EE3304

Power Systems I

5.0 Basic Electrical Measurements

Lecturer: Dilshani Maheepala

1
Content

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Types of Earthing Systems

5.3 Earth Resistance

5.4 Earth Resistivity

5.5 Measurement of earth resistance and resistivity

5.6 Corrosion of Earth electrodes

2
5.1 Introduction

3
 Introduction

What is meant by Power System Earthing?

Connecting different points from generators to consumer installations to the earth.

Why is it important?
1. To ensure that the voltage of non current carrying parts of the system is nearly the
same voltage of surrounding.
2. To provide a discharge path for fault currents and lightning strikes.
3. To allow sufficient current to flow for proper operation of protective devices
(RCCBs, ELRs).
4. To limit over voltages between neutral and ground and between ground and line.
5. To Provide a stable reference potential (For control systems, measuring
instrument)
4
 Introduction
Power system earthing can be divided into two areas

• Neutral Earthing: This deals with the earthing of system neutral to ensure
system security and protection by providing an stable reference voltage. This
is important because the performance of the system in terms of short circuits,
stability, protection, etc., is greatly affected by the state of the neutral
conductor.

• Equipment Earthing: This deals with earthing of non-current carrying parts of a

equipment to ensure the safety of person and protection against lightning. The
objective of this grounding is to ensure effective and rapid operation of the
protective gear in the event of earth fault currents.

5
5.2 Types of Earthing Systems

6
 Types of Earthing Systems
• Any electrical distribution system consists 2 major components.
– Power source (Transformer of generator)
– Installation (Consumer loads)

• In IEC 60364 standards, according to the grounding characteristics of the source and
installation, systems are designated by using a standard code XY-Z where X is
grounding characteristic of source and Y is earthing characteristic of installation.
T - Earthed(in French Terre) , N – Neutral, I - Isolated
Z is the physical arrangement of earth and neutral wires
C – Combined , S - Separate

7
 TT System
• In this system, source is directly earthed and the exposed conductive parts of the
installation are interconnected and earthed.
• In a TT system, earth fault loop impedance is very high thus the fault current is very
low.
• RCDs are compulsory for TT systems

8
 IT System
• In this system, source neutral point is unearthed or earthed through a very high
impedance and the exposed conductive parts of the installation are separately
interconnected and solidly earthed.
• Only allowed for special installations like labs, not allowed for public installation

9
 TN System
• In this system, source is solidly earthed exposed conductive parts of the installation
are connected to the neutral point of the source by a conductor which is called as
protective conductor or protective earth (PE)
• There are three options available for this
i. Connect to the neutral point using a separate conductor (TN-S)
ii. Connect to the neutral point of the load terminal / neutral and ECPs are combined
(TN-C)
iii. Combination of above i and ii (TN-C-S)

10
 TN - S System
• The source neutral is directly earthed, exposed conductive parts are connected to the
neutral using a separate conductor ( two separate neutral and earth conductors)
• Loop impedance is a small value hence fault current is high
• The system is costly since an additional conductor is required. But can detect any kind
of earth fault.

11
 TN - C System
• The source neutral is directly earthed, exposed conductive parts are connected to the
neutral point at load terminal. ( one conductor for both neutral and earth)
• Loop impedance is a small value hence fault current is high
• Over current devices can be used to detect earth faults.

12
 TN – C - S System
• The source neutral is directly earthed, separate neutral and earth conductors in
indoor wiring and combined PEN conductor from building distribution point up to the
transformer
• Same level of protection as TN-S system but with reduced cost.

13
Comparison of Earthing Systems

• In Sri Lanka TT system is used.

• But consumers can use a TN system, if they have a dedicated distribution transformer.

14
Arrangement of Earthing System in a Building

15
Earth Fault Loop

16
 Terms used in Power System Earthing
• Earth Electrode : Metallic material which is embedded vertically or horizontally to the earth to
ensure good conductive path to the ground. This can be a rod, pipe, an array of conductors or
a plate. For substations an earthing grid (a mat) is used . Generally Cu, Al or Steel is used.
• Earth Fault Loop Impedance : The total impedance of the loop in which the fault current
flows, when an earth fault occurs.
• Earth Current : The current dissipated by earth electrode into the ground.
• Step Potential : The voltage difference shunted by a human body between two accessible
points on the ground.
• Touch potential : The voltage difference between a point on the ground and a point on an
object likely to carry fault current (Metal casing or frame of an equipment), which can be
touched by a person.
• Transferred potential : This a special case of touch potential where a person is standing within
the station area touches a conductor grounded at remote place or vice versa.

17
 Terms used in Power System Earthing
• Mesh potential : The maximum touch potential within the mesh of the grid.
• Grounding Transformer : For transformers which don’t have a neutral (e.g. Δ-Δ) to be
grounded, a small step down transformer is used (Generally star-delta or zig-zag) which is
called as the grounding transformer.

18
5.3 Earth Resistance

19
 Earth Resistance

• The resistance offered by the earth electrode to flow of current into the ground.
• Not the ohmic resistance of the electrode.
• For better protection, this should be very small.
– For Larger power stations : less than 0.5 Ω
– Major power plants: less than 1 Ω
– For Small substations : less than 2 Ω
– For other cases : less than 10 Ω
• The total earth resistance consist
– Resistance of earthing wires and electrode
– Contact resistance between electrode surface and earth
– Resistance of body of earth surrounding the electrode

20
 Earth Resistance for Different Electrodes

1. Hemispherical Electrode

21
 Exercise

Find the earthing resistance of a hemispherical electrode which has a radius of 40 cm

buried at a surface of earth having a soil resistivity of 60 Ω m.
(Answer: 23.873 Ω)

22
 Earth Resistance for Different Electrodes

2. Plate Electrode

23
 Exercise

Find the earthing resistance of a 1.2 m x 1.2m plate electrode buried at a surface of
earth having a soil resistivity of 60 Ω m.
(Answer: 22.156 Ω)

24
 Earth Resistance for Different Electrodes

3. Single Earth Rod Electrode

25
 Exercise

Find the earthing resistance of a driven rod length 3 m and diameter 2 cm if soil
resistivity is 60 Ω m.

26
 Earth Resistance for Different Electrodes

4. Multiple Earth Rod Electrode

In the event that the desired earthing resistance is not achievable using a single earth
electrode, multiple electrodes could be used.
For Parallel connection of aligned rods
The combined resistance of rod electrodes in parallel can be obtained from the
following equation

27
 Exercise

For an earth electrode 10 earth rods are to be used in a linear arrangement. Each rod
has a length of 1.8 m and outer diameter of 19 mm. Assuming that the each rod is fully
driven into the soil which has a resistivity of 180 Ω m, calculate approximated earthing
resistance if the rod spacing is
a) 0.5 m
b) 1.8 m
c) 10 m
.

28
 Factors Effecting the Earth Impedance
• Soil (clay, gravel, rock, sand, stones)
• Weather (rainfall, heat, moisture, drought and frost)
• Electrode type
• Electrode size
• Near by utilities
• Electrode in parallel
• Distance between electrode
• Frequency of the current

29
5.4 Earth Resistivity

30
 Earth Resistivity
• The soil resistivity at the location of the earth electrode needs to be investigated. The
resistivity of soils varies with
– Soil type
– The depth from the surface
– Salt Content
– The moisture content
– The soil temperature
– Magnitude of current
• In the absence of soil investigative data, typical resistivity of various soil types given in
tables are used.

31
Earth Resistivity

32
Earth Resistivity

33
Earth Resistivity

34
 Soil Improvement Techniques
In areas of very high soil resistivity, low resistance cannot be achieved through use of
buried and driven earth electrodes alone. There are four techniques commonly used
for the improvement of soil.
– Use of soluble additives like common salt or copper sulphate
– Use of bentonite or bentonite-gypsum mixture
Mixture of metal oxides of Na, K, Al, Ca and Mg
It is noncorrosive, stable, and has a resistivity of 2.5Ωm at 300% moisture.
– Use of chemical ground rods
A copper tube filled with salt
– Use of GEM (Ground Enhancement Material)
Slurry backfill containing bentonite + cement + carbon
35
Resistivity of the material can be improved up to 0.12 Ω m
5.5 Measurement of Earth Resistance and Resistivity

36
 Measurement of Earth Resistance
Fall of Potential Method
- Three terminal test

37
 Measurement of Earth Resistance
• The earth meggar has a current terminal, a voltage terminal and a common terminal.
• The common terminal is connected to the earth electrode.
• When an electrode is inserted into the ground and current flows through it, the potential
around the electrode takes the form of concentric circles of equal potential.
• It is essential that the equal lines of the common terminal and the current terminal do
not overlap. Therefore distance between the ground electrode to be tested and the
current terminal is vital.
• The distance should be sufficient so that the equal lines of potential of the common
terminal and the current terminal do not overlap.(ten times of the earth rod length)
• The readings are taken at points close to the ground electrode and then gradually away
from it.

38
 Measurement of Earth Resistance
• The resistance readings in ohms are plotted against the distance in a graph which take
the form as below.
• At around 62% of the distance between the ground electrode and the current terminal,
the graph levels off.
• This reading is taken as the value of the earth resistance. This point should be outside the
Equipotential zones of both the current terminal and the ground electrode

39
 Measurement of Earth Resistivity
Method 1: Wenner Method

In practical testing depth of burial (L) is very small compared to electrode spacing (D).
(D >> L)
Then the equation can be simplified to
Rw is called as the Wenner resistance which is V/I in the figure. 40
 Measurement of Earth Resistivity
Method 2 : Schlumberger Method

Equation is valid only when D > 2S, L << D and L<< S.

Rs is Schlumberger resistance which is V/I in the figure.
41
5.6 Corrosion of Electrodes

42
Factors for Corrosion

• Intrinsic properties of metals ( Rate of corrosion of iron is 6 times that of Cu )

• Type of dissimilar metals (Corrosion of iron is more when coupled to Cu than when
coupled with lead)

• Area of anode and cathode (Corrosion α Area )

• Characteristics of soil

43
Methods of Minimizing Corrosion

• Proper selection of earthing material (Bare copper, stainless steel)

• Corrosion resistant metallic coating (Zinc coating)

• Use of circular rods instead of strips

• Use of sacrificial anodes (Metals more electronegative than steel : magnesium, Zinc,
Aluminum)

• Using proper below ground connection methods (thermite welded connections)

44
Q&A

45