d and f block elements

Unit VIII: d and f Block Elements

General introduction, electronic configuration, occurrence and

characteristics of transition metals, general trends in properties of the
first-row transition metals – metallic character, ionization enthalpy,
oxidation states, ionic radii, colour, catalytic property, magnetic
properties, interstitial compounds, alloy formation, preparation and
properties of K2Cr2O7 and KMnO4.
Lanthanoids – Electronic configuration, oxidation states, chemical
reactivity and lanthanoid contraction and its consequences.
Actinoids - Electronic configuration, oxidation states and comparison with
lanthanoids.
The elements whose last electron enters in d subshell of penultimate shell is
known as d-block elements. (The shell inner to the last shell is known as
penultimate shell.) - They are also called as transition elements because their
chemical properties were transitional between those of s and p-block elements. -
They have incompletely filled d-orbital.
Position in the Periodic Table The d–block occupies the middle section of the
periodic table between s– and p– block elements .
Electronic configurations of the d-Block elements
Electronic Configurations of the d-Block Elements: General the electronic
configuration of outer orbitals of these elements is (n-1)d 1–10ns 1–2

For 3d series 3d1-10 4s1-2

For 4d series 4d1-10 5s0-2

Overall (n-1)d1-10 ns0-2
For 5d series 5d1-10 6s1-2

For 6d series 6d1-10 7s1-2

The electronic configurations of outer orbitals of
Zn, Cd, Hg and Cn
are represented by the general formula (n-1)d 10ns 2 . The orbitals in these elements
are completely filled in the ground state as well as in their common oxidation states.
Therefore, they are not regarded as transition elements.
General Properties of the Transition Elements
➢ Transition elements shows metallic properties such as high tensile strength,
ductility, malleability, high thermal, electrical conductivity and metallic lustre.
➢ Their melting and boiling points are high .The high melting points of these
metals are due to the involvement of greater number of electrons from (n-1)d and
ns electrons in the interatomic metallic bonding.
➢ They have high enthalpies of atomization greater the number of valence
electrons, stronger is the resultant bonding and hence higher is enthalpy if
atomization.
➢ the metals of the second and third series have greater enthalpies of atomisation
than the corresponding elements of the first series.
Trends in melting points of transition metals:
#In any row the melting points of these metals rise to
maximum at d5 except for anomalous behaviour of Mn
and Tc and fall regularly as the atomic number increases.
They have high enthalpies of atomisation
#Mn and Tc have half filled d orbital and has
extraordinary stability. Thus even though it has maximum
number of electrons, it cannot form a metallic bond. Thus
it has low melting point
Variation of atomic size and ionic size of transition metal:
➢ In a given series show progressive decrease in radius with increasing atomic
number. This is because the new electron enters a d orbital each time the nuclear
charge increases by unity. since the shielding effect of a d electron is not that
effective, the net electrostatic attraction between the nuclear charge and the
outermost electron increases and the ionic radius decreases.

This same trend is observed in the atomic radii of the given series. However the
variation within a series is quite small. Elements of 4d series have larger size than
3d but the size of 4d and 5d elements is nearly same in a group. This is due to
poor screening of 4f electrons.
Trends in atomic radil of transition elements
The filling of 4f before 5d orbitals results in regular decrease
in atomic radii called Lanthanoid contraction which essentially
compensates for the expected increase in atomic size with
increasing atomic number. The net result of the Lanthanold
contraction is that the 4d and 5d series exhibit similar radii
and have very similar physical and chemical properties much
more than the expected on the usual family relationship.
Density: The decrease in metallic radius coupled with
increase in mass results in a general increase in the density
of these elements. Thus from Ti to Cu the significant increase
in density may be noted.
Attempt the following questions:
Q .Why do the transition elements exhibit higher enthalpies of atomisation?

Q .In the series Sc (Z = 21) to Zn (Z = 30), the enthalpy of atomisation of zinc is

the lowest, i.e., 126 kJ mol–1 . Why?

Q. Zr and Hf have similar atomic radii and similar physical and chemical properties
why ? (Zr 160 pm, Hf 159 p)
Ionization Enthalpies:

The ionization enthalpies of transition elements are higher

than those of s-block elements but lower than p-block
elements. In a particular transition series, ionization enthalpy
increases gradually as we move from left to right. However,
the relative difference of ionization enthalpy values of any two
consecutive d-block elements of particular period is much
smaller than those of s- and p-block elements.
Reason. The increase in ionization enthalpy is
primarily due to increase in nuclear charge.
As the transition elements involve the gradual filling of
(n- 1) d-orbitals, the effect of increase in nuclear
charge is partly cancelled by the increase in screening
effect. Consequently, the increase in ionization
enthalpy along the period of d-block elements is very
small.
The ionization enthalpies of 3d-, 4d- and 5d-transition series
It may be noted that 5d-transition elements
possess higher ionization enthalpies than
3d- and 4d-transition elements. This is due
to the greater effective nuclear charge in
these elements because of the ineffective
shielding of the nucleus by 4f electrons.
○
Significance of Ionization Enthalpy Values
The magnitudes of ionization enthalpies give some indication of the energy
required to raise the metal to a particular oxidation state.
In addition to ionization enthalpy, the other factors that determine the stability of a
particular state in solution are the enthalpy of atomisation of the metal and
hydration enthalpy.
From the given flow chart, it is clear that total enthalpy change, for the process
M(s) → M+(aq) + e-
is equal to sum of enthalpy of atomization of metal, ionization enthalpy of metal and the
enthalpy of hydration of the metal ion.
Smaller the value of total enthalpy change, for a particular oxidation state of the metal,
greater will be the stability of that oxidation state in aqueous solution.
The electrode potentials are the measure of the value of the total enthalpy change.
Lower the standard electrode potential, the more stable is the oxidation state of the metal
in the aqueous state.
The electrode potentials can be determined experimentally.
The standard electrode potentials for first row transition metals
Trends in the M2+/M Standard Electrode Potentials
From the observed values of E 0(M2+/M) for the elements of first transition series
we can infer that,
The E0 values for M²+/M indicate a decreasing tendency to form divalent cations
across the series. This general trend towards less negative E0 values is related to
the increase in the sum of the first and second ionization enthalpies (ΔiH1 + ΔiH2).
The unique behaviour of Cu, having a positive E0, is due to the greater amount of
energy required to transform Cu(s) into Cu2+ (g) which is not balanced by the
enthalpy of hydration. Due to positive E0, copper does not liberate hydrogen from
acids. Only oxidizing acids, such as nitric acid and hot concentrated sulphuric
acid, react with Cu. In these reactions acid gets reduced.
It may be noted that the value of E0 for Mn, Ni and Zn are more negative than
expected from the trend.

This is due to stability of half filled d-subshell (d5) in Mn2+ and the completely
filled d-subshell (d10) in Zn2+. In case of Ni the E0 value is related to larger
negative enthalpy of hydration.

It may be noted that there is no regular variation of reduction potentials. This is

due to the reason that ionization enthalpies (first and second) and enthalpies of
sublimation of metals do not exhibit any regular trend
Trends in the M3+/M2+ Standard Electrode Potentials

From the E0 (M3+/M2+) Values for some of the members of the first transition series It is clear
that these values do not follow any regular trend. However, it is possible to understand why value
of E° for a particular M3+/M2+ couple is high or low.
• The low value of E° for Sc3+/Sc2+ couple is due to stability of Sc3+ which has a noble gas
configuration..
• The comparatively high value of E° for Mn is due to the stability of Mn2+(d5) which has half-
filled 3d subshell. Similarly, Zn has very high value of E° due to stability Zn2+ (3d10) which has
fully filled 3d subshell.
For Fe3+/Fe2+ couple, the value of E0 is comparatively low because Fe3+ (3d5) has extra
stability.
Chemical Reactivity and E° Values

The transition metals differ widely in their chemical reactivity. The reactivity of transition
metals can be related to the E° values.
• The metals of the first transition series with the exception of copper have negative E0
values for M2+/M couples. These metals are more reactive and are oxidized by 1M H+
However, the actual rate at which these metals react with oxidizing agents such as H+
ions is sometimes slow. For example, Ti and V are practically passive to dilute non
oxidizing agents at room temperature.
• The large positive E0 values for the redox couples Mn3+/Mn2+ and Co3+/Co2+ indicate
that Mn3+ and Co3+ ions are the strongest oxidizing agents in aqueous solution.
The negative E0 values for the redox couples

Ti3+/Ti2+, V3+/V2+ and Cr3+/ Cr2+ indicate that the ions Ti2+, V2+ and Cr2+ are
strong reducing agents and will liberate hydrogen from dilute acids. For example,
2 Cr2+ (aq) + 2H+ (aq) → 2 Cr3+(aq) + H2(g)
Answer the following questions:
Qn. ionization enthalpy of Mn+ is lower than Cr+ why?
Mn+ has 3d54s1 configuration and configuration of Cr+ is d5 , therefore, ionisation
enthalpy of Mn+ is lower than Cr+ .
Qn. 3rd ionization enthalpy of Fe is less than Mn why ?
Fe2+ has d6 configuration and Mn2+ has 3d5 configuration. Hence, ionisation
enthalpy of Fe2+ is lower than the Mn2+. In other words, we can say that the third
ionisation enthalpy of Fe is lower than that of Mn.
Oxidation states:
The variable oxidation states of transition elements are due to the participation of
ns and (n-1) d-electrons in bonding. The lower oxidation state is generally,
exhibited when ns-electrons participate in bonding and higher oxidation states are
shown when ns as well as (n - 1) d-electrons take part in bonding.
Some important points:
1. In each group, the highest oxidation state increases with increase in atomic number, reaches a
maximum in the middle and then starts decreasing. For example, for the first transition series the
maximum oxidation state is shown by manganese.
2. The elements which exhibit the maximum number of oxidation states occur either in or near
the middle of the series. For example, in the first transition series manganese exhibits maximum
number of Oxidation states (+ 2 to + 7).
3. The elements in the beginning of the series exhibit fewer oxidation states because they have
small number of electrons which they can lose or contribute for sharing. The elements at the end
of the series exhibit fewer oxidation states because they have too many d-electrons and hence
have fewer vacant d-orbitals which can be involved in bonding.
4. For the elements of first transition series (except scandium)+ 2 oxidation state is
the most common Oxidation state. This oxidation state arises due to the loss of
4s-electrons.
5. The transition elements in lower oxidation states (+ 2 and + 3) generally form
ionic bonds. In higher oxidation states, the bonds formed are essentially covalent.
For example, in chromate ion (CrO42-), the bonds formed between chromium and
Oxygen are covalent.
6. In case of d-block elements higher oxidation states are more stable for heavier
members. For example, in group-6, Mo (VI) and W(VI) are found to be more stable
than Cr(VI). Thus, Cr(VI) in the form of dichromate acts as strong oxidizing agent
in acidic medium while MoO, and WO, are not.
7. The highest oxidation state shown by any transition metal is +8. For example,
ruthenium and osmium show highest oxidation states of + 8 in some of their
compounds.
8. Low oxidation states are found when a complex compound has ligands capable
of T𝜫-acceptor character. Some transition metals also show oxidation state of
zero in their compounds. [Ni(CO)4] and [Fe(CO)5] are common examples.
Oxidation State:
Transition elements show variable oxidation state due to incomplete filling of d
orbital. The greatest number of variable oxidation state is shown by the element
which lies in the middle of the series ie. Manganese. Due to incompletely filled
d-orbital. Zn and Sc does not show variable oxidation state.

Qn. Name a transition element which does not exhibit variable oxidation states.
Qn. Which of the 3d series of the transition metals exhibits the largest number of
oxidation states and why?
Trends in stability of Higher Oxidation States:
Highest OS of the transition metals are found with their compounds with fluorine and
oxygen.
The ability of fluorine to stabilise the highest oxidation state is due to either higher lattice
energy as in the case of CoF3, or higher bond enthalpy values for the higher covalent
compounds. Eg . VF5 and CrF6
The ability of oxygen to stabilise highest OS is due to its ability to form multiple bonds
with metals.
Copper (I) compounds are unstable in aqueous solution and undergo disproportionation:
2Cu+ → Cu2+ + Cu The stability of Cu2+ (aq) rather than Cu+ (aq) is due to the much more
negative
∆hydH of Cu2+ (aq) than Cu+ , which more than compensates for the second ionisation
enthalpy of Cu.
Halides of 3d metals:
#The highest oxidation states are achieved in TiX4 (X =F, C, Br, I), VF5, and
CrF6. The +7 state for manganese is not achieved in simple halides but in
MnO3F. Beyond manganese no metal has a trihalide except Fe and Co.
# V shows oxidations of + 5 only in VF5, The other pentahalides of V are unstable
and undergo hydrolysis to give oxohalides VOX3.
# Fluorides are unstable in the low oxidation states of metals. For example, V
exhibits oxidation state of + 2 and copper oxidation state of + 1 only in chlorides,
bromides and iodides.
All Cu(II) halides are known except the iodide. Cu2+ oxidizes I- to I2.
2 Cu2+ (aq) + 4 I- (aq) → Cu2I2(s) + I2(aq)

Cu2+ (aq) is more stable than Cu+ (aq) due to the much more negative ΔhydH0 of
Cu2+ than Cu+, which more than compensates for the second ionization enthalpy
of Cu.

Many Cu(I) compounds are unstable in aqueous solution and undergo

disproportionation.

2 Cu+ (aq) → Cu2+ (aq) + Cu(s)

Cu2+ (aq) is more stable than Cu+ (aq) due to its high hydration energy than Cu+
which compensate IE2
Transition metals also exhibit the highest oxidation state in their oxides. The ability
of oxygen to stabilize the higher oxidation states is much more than that of
fluorine.
For example, the highest Oxidation state exhibited by Mn with fluorine is + 4 in
MnF4 while it is + 7 with oxygen in Mn2O7. The superiority of oxygen to stabilize
the higher oxidation states is due to its ability to form multiple bonds with the metal
atom. The oxides of 3d-transition metals are listed BELOW.
Oxides of 3d transition metals:
The highest oxidation state in the oxides coincides with the group number and is
attained in the elements from Sc to Mn..

Beyond group 7 no higher oxides above Fe2O3 are known. Fe also forms some
ferrates (FeO4)2-, in alkaline media in which oxidation state of Fe is +6. However
these are unstable and readily decompose to Fe2O3 and O2.
Magnetic Properties
Mainly two types of magnetic behaviour are observed:
Diamagnetism : Diamagnetic substances are repelled by the applied field
Paramagnetism: Paramagnetic substances are attracted .
Substances which are attracted very strongly are said to be Ferromagnetic.
Paramagnetism arises from the presence of unpaired electrons. The magnetic
moment is determined by the number of unpaired electrons and is calculated by
using the following formula,
i.e., µ = n ( n + 2) Where, n = the number of unpaired electrons
µ = magnetic moment
unit of µ is Bohr magneton (BM). The magnetic moment increases with the
increasing number of unpaired electrons.
Coloured Complexes:
The d-orbitals in the transition elements do not have same energy in their complexes.
Under the influence of the ligands attached, the d-orbitals split into two sets of orbitals
having slightly different energies. In the transition elements which have partly filled
d-orbitals, the transition of electron can take place from one of the lower d-orbitals to
some higher d-orbital within the same subshell. The energy required for this transition
falls in the visible region. So when white light falls on these complexes they absorb a
particular colour from the radiation for the promotion of electron and the remaining
colours are emitted. The colour of the complex is due to this emitted radiation.
For example, cupric salts are bluish green due to absorption of red light. Ti3+ salts
appear purple due to absorption of yellow light.
Formation of complex compound:
Complex compounds are those in which the metal atoms or ions bind to a number
of anions or neutral molecules giving complex species with characteristic
properties. For eg : [Fe(CN)6] 3– , [Fe(CN)6] 4– , [Cu(NH3)4] 2+ , [PtCl4] 2–

The transition metals form a large number of complex compounds.

This is due to
➢ the comparatively smaller sizes of the metal ions.
➢ their high ionic charges.
➢ and the availability of d orbitals for bond formation.
Catalytic Properties:
Transition metal are known for their catalytic activity this is due to their ability to
form complexes and adopt multiple oxidation state. And vacant d-orbital .
Vanadium(V) oxide (in Contact Process), finely divided iron (in Haber’s Process),
and nickel (in Catalytic Hydrogenation) are some of the examples.
Catalysts involve the formation of bonds between reactant molecules and atoms of
the surface of the catalyst . This increases the concentration of the reactants at
the catalyst surface and also weakening of the bonds in the reacting molecules.
Formation of Interstitial compounds:
Interstitial compounds are those which are formed when small atoms like H, C or N are trapped
inside the crystal lattices of metals. They are usually non stoichiometric and are neither typically
ionic nor covalent compounds. for example, TiC, Mn4N, Fe3H, VH0.56 and TiH1.7, etc. The
formulas quoted do not, of course, correspond to any normal oxidation state of the metal.
Because of the nature of their composition, these compounds are referred to as interstitial
compounds.
The principle physical and chemical characteristics of these compounds are :
1.They have high melting point, higher than those of pure metal.
2. These are very hard
3. They retain metallic conductivity.
4. They are chemically inert.
Alloy:
Alioy may be homogeneous solid solution in which the atoms of one metal are
distributed randomly among the atoms of the other. Such alloys are formed by
atoms with metallic radii that are within about 15 percent of each other. Because of
similar radii and other characteristics of transition metals alloys are readily formed
by these metals. The alloys so formed are hard and have often high melting point.
The best known are ferrous alloys, Cr, V, W, Mo and Mn are used for the
production of a variety of steels and stainless steel.
Alloys of transition metals with non transition metals such as brass (Cu -Zn) and
bronze (Cu- Sn) are also of considerable industrial importance.

Other examples are:

German Silver: 50-60% Cu, 10-30% Ni, 20-30% Zn

Bell Metal: 80% Cu, 20% Sn

Gun Metal: 80% Cu, 10% Sn, 2% Zn

Some important compounds of Transition Elements:
Potassium Dichromate(K2Cr2O7):

It is important chemical used in leather industry and an oxidant for preparation of many azo
compounds.

It is prepared from chromite ore (FeCr2O4)

Step 1: Chromite ore is fused with Na2CO3 or K2CO3 in excess air.

4FeCr2O4 + 8Na2CO3 + 7O2 → 8Na2CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8CO2

Yellow solution of Na2CrO4 is filtered and acidified with sulphuric acid to give a solution from
which orange sodium dichromate Na2Cr2O7.2H2O is crystalised.

Note: Na2Cr2O7 is more soluble than K2Cr207

Na2Cr2O7 + 2KCl → K2Cr2O7 + 2NaCl
Structure of CrO42- and Cr2O72-
Potassium Permanganate(KMnO4)
Preparation : KMnO4 is prepared by fusion of MnO2 with an alkali metal
hydroxídes and an oxidising agent like KNO3 This produces dark green K2MnO4
which disproportionates in a neutral or acidic solution to give permanganate.
2MnO2 + 4KOH +O2 → 2K2MnO4 + 2H20
3MnO42- + 4H+ → 2MnO4- + MnO2+ 2H20
Commercially it is prepared by the alkaline oxidative fusion of MnO2 followed by
the electrolytic oxidation of manganate (VI).
MnO42- Electrolytic oxidation in alkaline solution MnO4-
Laboratory Preparation:
In the laboratory, a manganese (II) ion salt is oxidised by peroxodisulphate to
permanganate
2Mn2+ + 5S2082- + 8H20 → 2MnO4- + 10SO42- + 16H+
Characteristic properties:
1. KMnO4 forms dark purple (almost black) crystals whích are ísostructural with those of
KCIO4 . The salt is not very soluble in water. (6.4 g/100 g of water at 293 K).
2. It has intense colour and weak temperature dependent paramagnetism.
3. Green manganate ion is paramagnetic while perrnanganate ion is diamagnetic.
4. π bonding takes place by overlap of p orbital of oxygen with d orbitals of manganese.
6. KMnO, is a good oxidising agent in acidic, basic, or neutral medium.

7. Half cell reaction of KMnO, in different medium.

We can very well see that the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution play an
important part in influencing the reaction. Although reactions can be understood by
consideration of redox potential, kinetics of the reaction is also an important factor.
The inner transition elements(f-Block):
The 14 elements from Lanthanum to Lutetium is known as lanthanoids . Electronic
configuration: The general electronic configuration of f - block elements is

(n-2) f1–14 (n-1) d0–1 ns2

Atomic and ionic size
Decrease in size of La to Lu is a unique feature in chemistry of Lanthanoids. This
is due to the Lanthanoid contraction.

Cause: Imperfect shielding of 4f electrons with the increase in nuclear charge.

The most common oxidation state of lanthanoids is +3.

➢ +2 & +4 O. S. are also shown, which can be explained on the basis of

thermodynamic stabilities.

Pr, Nd, Tb and Dy can exhibit +4 O.S. only in MO2 oxide.

Eu2+ is formed by loosing the 2 s electrons and its f7 electronic configuration
accounts for the formation of this ion. However Eu2+ is a strong reducing agent
changing to the common +3 state. Tb4+ has half filled f orbital and is an oxidant.
Sm also exhibit +2 oxidation state.
Properties of Lanthanoids:
Silvery-white metals that tarnish when exposed to air, forming their oxides.
Relatively soft metals. Hardness increases somewhat with higher atomic number.
Moving from left to right across the period (increasing atomic number), the radius of each
lanthanide 3+ ion steadily decreases. This is referred to as 'lanthanide contraction'.
High melting points and boiling points.
Very reactive.
React with water to liberate hydrogen (H2), slowly in cold/quickly upon heating.
Lanthanides commonly bind to water.
React with H+ (dilute acid) to release H2 (rapidly at room temperature).
React in an exothermic reaction with H2.
Burn easily in air.
Continuation:

They are strong reducing agents.

Their compounds are generally ionic.
At elevated temperatures, many rare earths ignite and burn
vigorously.
Most rare earth compounds are strongly paramagnetic.
Many rare earth compounds fluoresce strongly under ultraviolet
light.
Lanthanoid Contraction:
Steady decrease in atomic and ionic radii of lanthanide elements with increase in
atomic number is called lanthanide contraction.
.
Consequences of Lanthanide Contraction
The following points will depict the effect of lanthanide contraction more clearly.:

● Atomic Size
The size of the atom of the third transition series is approximately similar to that of the atom of
the second transition series. For example, the radius of Zr = radius of Hf and the radius of Nb =
radius of Ta, and so on.

● Difficulty in the Separation of Lanthanides

As there is only a small change in the ionic radii of the Lanthanides, their chemical properties
are the same. This makes the element's separation in the pure state difficult.

● Effect on the Basic Strength of Hydroxides

As the size of the lanthanides decreases from the elements La to Lu, the covalent character of
the hydroxides increases, and thus, their basic strength decreases. Therefore, Lu(OH)₃ is said to
be least basic, and La (OH)₃ is said to be more basic.
Complex Formation
Due to the smaller size and higher nuclear charge, the tendency to produce coordinate. Complexity
increases from the element La³⁺to Lu³⁺.

Electronegativity
It increases from the elements La to Lu.

Ionization Energy
Electron's attraction by the nuclear charge is higher, and thus the Ionization energy of the 5d elements
is much larger compared to 4d and 3d. In the 5d series, the total elements except Pt and Au contain a
filled s-shell.
Elements from Hafnium to rhenium contain similar Ionization energy, and after that, the Ionization
energy increases with the number of shared d-electrons such that Gold and Iridium hold the maximum
Ionization Energy.
Reactions:
Uses:
1. Used for the production of alloy steels for plate and pipe.
2. A well known Mischmetal consists of a lanthanoid metal(95%), iron(5%) and
traces of S,C,Ca and Al. It is used in Mg based alloy to form bullets.
3. Mixed oxides of lanthanoids are employed as catalyst in petroleum cracking.
4. Some individual lanthanoid oxide are used in television screen and similar
florescing screen.
The Actinoids: 14 elements Th to Lr
Electronic Configurations:
General electronic configuration of all elements can be consulted from
table. The fourteen electrons are formally added to 5f though not in
thorium (Z-90) but from Pa onward the 5f orbitals are complete at element
103.
The irregularities in the electronic configurations of the Actinoids like those
in the Lanthanoids are related to the stabilities of the f0, f7, f14
occupancies of the 5f orbitals.
Note: Although the 5f orbitals resemble with the 4f orbitals in their angular
part of the wave function, they are not as buried as 4f orbital and hence 5f
electrons can participate in bonding to a far greater extent.
lonic Sizes
There is gradual decrease in the size of atoms or M3+
ions across the series. This is referred to as actinoid
contraction which is greater than lanthanoid contraction.
Oxidation States
There is greater range of oxidation states which is in part
attributed to the fact that the 5f, 6d and 7s level are of
comparable energies.
Oxidation States:

The elements, in first half of actinoids frequently exhibit higher

oxidation states. However, +3 and +4 ions tend to hydrolyse
because the distribution of oxidation states among the actinoids is
so uneven and so different for the former and later elements, it is
unsatisfactory to review their chemistry in terms of oxidation states.
General Characteristics:
All are silvery in appearance but display a variety of structure. This is due to irregularity in metallic radi

These are highly reactive metal.

HCI react with all actinoids.

Most of them are slightly affected by HNO, owing to the formation of protective oxide layer. However

alkalies have no action.

Magnetic properties of the actinoids are more complex than those of lanthanoid.

Actinoids compound or their ions are coloured most probably due to charge transfer or f-f transition.
Differences:

Lanthanoids Actinoids:
#In addition to +3 oxidation state, they #In addition to +3 oxidation state, they show
exhibit +2 and +4 oxidation states only. +4,+5, +6 and +7 oxidation states.
#Most of their ions are colourless #Most of their ions are coloured.
#They do not form complexes easily. #They have much greater tendency to form
#They do not form oxocations. complexes.
#Their compounds are less basic #They form oxocations such as UO₂2+,
#Except promethium, they are PuO₂2+and UO+.
non-radioactive. #Their compounds are more basic.
#Their magnetic properties can be easily #They are radioactive.
explained. #Their magnetic properties can not be easily
explained.
Some applications of d and f block elements:
Iron and steel are the most important construction material. Their production is based on reduction of iron
oxides, the removal of impures and the addition of carbon and alloying metals like Cr, Mn and Ni.

Some compounds are manufactures for special purpose such as TiO for the pigment industry and MnO2

for use in dry cell along with use of Zn.

Many of the elements or compounds of this block elements are important catalyst

AgBr is an important chemical used in photography. Along with AgBr. AgCl and AgI can also be used.

Some compounds like MnO4., CrO42- are good oxidising agents.