Republic of the Philippines

CAMARINES SUR POLYTECHNIC COLLEGES

Nabua, Camarines Sur

PHYSICS: INTRODUCTION
AND BASIC CONCEPTS

ENGR. ERLY OCCIANO-CELIZ

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
OUTLINE
 Learn the fundamental quantities
1) What is Physics?
of physics and the unit physicists
2) Units of Measurement use to measure them.
• Conversion of Units
 Learn the difference between
3) Scalars and Vectors
scalars and vectors, and how to
• Vector Representation
add and subtract vectors
• Direction of a Vector
graphically.
• Operations on Vector (Vector Addition,
Subtraction, Multiplication)  Learn the components of a vector
• Methods of Adding Vector (Graphical and and how to use them in
Analytical Method) calculators.
 WHAT IS PHYSICS?

Physics is the branch of science concerned with the nature and

properties of matter and energy.
 It is the most basic of the sciences, and it is at the very root of
subjects like chemistry, engineering, astronomy, and even
biology.
 Basically, physics is involved with the study of energy and its
different forms. It therefore serves as a foundation to
engineering which is primarily involved with the design,
construction and operation of devices, machines, structures, and
systems which in various ways utilize these different forms of
energy.
 UNITS OF MEASUREMENT

Standard Prefixes
Used to Denote Multiples of Ten
We exclusively use the International System of Units,
or SI. The abbreviation comes from the French title,
Le Système Internationale d’Unités.
 CONVERSION OF UNITS

Mass:
Length: 1 slug = 14.59 kg
1 in = 2.54 cm 1 kg = 1000 grams = 6.852 X 10−2 slug
1 ft = 0.3049 m 1 atomic mass unit (u) = 1.6605 X 10−27 kg
1 m = 3.281 ft (1 kg has a weight of 2.205 lb where the
1 m = 1.094 yd acceleration due to gravity is 32.174 ft/s 2
1 mi = 5280 ft = 1.609 km
1 km = 0.6214 mi Time:
1 angstrom (Å) = 10−10 m 1 d = 24 h = 1.44 x 103 min = 8.64 x 104 s
1 yr = 365.24 days = 3.156 x 107 s
Table 1: Length Unit Conversion Factors
Table 2: Weight/Mass Unit Conversion Factors

Table 3: Area Unit Conversion Factors

Table 4: Volume Unit Conversion Factors
Table 5: Time Unit Conversion Factors
Example 1: The highest waterfall in the Example 2: Express the speed limit of 65
world is Angel Falls in Venezuela, with a miles/hour in SI base units.
total drop of 979.0 m. Express this drop in
feet.
Solution:
mi m
65 = _____
Solution: h s

979 m = _____ ft 1 mi = 1.609 km

1 m = 3.281 ft 1 km = 1000 m
3.281 ft 1 h = 3600 s
979 m = 𝟑𝟐𝟏𝟐. 𝟏 𝐟𝐭
1m mi 1.609 km 1000 m 1h
65 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟎𝟓 𝐦/𝐬
h 1 mi 1 km 3600 s
Example 3: The rate at which a process deposits mass on a surface is given
as 25.0 g/cm2 . What is the rate in units of kg/m2 .

Solution:
𝑔 𝑘𝑔
25 𝑐𝑚2 = _____ 𝑚2
1 kg = 1000 g
1 m = 100 cm
𝑔 1 kg 100 𝑐𝑚 2
25 = 𝟐𝟓𝟎 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟐
𝑐𝑚2 1000 g 1𝑚
 SCALARS AND VECTORS
Quantities
 A considerable number or amount of something.
 Quantities may either be scalar or vector.

Examples:
 SCALARS AND VECTORS
Scalar Quantities, or Scalars
Scalar quantity is one that can be described with a single number (including any units) giving
its size or magnitude.

Example:
 SCALARS AND VECTORS

Vector Quantities, or Vectors

Vector quantity is one that deals inherently with both magnitude and direction.

Example:
 SCALARS VS. VECTORS

Distance vs. Displacement

Distance (Path ACDB) = 10 m

Displacement = 7 m, 30° N of E
 SCALARS VS. VECTORS

Mass vs. Weight

Mass = 50 kg Mass = 50 kg
Weight = Mass x Gravity Weight = 491 N ↓ Weight = 185.55 N ↓

Gravity – the force that attracts a body

toward the center of the earth, or toward Earth’s gravity Mar’s gravity
any other physical body having mass. = 9.81 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 = 3.711 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
 VECTOR REPRESENTATION

An arrow represents a vector quantity.

• The length of the arrow is scaled to be proportional to the

magnitude of the vector quantity it represents;
• The direction of the arrow indicates the direction of the
vector quantity.

Example: 𝑣 for velocity, 𝑎 for acceleration.

 DIRECTION OF A VECTOR

There are several ways to specify direction. The direction of a vector is the acute angle it
makes with the horizontal (East or West) or vertical (North or South).
 OPERATIONS ON VECTOR

Scalar quantities obey the ordinary rules of algebra on addition, subtraction, multiplication
and division. On the other hand, vector quantities are treated in a different way. The
directions must be taken into consideration when adding, subtracting and multiplying
vectors.

The sum of two or more vector quantities is called

resultant. By definition, the resultant is the single
vector that, if substituted in place of several vectors to
be added, would produce the same combined effect of
these vectors.
 METHODS OF ADDING VECTORS

1. Graphical Method
a. Parallelogram Method
b. Polygon Method
2. Analytical Method
a. Sine Law and Cosine Law
b. Component Method – (most convenient)
 METHODS OF ADDING VECTORS
(Graphical Method)

Parallelogram Method (Two Vectors)

1. Using a suitable scale (scale or ruler) and protractor, draw the arrows
representing the vectors from a common point.
2. Construct a parallelogram using the two vectors as sides.
3. Draw the diagonal of the parallelogram from the common point. This represents
the resultant.
4. Measure the length of the arrow representing the resultant, and from the scale
used, determine its magnitude.
5. With your protractor, determine the direction of the resultant.
Example 4: Find the resultant of the two forces, Force A is 3.0 𝑁 directed north and the
other force B is 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸. Find the resultant using parallelogram method.

Given: Required: Resultant (R)

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴 = 3.0 𝑁 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐵 = 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸
Figure:
Using a scale 1 𝑐𝑚: 1 𝑁,
1. Measure length of 𝑅 using a scale,
𝑅 ≈6𝑁
2. Measure angle 𝜃 that 𝑅 makes with the
horizontal using protractor,
𝜃 ≈ 55°

The resultant is 𝟔 𝑵 𝒂𝒕 𝟓𝟓° 𝑵 𝒐𝒇 𝑬

 METHODS OF ADDING VECTORS
(Graphical Method)

Parallelogram Method (More than Two Vectors)

6. After drawing the resultant of the first two vectors, construct a second
parallelogram using this resultant and the third vector as sides.
7. Draw the diagonal of the parallelogram from the common point. This is now the
new resultant.
8. The process is continued until all vectors have been added.
9. The magnitude of the final resultant is determined from the scale used. The
direction is measured using a protractor.
Example 5: Find the resultant of the three forces, Force A is 3.0 𝑁 directed north, Force B is 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸, and
Force C is 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑆 𝑜𝑓 𝐸. Find the resultant using parallelogram method.
Given:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴 = 3.0 𝑁 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ Required: Resultant (R)
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐵 = 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐶 = 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑆 𝑜𝑓 𝐸
1. Measure length of 𝑅1 using a scale,
Figure: 𝑅1 ≈ 6 𝑁
Using a scale 1 𝑐𝑚: 1 𝑁, 2. Measure angle 𝜃 that 𝑅1 makes with the
horizontal using protractor,
𝜃 ≈ 55°
𝑹𝟏 𝒊𝒔 𝟔 𝑵 𝒂𝒕 𝟓𝟓° 𝑵 𝒐𝒇 𝑬
3. Measure length of 𝑅2 using a scale,
𝑅2 ≈ 8 𝑁
4. Measure angle 𝜃 that 𝑅2 makes with the
horizontal using protractor,
𝜃 ≈ 58°
𝑹𝟐 𝒊𝒔 𝟖 𝑵 𝒂𝒕 𝟓𝟖° 𝑵 𝒐𝒇 𝑬
 METHODS OF ADDING VECTORS
(Graphical Method)
Polygon Method (Two Vectors)

1. Represent each vector quantity by an arrow draw to scale.

2. Draw the first arrow observing properly its direction.
3. Connect the tail of the second vector to the head of the first vector.
4. The resultant is the vector that will close the figure formed by connecting the
vectors. This resultant is drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the
last vector.
5. Measure the length of the arrow representing the resultant. Determine the
magnitude of the resultant from the scale used.
6. Use your protractor to determine the direction of the resultant.

Since the polygon that will be formed is a triangle, the polygon method of two vector is
otherwise known as 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑑.
Example 6: Find the resultant of the two forces, Force A is 3.0 𝑁 directed north and the
other force B is 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸. Find the resultant using polygon method.

Given: Required: Resultant (R)

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴 = 3.0 𝑁 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐵 = 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸
Figure:
Using a scale 1 𝑐𝑚: 1 𝑁,
1. Measure length of 𝑅 using a scale,
𝑅 ≈6𝑁
2. Measure angle 𝜃 that 𝑅 makes with the
horizontal using protractor,
𝜃 ≈ 55°

The resultant is 𝟔 𝑵 𝒂𝒕 𝟓𝟓° 𝑵 𝒐𝒇 𝑬

 METHODS OF ADDING VECTORS
(Graphical Method)
Polygon Method (More than Two Vectors)

1. Represent each vector quantity by an arrow draw to scale.

2. Draw the first arrow on the rectangular coordinate system, observing its direction
properly.
3. Connect the tail of the second vector to the head of the first vector. Connect the tail
of the third vector to the head of the second vector. You may continue drawing the
vectors head to tail until you draw the last vector to be added.
4. The resultant is the vector that will close the figure formed by connecting the
vectors. This resultant is drawn from the tail of the first vector to the head of the
last vector.
5. Measure the length of the arrow representing the resultant. Determine the
magnitude of the resultant from the scale used.
6. Use your protractor to determine the direction of the resultant.
Example 7: Find the resultant of the three forces, Force A is 3.0 𝑁 directed north, Force B
is 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸 , and Force C is 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑆 𝑜𝑓 𝐸 . Find the resultant using
parallelogram method.
Given: Required: Resultant (R)
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴 = 3.0 𝑁 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐵 = 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐶 = 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑆 𝑜𝑓 𝐸
Figure:
Using a scale 1 𝑐𝑚: 1 𝑁,

1. Measure length of 𝑅 using a scale,

𝑅 ≈8𝑁
2. Measure angle 𝜃 that 𝑅 makes with the
horizontal using protractor,
𝜃 ≈ 58°
𝑹𝟐 𝒊𝒔 𝟖 𝑵 𝒂𝒕 𝟓𝟖° 𝑵 𝒐𝒇 𝑬
 METHODS OF ADDING VECTORS
(Analytical Method)
Sine Law and Cosine Law

The steps are the same as in the polygon method except that instead of determining
the magnitude and direction of the resultant by actual measurements, they are
computed using the sine law and cosine law.

Cosine Law
Sine Law

𝒂 𝒃 𝒄 𝒂𝟐 = 𝒃𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 − 𝟐𝒃𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑨
= = 𝒃𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑩
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝑪
𝒄𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟐 − 𝟐𝒂𝒃 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝑪
Example 8: Find the resultant of the two forces, Force A is 3.0 𝑁 directed north and the
other force B is 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸. Find the resultant using sine and cosine law.

Given: Required: Resultant (R)

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴 = 3.0 𝑁 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐵 = 4.0 𝑁 30° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸 Solution:
Solve for 𝑅 using cosine law:
Figure:
𝑎2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝐴
𝑅2 = 32 + 42 − 2(3)(4) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
but 𝜃,
𝜃 = 90° + 30°
𝜃 = 120°
𝑅2 = 32 + 42 − 2(3)(4) 𝑐𝑜𝑠120°
𝑅2 = 37
𝑅 = 37
𝑹 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟖 𝑵
Cont…
Solve for angle 𝛽 using cosine law:
Solution: 𝑅 4
=
For the directional angle of 𝑅: sin 𝜃 sin 𝛽
6.08 4
= sin 𝛽
sin 120°
6.08 sin 𝛽 = 4 sin 120°
4 sin 120°
sin 𝛽 = 6.08
4 sin 120°
𝛽= 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 6.08
𝜷 = 𝟑𝟒. 𝟕𝟑°

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝟔. 𝟎𝟖 𝑵 𝒂𝒕 𝟑𝟒. 𝟕𝟑° 𝑬 𝒐𝒇 𝑵

𝒐𝒓
𝟔. 𝟎𝟖 𝑵 𝒂𝒕 𝟓𝟓. 𝟐𝟕° 𝑵 𝒐𝒇 𝑬
 METHODS OF ADDING VECTORS
(Analytical Method)
Resolution of Vectors

A single vector is usually divided into two vectors that are perpendicular to each other.
These two vectors are called components and the process of splitting the vector into its
components is called resolution.
Resultant:
Horizontal Component: 𝟐 𝟐
𝑹𝒙 = 𝑹 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 𝑹= 𝑹𝒙 + 𝑹𝒚

Vertical Component: Angle:

𝑹𝒚 = 𝑹 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝑹𝒚
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 =
𝑹𝒙
 METHODS OF ADDING VECTORS
(Analytical Method)
Component Method

The component method is the most convenient method to use when more than two
vectors are to be added.
Example 9: A jogger runs 6.30 m 45.0° N of E, 2.50 m west, 8.20 m 20.0° S of W, 5.90 m
south then stops. Find the resultant displacement.
Given: Required: Resultant (R)
𝐴 = 6.30 𝑚 45° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸
𝐵 = 2.50 𝑚 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 Solution:
𝐶 = 8.20 𝑚 20° 𝑆 𝑜𝑓 𝑊 Vectors Horizontal Comp. Horizontal Comp.
𝐷 = 5.90 𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝐴 = 6.30 𝑚 45° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸 +6.30 cos 45° = 4.455 +6.30 sin 45° = 4.455
Figure: 𝐵 = 2.50 𝑚 𝑤𝑒𝑠𝑡 −2.50 0

𝐶 = 8.20 𝑚 20° 𝑆 𝑜𝑓 𝑊 −8.20 cos 20° = −7.705 −8.20 sin 20° = −2.805

𝐷 = 5.90 𝑚 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ 0 −5.90

Total −𝟓. 𝟕𝟓 −𝟒. 𝟐𝟓

Cont… Solving for the Resultant:
2 2
Solution: 𝑅= 𝑅𝑥 + 𝑅𝑦
𝑅 = (−5.75)2 +(−4.25)2
𝑅 = 7.15 𝑚

Solving for the Angle:

𝑅𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑅𝑥
(−4.25)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 = (−5.75)
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.739
𝜃 = 36.47°

𝑻𝒉𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒖𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒔 𝟕. 𝟏𝟓 𝒎 𝒂𝒕 𝟑𝟔. 𝟒𝟕° 𝑺 𝒐𝒇 𝑾

𝒐𝒓
𝟕. 𝟏𝟓 𝒎 𝒂𝒕 𝟓𝟑. 𝟓𝟑° 𝑾 𝒐𝒇 𝑺
 VECTOR SUBTRACTION

To be able to subtract, we have to first define the negative of a vector 𝑽. The negative
vector −𝑽, is equal in magnitude to V but oppositely directed.

𝐴 = 5 𝑁 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑡ℎ
−𝐴 = 5 𝑁 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑡ℎ

𝐵 = 5 𝑁 𝑎𝑡 30° 𝑆 𝑜𝑓 𝑊
−𝐵 = 5 𝑁 𝑎𝑡 30° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸

𝑨 − 𝑩 = 𝑨 + (−𝑩)
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

1. Product of a Vector and a Scalar Quantity

The product of a scalar quantity, say 𝒂, and a vector quantity 𝒃, written as
𝒂𝒃, is a vector.

𝒄 = 𝒂𝒃
𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓 = (𝒔𝒄𝒂𝒍𝒂𝒓)(𝒗𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒐𝒓)
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

Example 12: An unbalanced force 𝑭 acting on a body of mass 𝒎 will impart to it an

acceleration 𝒂 according to the equation,
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂
What force is needed to give a 10 𝑘𝑔 mass an acceleration of 3 𝑚/𝑠 2 directed to the east?

Solution:
Recall that mass is scalar and acceleration is vector. Hence, this is a case of a vector quantity
multiplied by a scalar quantity.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒: 1 𝑁 = 1 𝑘𝑔 ∙ 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝐹 = (10 𝑘𝑔)(3 𝑚/𝑠 2)
𝐹 = 30 𝑁

Since force is positive, it follows that the direction of force is the same as that of the
acceleration. Thus, force F is 30 N east.
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

2. Dot Product of two Vector Quantities

The dot product of two vector quantities 𝑨 and 𝑩 is also called scalar
product. Although two vectors are being multiplied, the product is a scalar quantity.
Ex. Work is the dot product of force and displacement. Work is a scalar quantity.

𝑨 ∙ 𝑩 = 𝑨𝑩 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽 𝐴 =< 𝑎1 , 𝑏1 , … > 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑏1 𝑗 + ⋯

𝐵 =< 𝑎2 , 𝑏2 , … > 𝑎2 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + ⋯
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑨 ∙ 𝑩 =< 𝒂𝟏 𝒂𝟐 + 𝒃𝟏 𝒃𝟐 + ⋯ >
 VECTOR MULTIPLICATION

3. Cross Product of Two Vector Quantities

The cross product of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 yields a vector for its product. It is
for this reason that the cross product is called a vector product.

𝑨 𝒙 𝑩 = −𝑩 𝒙 𝑨 = 𝑨𝑩 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵.

Practice Problems:
Convert the following measurement: 8.) Anna walks 90 𝑚 due east and then 50 𝑚 due north.
1.) 4 m = _____ in What is her displacement from her starting point?
2.) 10 kg = _____ lb 9.) A jogger runs 145 𝑚 in direction 20.0° east of north
3.) 45 mi/h = _____ ft/s (displacement vector 𝐴) and then 105 𝑚 in a direction
35.0° south of east (displacement vector 𝐵 ). Using
4.) 8 𝑓𝑡 3 = _____ 𝑦𝑑 3 components, determine the magnitude and direction of
the resultant vector 𝐶 for these two displacements.
Find 𝐴 − 𝐵 for the following cases:
5.) 𝐴 = 6 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 4 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑊
6.)𝐴 = 7.0 𝑚 60° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 = 5.0 𝑚 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑡 Answers:
1.) 157.48 in
7.) A displacement 2.) 22.05 lb
vector 𝑟 has a 3.) 66 ft/s
magnitude of 𝑟 = 175 𝑚
4.) 0.296 𝑦𝑑3
and points at an angle of
5.) 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 10 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝐸
50.0° relative to the 𝑥 6.) 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 6.24 𝑚 𝑎𝑡 78° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝑊
axis as shown in the 7.) 𝑥 = 112.49 𝑚 𝐸 , 𝑦 = 134.06 𝑚 𝑁
figure. Find the 𝑥 and 𝑦 8.) 𝑑 = 102.96 𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 29.05° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸
components of vector. 9.) 𝐶 = 155.46 𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝜃 = 29.28° 𝑁 𝑜𝑓 𝐸