles. Each of the

sharing circles was facilitated by a trained Indigenous youth with guidance from

an Elder/Traditional person. A Two-Eyed Seeing approach (Bartlett, Marshall, &

Marshall, 2012) was used to analyze the sharing circle discussions. This analytical

process involved an initial inductive thematic analysis of the transcribed verbatim

data followed by an Indigenous symbolic visual analysis of emerging themes

using the Medicine Circle. Results revealed that involvement in sport and physical

activity impacted Indigenous youth physically, cognitively, and emotionally. The

spiritual impact was not as evident. Findings from the research will inform the

development of a measure of Indigenous youth development within the sport and

physical activity settings.

In the study of Kasmin Fernandes (2020), the Seven Sisters – Arunachal

Pradesh, Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Tripura, and the

second smallest state of India, Sikkim, together constitute Northeast India. The

region is a mixed bag of various languages, cultures, tribes, and indigenous sports.

The partition in 1971 (split with Bangladesh) made access to the North East

geographically limited. The region‟s seven states are connected to the main body

through a 20km wide Siliguri corridor running through North Bengal. Large

misuse of central funds has widened the gap between the North East and the rest

of the country; resulting in frustration amongst the youth of the country. AFSPA

and military violence between the sisters‟ states has led to political unrest in this

part of the country. There have been a large number of incidents and crimes
 79

committed against the people of the Northeast in the mainland owing to

discrimination rising from physical appearance, etc. Reported incidents of crime

against people from the Northeast living in the national capital have increased by

around 232.5% in two years. In conclusion he mentioned three different lenses to

understand the sports scenario are:

 The Government and the National Confederations

 The number of events/ leagues/ tournaments that are being held in the

Northeast

 Performance point of view of the individual states at various levels.

There have to be more activities in the areas by the National

Confederation and infrastructure needs to be further enabled.

The key strength of the sporting arena in the North-eastern states is the

presence of strong state-level sports leagues, fostering healthy competition, and

channeling a good pipeline of talent to the national level. Higher investment in the

form of sports CSR funding will give this region, and our nation at large, the

sporting culture it deserves.

Mukesh Mitra (2017) conducted a research project on “Mapping of sports

talent among tribes of Tripura” his study concludes that the players of different

sports disciplines have sports attitudes and dreams, but they do not reach the

national standard. In the project, he also explores the indigenous sports of Tripura.
 80

Identified the sports talents from different sub-communities of Tripura and also

mentioned the names of sports experts from the tribal communities of Tripura.

Huang Hui-Chuan (2014) studied indigenous tribes as a subject, an

investigation through qualitative methods the results showed that the formation of

sports tourism products mainly with the natural environment and indigenous tribal

lifestyle and habits, providing active sports tourism conditions of participation,

coupled with the tribal tourism development necessary to provide hospitality

service.

Y. Manghi Singh (1995) studied in his Ph.D. Thesis on development of

physical education and sports in Manipur (1947 – 1990) and established the

history of physical education and sports of Manipur state. The various types of

games are played by the inhabitant of Manipur from the very beginning and were

played both indoor and outdoor

Somappa Badiger (2020) suggested that the sports and games have

always been an integral part of India‟s rich culture and history. Sadly, today‟s kids

are so engrossed in playing video games than traditional games like Pallanguzi,

Lippa, Kabaddi, Gilli-danda have been completely forgotten. Gone are the days

when kids simply couldn‟t wait to go out and play a few rounds of Pithoo or Kith-

Kith (Hopscotch) with their friends. The reduction in physical activity has given

rise to a host of health issues in kids. Therefore, reviving traditional games will

provide a host of health benefits. Throughout history, indigenous peoples have

had many traditional sports and dances. It is through their history that they have
 81

turned these into competitive games and have made an influential impact on the

world and their people's culture. Playing games has always been an exciting part

of growing up for us all. We recollect with happiness our childhood games and

gadget-free days. Sports are a great way to make friends and be healthy as well.

In the study of Abhijit Das (2013) found that the games and sports as

cultural traits particularly in West Bengal have certain specific elements. One of

these is the utilization of leisure which had its origin and growth in the cradle of

the agrarian economy of pre-British India. The informal folk games in the rural

culture were marked by a lack of institutionalization communication. These

indigenous folk games as pastime recreation have been played around the

Bengalese core within the narrow cultural circles of the then-rural societies of

West Bengal for a long time. The spirit of those traditional games as mere

satisfaction of recreational activities, where participants only got the pleasure

while in general there was no special role for recreation leaders and spectators,

and therefore, it worked as a way without reciprocation or encouragement

2.2 Reviews Related to other Sports and Games

The article of Pallab Ghosh (2015) aims at exploring how children,

particularly in rural areas of West Bengal, an economically poor but culturally

rich state of India, enjoy their leisure with limited resources available to them.

Broken bangles, tamarind seeds, old clothes, and even hardcovers of old

notebooks become sports equipment and a source of enjoyment for them,

especially for those who cannot afford to buy expensive goods.

 82

Malbika Das Gupta (2015) stated that women play a central role in the

pastoral way of life, providing labour for the livestock, land, and household. They

sometimes lack ownership rights, control over resources and may or may not have

control over the animals. However, in some societies, women are responsible only

for processing livestock products. In many societies, women are responsible for

managing and processing small stock and other animals kept at the homestead.

They are the backbone of the pastoral economic structure in Tripura, a state in

India, as the production system is much dependent on them. Despite substantial

participation and contribution to the pastoral economy, the role of women in

Tripura livestock production has not been paid enough attention. The status of the

pastoral tribal women of Tripura has not remained static over time and is

undergoing rapid changes at present. Their status is looked at from various angles,

both in the past and at present, in the book entitled "Status of Tribal Women in

Tripura".

Manik Chakraborty studied on the status of tribal women in the

customary laws of Tripura highlights the legal ways in which the status of tribal

women in Tripura has been empowered from its deplorable state, after the Hindu

Succession Act, 1956. This act was introduced as a step in the practical

recognition of the equality of the sexes, meant to elevate women from a

subservient position in the economic field to a higher level where they could

exercise full powers of enjoyment and disposal of property. As per the provisions

of this act, now a daughter has equal rights for the inheritance of property as her

brother.
 83

Dipak Kumar Chaudhri explained the practice of sati among the tribal

societies of Tripura - a custom of burning a widow at the funeral pyre of her

husband. The tribal societies of India were never affected by this custom, as their

marriage institutions were always relatively liberal, where widow remarriage had

never been a social offense.

Tapati Chakraborty and Pratab Choudhury analysed the economic

role and status of tribal women in Tripura are comprehensively discussed in two

successive chapters. They highlight that there is a decline in the tribal women‟s

traditional activities. A significant proportion of the female cultivators (agro-

pastoralists) and cottage industry workers have joined the force of agricultural

labourers. Their contribution in agriculture and allied sectors has increased

considerably, and thus, the occupational pattern of tribal women has shifted from

pastoralists to agricultural labourers. This economic participation does have a role

in maintaining the status of tribal women in their society and their enjoyment of

high esteem.

Pedro Diomsio, Carmo Leal and LuizMoutinho (2008) identified the

existence of tribal behaviour in football fans and the impact of this tribalism on

the consumption of brands associated with the club. The intention is not to

recognize tribal relationships between fans and their club but to identify to what

extent the fan commitment label can impact the preference for sponsor brands.

C.D.Agashe and Ajay Karkare (2003) identified the difference in motor

fitness between tribal and non-tribal sports persons. 150 tribal boys (Av. Age
 84

15.53 years) and 150 non-tribal boys (Av Age 15.26years), 150 tribal girls (Av

Age 15.34 years), and 150 non-tribal girls (Av Age 14.02 years) are selected as a

sample from Kridaparisar Chhattisgarh.

Tewari (20I3) studied to find out the strengthening tribal communities of

India. The Indian Tribal Communities are the primitive segment of Indian society

living in forests, hills & desert areas having the least contact with civilization,

carrying customs & traditions of Indian culture. They are facing a lot of problems

for the reason by themselves as well as the mainstream of the society. The tribal

population suffers from chronic infections and life-threatening deficiency diseases

like goiter, leprosy & tuberculosis and encounters various hazardous diseases due

to malnutrition commonly in children. Tribes survive on primary occupations for

their livelihood using the most primitive technology, which is insufficient for their

healthy survival. Their natural habitat is intruded & precluded by Government &

non-tribal. Due to contact with other cultures, tribal culture is undergoing a

revolutionary change losing its natural tribal essence.

Chandra S Tripura et al. (2016) conducted a study on “Changing

Dimensions of Culture: A Case Study of Tripura Tribe in Longtarai Valley,

Tripura” The cultures are ever-changing entities that are constantly altering in

presence of mostly external influences. The Tripura tribe in Longtaraivalley is

also going through such processes under the influence of modernization and

globalization. There are many aspects in the culture like folk arts, language, folk

dances, religion, and other traditional aspects that are discussed in the study.
 85

Further, the changes have been observed based on the field observations and

questionnaire survey in the area.

Tara-Leigh F. McHugh et al. (2015) conducted a study on Community-

Based Sports Research with Indigenous Youth. There is a critical need to better

understand how to enhance sports participation among Indigenous youth and how

to provide sporting opportunities in ways that contribute positively to health and

wellness. The purpose of this paper is to describe our attempts to „deeply engage

indigenous youth in sports research via community-based participatory research

(CBPR) approach. Specifically, we describe how a range of qualitative data

generation techniques has been used in our research, that is focused on exploring

how communities can support sports opportunities for Indigenous youth in

Edmonton, Alberta. Our program of research, which included the use of one-on-

one interviews, sharing circles, and photovoice, provides direction for utilizing

collaborative research approaches that respect Indigenous youth as equal partners

in sports research. Furthermore, findings from our research have provided in-

depth insights into the experiences and meanings of sport for Indigenous youth

and contributed to further understandings of the necessary processes that are

foundational to engaging in relevant and respectful sports research with

Indigenous youth.

YogeshkumarAgrawal and Ashish Kumar Diwan (2014) compared

competitive behaviour between tribal and non-tribal male archers. To conduct the

study, 30 state-level tribal male archers (Ave. age 23.24 yrs.) were selected as a

sample. Another set of 30 state-level nontribal male archers (Ave. age 24.22 yrs.
 86

years) was also selected for the present study. A random sampling method was

used for the selection of subjects. The selection of subjects was done from the

State of Chhattisgarh. The competitive behaviour of the selected subjects was

assessed by the Competitive Behaviour Scale prepared by Yadav (1995). Results

reveal that degree of competitive behaviour was found to be significantly higher

amongst non-tribal male archers as compared to tribal male archers. Based on

results, it was concluded that competitive behaviour in male archers is influenced

by their tribal-non tribal belongingness.

Haider Khanna Benerjee (1987) conducted in his study that in such

sports events where strength is the determinant factor, the tribal students if find

opportunity may prove to be better performance than the non-tribal students and

hence, they may be provided with proper training and other factors to come up at

the national level.

Chaudhaudi's (1992) wrote the „Tribal Transformation in India', in five

volumes, is a collaborative effort of Indian scholars to capture the changing tribal

scenario and a whole diversity of issues related to tribal economy, agronomy,

politics, ethnicity, ecology, education, technology transfer, social-political

movements, religious faiths and rituals in an indigenized, yet more articulate

framework, with both diagnostic and remedial models. With the latest

concepts/research tools in anthropology and related disciplines, the authors make

a fresh look at micro and macro-level dynamics of the tribal situation in India, vis-

a-vis the socio-cultural relations.

 87

Malbika Das Gupta dealed with the institution of bride price among the

tribal groups of Tripura, treating the prevalence of this custom as an indicator of

the high status enjoyed by tribal women in the state. However, it is not merely the

continuing economic and non-economic value of women of their upkeep which

explains the prevalence of bride price among the tribal peoples of Tripura.

Demographic and sociological factors are of equal importance in explaining this

phenomenon. Thus, the status of women in tribal society is determined by causes

related to the economic functions of women.

Debnath and Sircar jointly discussed in the nutritional case study on

women in Tripura who show that low dietary intake eventually affects the stature

of both males and females, but when females are affected, they are justifiably

classified as „at risk women‟. The authors believe that malnourishment in the girl's

childhood leads to stunted growth among women in their adulthood, particularly

deformity of the pelvic girdle, which may be responsible for the mal-development

of the fetus and has been scientifically established through experiments on X-ray

pelvimetry. Such results are found in tribal women of Tripura. However, this is

found with non-tribal counterparts as well and must not be related to the status of

tribal women.

Ray and Khanna (1987) conducted a study on tribes and non-tribes with

emphasis on the socio-economic status on performance. They conducted that

tribes were socio-economically backward than non-tribes. But tribes were superior

in strength and cardio-respiratory endurance capacity than non-tribes.

 88

Tripathi (2013) conducted a study on the health concerns of Tribal

People: Their Problems and Prospects. Tribal people are facing numerous health

issues due to unawareness as well as their habitats, which are required to be

supplemented with health education & medical care facilities along with

sympathetic concern towards them India is a home for a large number of tribal

people, known as "ADVASI", still untouched by civilization following primitive

methods to sustain their life. Tribal people live in isolation like remote forests,

hills, & lowland areas distant from civilization & deficient in various nutritional

components; consecutively giving rise to various deficiencies & numerous

disastrous diseases. The diet of tribal people is frequently deficient in

micronutrients, leading to protein-calorie malnutrition and micronutrient

deficiencies vitamin A, iron, and iodine; causing night blindness, anemia &goiter.

Adding to this, tribal people are ignorant to their health issues as far as their

prevention & cure is concerned; being superstitious they try to find a cure through

diablerie, which in turn aggravate the health problem & cause morbidity &

mortality. Water borm communicable diseases are also very common among tribal

peoples like jaundice & gastrointestinal disorders and even some genetic disorders

like sickle cell anemia, thalassemia further worsens the situation. A range of

measures can be applied to offer relief including distribution of fortified food

items, screening of tribal population & free distribution of medicines &food

supplements. They must be made aware of common signs & symptoms of

diseases & their natural way of cure. Ayurveda mode of treatment or therapy is

preferable and equipped to which they could easily believe. Ngo's have launched
 89

several programs to assist & guide tribal people regarding health concerns like

free medical check-up camps & health education pertinent particularly to nutrition

& hygiene.

Erik C. Taylor et al. (2014) explored the significance of tribal behaviour

within the soccer supporters groups, the significance of roles among group

members, and the influence of the community on the consumption habits of

members through conducting an ethnographic examination of American soccer

consumers. Social identity, field-capital, and tribalism theories were tested

through ethnographic, non-participant observation. Three US-located supporters

groups of English Premier League soccer teams were studied through Internet-

based social networks, particularly discussion forums.

Thakur (1986) made an elaborate study about the Santhals in Bihar. The

study highlights their socio-economic conditions. It has been observed to what

extent they were responsive to the projects and programs undertaken during the

different developmental plans. Before the introduction of Five Year Plans, during

the colonial rule, the tribal in the country as a whole remained in isolation. If the

problem of untouchables in pre-independent India was that of pollution, vis-a-vis

purity, the problem of tribal or Adivasis was that of isolation. They were

considered backward and savage. Lamenting on such an approach to the study of

Indian tribals.

J.B. Ganguly had discussed the status of tribal women in the economy of

Tripura and found that the women‟s status has improved in making business
 90

transactions with traders, in selling their products, etc. Women are becoming more

and more involved in the decision-making process. They show better appreciation

of the need for conservation of forests and water resources, since they are more

directly concerned with the collection of firewood and other minor forest

products, as well as fetching water for meeting daily needs. The women are

pragmatic, hardworking, and even forward-looking. It is a fact that no village

development plan can be prepared and implemented without the active

involvement of the women.

Valeggia, Burke, and Duque (2010) conducted a study on Nutritional

status and socioeconomic change among Toba and which populations of the

Argentinean Chaco. The prevalence of overweight and obesity is growing at an

accelerated pace in disadvantaged populations. Indigenous populations all over the

world, whose lifestyle is changing rapidly and drastically, seem to be particularly

prone to show an increased prevalence of overweight and its comorbidities among

adults. This study aimed to evaluate the association between socioeconomic and

nutritional statuses in adults of two indigenous populations of the Argentine Gran

Chaco: the Toba and which of the province of Formosa. Originally, hunter-

gatherers, they are now more settled and engage in temporary wage labour and

local political positions. A total of 541 adults (>20 years old) participated in the

study. Almost 50% of the adult Toba and 34% of the adult were overweight and

10% of adults in both populations were obese. Socioeconomic status was

positively associated with body mass index in both populations. However, our
 91

study also highlights the importance of incorporating social, cultural, and

political-economic variables, such as political hierarchies within the group or

degree of social connectedness with community leaders. By making these

variables an integral part of our analysis and interpretation, we will significantly

improve the explanatory power of our models and, thus, contribute to improving

our understanding of the situation of indigenous populations in transition both

from a theoretical and from an applied perspective.

Prabhakar and Gangadhar (2009) assessed the study on Nutritional

Status of Jenukuruba Tribal Children in Mysore District, Karnataka. A cross-

sectional study was undertaken on 135 Jenukuruba tribal children belonging to the

6+ to 10+ age group through a purposive sampling method. Anthropometric

measurements and Clinical observation techniques were used to analyze the

nutritional status. Assessment of nutritional status using WHO-recommended

anthropometric indicator and Z-score interpretation revealed, a high prevalence of

mild (41.5%) and severe (6.7%) stunting, more prevalence of mild (40%) and

severe (3.7%) in wasting, and underweight was 45.2% moderate and 14.8%

severity. The BMI value shows69.6% were CED-III and only 2.2% were CED- I.

Clinical assessment (using a clinical sign of disease) shows a high prevalence of

lack of luster and sparseness in hair, conjunctiva xerosis in eyes, angular

stomatitis in lips, scarlet and raw tongue, dental fluorosis in teeth and scabies in

the skin. Most of the children are mesomorphic in physical appearance. The

present study revealed that the Jenukuruba tribal children of the Mysore district
 92

are suffering from different grades of malnutrition. The widespread prevalence of

malnutrition in the form of wasting, stunting, and being underweight. Clinical

observation results reveal preventive measures are needed to improve the health

and nutrition condition of the Jenukuruba tribal children

Ajay Y. Karkare (2012) compared fundamental motor skills among the

tribal and non-tribal players. Eight hundred tribal and non-tribal players (i.e. 200

each from tribal boys, non-tribal boys, tribal girls, and non-tribal girls) were

selected as subjects for the study. The selected tribal players (boys and girls) have

been selected from different schools in the Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. Non-

tribal players (boys and girls) were selected from different schools of urban areas

of the Vidarbha region. To find out motor skills, the test prepared by Johnson was

used. To find out the difference between the groups one way ANOVA technique

was used. Results revealed that tribal players and non-tribal players differed

significantly on all the items of the motor skill test.

Puttaraja and Heggade (2012) studied on Economic Empowerment of

Tribal Women in Karnataka: A Case Study in Mysore and Chamarajanagara

districts. Women in a tribal society play a vital role in their social, cultural,

economic, and religious ways of life and are considered an economic asset in their

society. But they are still lagging far behind in the various walks of life like

education, employment, good health, and economic empowerment, etc.

Empowering may be understood as enabling weaker sections like poor women,

especially tribal women to acquire and to possess power and resources, to make
 93

decisions on their own. After the analysis of the data and field observation, it is

revealed that lack of education, poor health status and infant mortality rate, low

level of wage work, lack of self-employment opportunity, organizing capacity,

and leadership quality are the main obstacles to the economic empowerment of

tribal women. In concluding remarks, we may say that the tribal women are not

empowered economically as well as socially. The socio-economic empowerment

of tribal women could be kept as a long-term development goal in India.

Economic independence and education of tribal women will go a long way in

attaining self-reliance for women. So development/empowerment awareness,

education, competitiveness, willingness, confidence, self-motivation, mindset,

encouragement from family and society is essential for the economic

empowerment of tribal women. The success achieved in this regard is helpful to

bring tribal women into the mainstream of the inclusive growth process in India.

Reducing poverty and unemployment of the tribes would pave the way towards

their empowerment.

ArvindBahadur Singh (2012) find out the relationship between selected

motor fitness variables and skill performance of tribal women handball players.

The study was conducted on 30 thirty women basketball players randomly

selected as a subject from the players undergoing training camps at Pt. Ravi

Shankar University Raipur, (C.G.).Guru GhasidadUniversity Bilaspur, (C.G.).

Sarguja University, Ambikapur (C.G). Skill performance as independent variables

was Passing, Defensive, and dribbling. Motor fitness variables involved were

speed, explosive power, agility, cardio-respiratory endurance, and flexibility.

 94

Meena (2013) studied the health status of tribal women in Rajasthan. An

attempt has been made to see the adverse effect on the health status of tribal

women in Rajasthan. The study revealed that Poverty, lack of nutritious food, safe

drinking water, proper sanitation, and hygienic accommodation create problems of

health in tribal women in the area. For the study, a suitable research design that

can facilitate the collection of significant data has been evolved. The study is

based on primary and secondary data sources. A total of 165 women, as well as 33

government officers and elected representatives of gram panchayats, were selected

for our study. The study aims to provide a comprehensive view of the problem

and to analyze the vulnerable conditions of tribal women in the public sphere.

Total of five villages of Alwar district in Rajasthan was selected as a locale of the

study. Our study has highlighted not only the tribal women's problem but the

government's attitude and plans to trounce the concerned problem.

Chattopadhyaya (1978) attempted to interpret and depict the varied

aspects of Indian Tribal life such as the origin, traditional dress, social customs,

symbolism of their rites and ceremonies. He points out the fact that, even though

there are some similarities in beliefs and lifestyles between tribals non-tribals,

they have not blurred the sense of social distinction nor have they eroded their

distinct tribal features. The latter is a social and anthropological study carried out

systematically.

Santhosam and Samuel (2013) studied the Health Status of elderly rural

Tribal Women in Kancheepuram District. Indian tribals are a heterogeneous

 95

group; most of them remain at the lowest stratum of the society due to various

factors like geographical and cultural isolation, low levels of literacy, primitive

occupations, and extreme levels of poverty. The present paper attempts to study

the health problems of elderly rural women in three villages of Kancheepuram

district. A total of 30 elderly tribals were interviewed using a pre-tested interview

schedule. Around 66% of the women belonged to the age group of 60-69 years

old. A majority of them had health problems such as hypertension followed by

arthritis, diabetes, constipation, etc. The results of the study showed that there is a

need for geriatric clinics that can take care of their physical and psychological

needs. The results of the study showed that there is a need for geriatric counseling

centers that can take care of their physical and psychological needs. Any tribe

must be encouraged to organize itself to take advantage of the programs designed

for the development and health in the light of human genetics, prophylactic

immunization, socio-cultural traditions, and an eco-friendly environment. Further

health care system at various levels in our country is designed for the general

population and no special provisions/preferences are provided in the system to

take care of the elderly, especially the tribals. The major limitation of this study

was that age-specific diseases could not be ascertained as the tribal women were

not able to tell their exact age. Also, they were not allowed to interact with outside

people for fear of their status being revealed to others. Getting a sample of elderly

women from other villages was difficult and some of them simply refused to

answer questions related to the disease.

 96

Manjunatha (2010) conducted on Status of Tribal People in Karnataka: A

Case Study of Gundlupet Taluk of Chamarajanagar district. The objectives of this

research was to find out the socio-economic problems of the tribal community of

Gundlupet taluk of Chamarajanagar district and to suggest the ways and means for

their overall development. This study mainly based on secondary and primary

data. Primary data is collected through the field study. This research revealed that

the tribal people are lagging behind the mainstream population concerning their

economic, social, and cultural aspects. They are continuing on with outmoded

lifestyles and ideologies.

Dharam Singh Meena et al. (2012) investigated the comparison of

health-related physical fitness components between Tribal and Non-Tribal

sportspersons of the inter-university level of Rajasthan State. 200 sportspersons of

Govt. & private colleges were going to act as samples/subjects for this particular

study. Out of these 200 subjects, 100 subjects were tribal and 100 subjects were

non-tribal. The age group of tribal and non-tribal Sports Persons was limited to 17

to 25 years. These subjects were selected through the random sampling technique

ten from each govt. & private colleges. A total of 20 sportspersons (10 tribal and

10 non-tribal) were selected from each college for this study, an attempt has been

made to compare physical fitness components namely strength, flexibility,

coordinative ability (shuttle run, speed, cardiovascular endurance (12-minute run).

Prabhakar and Gangadhar (2011) investigated on Dietary Status among

Jenu Kuruba and Yerava Tribal Children of Mysore district, Karnataka. The
 97

present study was undertaken to evaluate the dietary status of 6 to 10-year-old

children of Jenu Kuruba (n=176) and Yerava (n=161) tribal children representing

three taluks of Mysore district, Karnataka State. Findings of dietary habits were

recorded through interview schedule and a survey was conducted using 24-hour

recall method. The study reveals that the percentage of adequacy in energy and

protein intake among both the tribal group children was more or less the same and

below the respective RDAs. Intake of calcium, iron, and beta-carotene is varied

Habibi et al. (2011) compared the Relationship between Socioeconomic

Status and Extent of Their Participation in Sports Training in the Iranian Female

Track-and-Field Athletes. About the affluence and cumulative development of

different sports especially athletics as well as the participation of Iranian female

athletes in international events, it seems necessary to investigate the socio-

economic status of women who practice this sport. The question is how many

socio-economic factors including education, occupation, income, etc may affect

the tendency towards participation in this type of sports. The population of the

study included 250 female athletes who were participating in the 2010 national

athletics league. From among the population, some 152 were selected as the

participants via cluster random sampling. To collect the data, a questionnaire was

administered to the participants. Then the data were analyzed based on the

inferential statistics of independent t-test and Pearson correlation formula. Results

showed that there is no relationship between the Iranian female athletes' socio-

economic status and their participation in sports events. Also, there is no

relationship between the Iranian female athletes' economic status and their
 98

participation in sports events. As well, there is no correlation between the Iranian

female athletes' social status and their participation in sports events. However,

there is a significant relationship between the Iranian female athletes' social status

and their economic status. The findings of the present study show that there is no

significant relationship between the Iranian female athletes' socio-economic status

and their participation in sports training. That is, one cannot claim that the socio-

economic status may affect the athletes' participation in training. The findings

suggest that the Iranian female athletes' socio-economic status plays no role in

their participation in sports events. This may help us encourage girls from every

socio-economic background to take part in athletic training. Also, there is no

relationship between the Iranian female athletes' economic status including

parents' income, and their participation in sports events.

Vishal Deshpande et al. (2015) studied the speed ability among the urban

and tribal boys‟ players of the Aurangabad city and tribal areas of Nasik district

and their age between 16-18 years. The urban samples for the present study are

randomly drawn from novice athletes who are practicing at SAI west zone centre,

Aurangabad. The tribal samples are randomly drawn from the tribal regions of the

Nasik district. A total of 50 (urban 25 and tribal 25) players were selected.

AAHPER 50 Yard Dash Test for Boys was used to the collection of the data. As

per the results drawn after the statistical treatment, there exists a significant

difference between the urban and tribal players in speed ability. The speed ability

of the tribal is far better than the urban players.

 99

Zanver, Arya and Devi (2007) assessed the Somatic status of tribal

preschool children with special reference to Gomez classification. The present

investigation was carried out for assessing the somatic status of tribal children

with Special reference to Gomez classification. A total sample of 200 tribal

preschool children from 1- 5+ years of age belonging to different socio-economic

status was selected from tribal area of Nanded district of Maharashtra state. Out of

200 children studied only 9.5% of children were found to have normal growth

while the rest of the 90.5% children suffered from various grades of malnutrition.

Grade I and grade III malnutrition were more in early age (3-4 yr.) while grade II

malnutrition was prevalent more during later age (4-5 yr). More percent of (47%)

male subjects suffered from different grades of malnutrition than female subjects

(43%). The influence of socio-economic factors like occupation, paternal literacy

level and monthly family income showed that children from farmer‟s families

having educated parents and from families with comparatively more family

income suffered less from various grades of malnutrition

Jyothi (2013) conducted a study on Health Status among Tribes in Haliyal

and Ganadal Village of Karnataka. Objectives were: i) To find out Bedas health

problems. 2) To study their socio-economic and political status. 3) To find out the

impact on the health and economic condition of the family. 4) To examine the

health service as available in the community. 5) To point out the prevailing health

status among the people. 6) To find out the problems like Agricultural, sanitary,

Alcoholic, smoking problems faced by Bedas. 7) To find out the recent change

that is occurring among bedas. The methodology was: According to the 2001
 100

census of Karnataka tribal population has been increased they constituted more

than 8.8% of the total population in our study region Haliyal & Ganadal village of

Koppal district Bedas constitute approximately 90% of the total population of the

village. Sample: There respondents have been selected from Ganadal village and

Haliyal area. The data were collected from 100 respondence (head of the

household) moreover for collecting data of the past the elders‟ opinions, on the

leaders & other knowledgeable persons in the community were also interviewed.

Conclusion and findings: The main objective of the study was to understand the

nature status and health problems among the Bedas of Haliyal and Gandal villages

in Koppal Taluka. The findings of this study are based on the data collected from

100 respondents. The reason for this is that most of the respondents are below the

poverty line and engaged in different physical work like agriculture labour work,

coolies, etc.

Chandan Manna (2002) analyzed and compared the tribal and non-tribal

boys in some selected personality factors. Eighty tribal boys from Jhargriam of

West Bengal and same number of non-tribal boys from centre of the same state

were selected as subjects. The subjects were within 10 to 12 years of age. Bengali

version of Porter and Cattle‟s children personality questionnaire (cpq) was used to

analyze the fourteen personality factors of the subjects.

Hirani (2013) studied on Problems of tribal communities. The majority of

tribes live under the poverty line. The tribes follow many simple occupations

based on simple technology. Most of the occupation falls into primary occupations
 101

such as hunting, gathering, and agriculture. The technology they use for these

purposes belongs to the most primitive kind. In many areas tribals unable to resist

the gradual alienation of their ancestral land, either withdrew further into hills and

tracts of marginal land or accepted the economic status of tenants or agricultural

labourers on the land their forefathers had owned. There were some tribes,

however, who rebelled against an administration, which allowed outsiders to

deprive them of their land. In the Chhota Nagpur and the Santhal pargansas such

rebellions of desperate tribesmen recurred throughout the nineteenth century, and

there were minor risings in the Agency tracts of Madras and some of the districts

of Bombay inhabitant-In-Aid to Voluntary Organizations by Bhils. The present

study was designed to examine the assessment of the socio-economic status of

tribal sports in Karnataka which has not been touched upon by others. Studies on

assessing socio-economic status on tribal sports are relevant in this context and

hence the present study.

Devi (2000) conducted a comparative study of physical fitness and

psychological traits of tribal and non-tribal high school students on a sample of

1200 drawn from high altitudes. Fleishman physical fitness test battery was used

for the purpose. She concluded that:-The tribal (boys and girls) were found

superior in explosive strength than the non-tribal (boys and girls). The non-tribal

(boys and girls) were better in extended flexibility than the tribal (boys and girls).

The tribal boys were found superior in agility and dynamic flexibility to the non-

tribal boys. The non-tribal boys were better in endurance than the tribal boys. The

tribal girls were better in speed and endurance than the non-tribal girls. The non-
 102

tribal (boys) of lower altitude was better in dynamic flexibility than the non-tribal

boys of higher altitude.

Jain (1999) gave some insight into the Bhils and Minas of Rajasthan. The

objective of the study is to find out the development attained by these two tribal

groups. The development is through various sources. In the First Year Plan, the

State government is committed on the constitutional ground to bring the tribals at

par with the other tribal groups who are economically and socially advanced.

P. Chatterjee et al. (1997) studied on Hand muscle strength, endurance

capacity of hand muscles, speed and agility power has been studied in 200 Tribal

and 200 Non-Tribal students of 10 different age groups. To facilitate the study, the

two consecutive classes of age groups are bunched together to represent one age

sub-group of 40 (forty) subjects. They were selected from schools and colleges of

Medinipur District, West Bengal. Results revealed that both the Handgrip strength

and Hand muscle endurance under age groups (13-14) and (15-16) was significant

in Tribal in respect of the Non-tribal. No significant changes were recorded in 50-

yard Dash and Shuttle Run tests, excepting the age groups ( 17 -18) and (19-

20)where Non-tribal were superior to Tribal students.

Singh et al. (1993) studied on Status of Tribal Women in India.Social

Change. The present study discussed the status of tribal women in terms of their

demography, health; education and employment. Despite constitutional

protections and assurances, even after four and a half decades, their status is found

to be lower than not only that of women in the general population and the
 103

Scheduled Caste women but is also lower than the status of tribal men. It is

characterized by over-work, invasion of sexually exploitative market forces in

tribal society, illiteracy, sub-human physical living conditions, high fertility, high

malnutrition and near women are discussed and early intervention for the tribal

girl is emphasized to improve the status of the tribal women. The low health and

educational status adversely affect the economic status.

Bakshi and Bala (2000) presented the socio-economic status of several

scheduled tribes inhabiting in various regions of our sub-continent. Their lifestyle,

customs and traditions are quite different from the population in our rural and

urban areas. In fact 'they live in their world'. Their social backwardness has been

assessed at various levels and schemes have been launched for the education of

their children, to provide them health facilities and jobs for their daily needs.

Shukla (2011) conducted a study on assessing the Socio-Economic Status

of Chhattisgarh‟s Scheduled Tribes. After 63 years of independence, India has

progressed in the field of economy, culture as well as society. But when we look

at the scheduled tribes of India, we find that they are far apart from these

developments. So, the development of these people is a must, for the socio-

economic growth of the country. Towards making the existing tribal livelihoods

more productive, intensive efforts will be mounted to restitute, vitalize and expand

the agricultural sector. The use of irrigation in agriculture with a preference for

organic farming will be a major step. Training centers will be opened to impart

skills for diverse occupations to the tribal. Efforts will be made to promote
 104

horticulture, animal husbandry, dairy farming, sericulture and cottage and small

industry by extending the necessary technology and credit, marketing and

entrepreneurial information, and training. State Govt, has to shoulder the task of

marketing to ensure remunerative prices to STs. Education and skill formation are

principal vehicles for improving the earning capacity. The various structural gaps

which constrain the young people in the backward regions, rural areas and socially

marginalized communities to receive quality education need to be removed

without delay. This will positively impact on the economic growth by enlarging

the pool of knowledge workers significantly

A.S. Chandel (1993) conducted a comparative study on physical fitness,

physiological and anthropometric variables between the tribal and the non-tribal

260 tribal and 220 non-tribal students were selected to act as subjects of the study.

AAHPER Youth Fitness Test Battery consisting of six test items i.e. sit-ups,

Standing broad jump, 50 Yard dash, Shuttle run, 600- Yard run/walk were used to

measure the physical fitness of the subjects. Selected physiological parameters

such as pulse rate, blood pressure, and hemoglobin were measured and some

anthropometric measurements were also undertaken.

Ramendranarayan Sen (1996) mentioned and discussed the Malsom of

Tripura in the book “introducing Malsom” were, he was discuss in detail about the

introduction, history, origin, settlement, pattern, food type, fieldwork, the structure

of the family, village and community, social life, social organization, economy,

religious life, cultivation and especially games and sports of Malsom community.
 105

He concluded that the Malsom is by nature very simple, peace-loving and

hospitable. They have friendly relations with other tribal and non-tribal of the state.

S.B.K. Dev. Varman (2012) stretched on the history of Tripura tribes

especially the land and environment of different tribal communities living in

Tripura hilly areas and also highlights the few major tribes. Among all 19 sub-

communities of Tripura, like – Tripuries, Deshi Tripuries, Reangs, Jamatias,

Noatias, Halams, Moghs, Chakmas, Garoes, Kukies, Lushais. Also mentioned

many important information of following tribes of Tripura in the form of

tabulation.

P. N. Bhattacharjee (1995), in his book, a modest attempt had been made

to throw some light on the life and culture of the jamatia tribes of Tripura with an

analytical description of their folklore. The book is the outcome of an extensive

field study and is the first of its kind on the jamatias of Tripura. The book contains

an ethnographic account of the jamatia, their social structure, traditional

administrative pattern, magico religious practices and economic activities and also

their beliefs, proverbs, riddles, folk song, traditional dress and ornaments, food

habits and especially traditional games and sports and traditional method of

treatment of diseases.

Moutoshi Deb (2018) attempted to showcase the four major immigrants

tribes in Tripura namely santal, bhill, munda and orang. These tribes were

immigrated from central Indian state mainly brought from Chota Nagpur,

Jharkhand and odissa to Tripura in the first half of the 20th century for employing
 106

them as tea garden labourers. But at present, they depend on agriculture,

plantation work in the tea garden and bricks field as labourers. This book is based

on empirical research, focused on the socioeconomic features, educational status,

causes and consequences of migration in Tripura.

Jagadis Gan – Choudhuri (2017) stated that cultural history of Tripura is

one of the standard works on the history and culture of Tripura. It is a faithful

record based on reliable data and field surveys. Like climate, settlement, folk

dance, and traditional games and sports in Tripura where he explained the

different indigenous games and sports of tribes of Tripura.

Dubnewick Michael et al. (2018) studied on the purpose of community-

based participatory research was to better understand how participation in the

traditional games can enhance the sports experiences of indigenous youth. Eight

indigenous youth (14 – 18 years) and 10 adults living in various communities in

the Northwest Territories, Canada. The finding suggested that participating in

traditional games can enhance the sports experiences of indigenous youth by – i.

promoting cultural pride ii. Interacting with elders‟ iii. Supporting connection to

the land iv. Developing personal characteristics and v. developing fundamental for

movements. The research advances sports interference and provides necessary

insights regarding traditional games for sports programs and policymakers.

Mehta (2000) presented an overall review of the tribal development

measures adopted during the 20th century. According to him, the government

failed to provide the basic minimum needs for their subsistence. The first halves
 107

of the century were administered by the British government and the local rulers.

They were not bothered about their needs and welfare. Hence, during the first half

of the century, they were exploited by the then rulers.

Uppal and Datta (1988) studied the motor fitness components as

predictors of Hockey performance. The purpose of the study was to identify those

motor fitness components which could predict the performance of the game.

Seventy-four male Hockey players from different universities of India served as

subjects for the study. The motor fitness components included speed, strength,

power, agility, dynamic balance, flexibility and kinesthetic perception. The

straight field Hockey rating scale served as a criterion measure to evaluate the

playing ability. The study included that motor fitness components mainly speed,

grip strength (both right and left hand) agility, balance, kinesthetic perception

contributed to Hockey playing ability. Whereas power and flexibility were not

significant contributors to Hockey performance.

A.K. Uppal (1986) conducted a study on motor fitness components as

predictors of Soccer playing ability. Thirty male Soccer players participated in this

study to evaluate the extent to which the 19 A.M. Moorthy, „Status of Muscular

Strength of Indian School Children‟ SNIPES Journal, Vol. 5, 1982, p. 37 20

Shyam Lal Mazumdar, „Changes in Motor Fitness Components and Playing

ability resulting among Soccer players at two stages of Physical Education and

Conditioning Programmed‟. (Unpublished Master‟s Thesis, Jiwaji University,

1986) 21 A.K. Uppal, „Assessment of Motor Fitness Components as Predictors of

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Soccer Playing Ability‟. SNIPES Journal 9:3 (July 1986), p. 46-47 51 levels of

motor fitness can help to predict their performance in Soccer. All subjects

performed a series of five motor fitness components that tested speed, agility,

maximum and explosive strength, and cardiorespiratory endurance. A multiple

regression analysis was performed and the results indicated that reasonably

accurate prediction of soccer playing ability might be made based on the tests of

motor fitness components.