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Handbook of Graph Theory Combinatorial Optimization
and Algorithms 1st Edition Subramanian Arumugam
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Subramanian Arumugam, Andreas Brandstädt, Takao Nishizeki
(Editors)
ISBN(s): 9781584885955, 1584885955
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 18.54 MB
Year: 2016
Language: english
 Computer Science

Combinatorial Optimization, and Algorithms

Chapman & Hall/CRC Chapman & Hall/CRC
Computer & Information Science Series Computer & Information Science Series

Handbook of Graph Theory,

The fusion between graph theory and combinatorial optimization has led to theoretically profound
and practically useful algorithms, yet there is no book that currently covers both areas together.
Handbook of Graph Theory, Combinatorial Optimization, and Algorithms is the first to present a
unified, comprehensive treatment of both graph theory and combinatorial optimization.
Handbook of
Divided into 11 cohesive sections, the handbook’s 44 chapters focus on graph theory, combinatorial
optimization, and algorithmic issues. The book provides readers with the algorithmic and theoretical
foundations to
Graph Theory,
Combinatorial
• Understand phenomena as shaped by their graph structures
• Develop needed algorithmic and optimization tools for the study of graph structures
• Design and plan graph structures that lead to certain desirable behavior

Optimization, and
With contributions from more than 40 worldwide experts, this handbook equips readers with the
necessary techniques and tools to solve problems in a variety of applications. Readers gain expo-
sure to the theoretical and algorithmic foundations of a wide range of topics in graph theory and
combinatorial optimization, enabling them to identify (and hence solve) problems encountered in
diverse disciplines, such as electrical, communication, computer, social, transportation, biological,
and other networks.
Features
Algorithms
• Gives a broad, integrated account of graph theory, combinatorial optimization, and related
algorithmic issues
• Describes well-tested algorithms, techniques, and tools for solving computationally intractable
problems
• Covers numerous topics of interest in applications in computer science, electrical and com-
Editor-in-Chief
puter engineering, very large-scale integrated (VLSI) circuit design, industrial and systems
Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman

Thulasiraman, Arumugam,
Brandstädt, and Nishizeki
engineering, telecommunication networks, network science and engineering, transportation
networks, machine intelligence, and data mining
• Provides the theoretical foundation for further advances
• Includes a survey section at the end of each chapter that offers pointers for exploring related Edited by
advances and issues
Subramanian Arumugam
Andreas Brandstädt
Takao Nishizeki
C5955

w w w. c rc p r e s s . c o m

C5955_cover.indd 1 11/3/15 8:58 AM

 Handbook of
Graph Theory,
Combinatorial
Optimization, and
Algorithms
 CHAPMAN & HALL/CRC
COMPUTER and INFORMATION SCIENCE SERIES
Series Editor: Sartaj Sahni

PUBLISHED TITLES
ADVERSARIAL REASONING: COMPUTATIONAL APPROACHES TO READING THE OPPONENT’S MIND
Alexander Kott and William M. McEneaney
COMPUTER-AIDED GRAPHING AND SIMULATION TOOLS FOR AUTOCAD USERS
P. A. Simionescu
DELAUNAY MESH GENERATION
Siu-Wing Cheng, Tamal Krishna Dey, and Jonathan Richard Shewchuk
DISTRIBUTED SENSOR NETWORKS, SECOND EDITION
S. Sitharama Iyengar and Richard R. Brooks
DISTRIBUTED SYSTEMS: AN ALGORITHMIC APPROACH, SECOND EDITION
Sukumar Ghosh
ENERGY-AWARE MEMORY MANAGEMENT FOR EMBEDDED MULTIMEDIA SYSTEMS: A COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN APPROACH
Florin Balasa and Dhiraj K. Pradhan
ENERGY EFFICIENT HARDWARE-SOFTWARE CO-SYNTHESIS USING RECONFIGURABLE HARDWARE
Jingzhao Ou and Viktor K. Prasanna
FUNDAMENTALS OF NATURAL COMPUTING: BASIC CONCEPTS, ALGORITHMS, AND APPLICATIONS
Leandro Nunes de Castro
HANDBOOK OF ALGORITHMS FOR WIRELESS NETWORKING AND MOBILE COMPUTING
Azzedine Boukerche
HANDBOOK OF APPROXIMATION ALGORITHMS AND METAHEURISTICS
Teofilo F. Gonzalez
HANDBOOK OF BIOINSPIRED ALGORITHMS AND APPLICATIONS
Stephan Olariu and Albert Y. Zomaya
HANDBOOK OF COMPUTATIONAL MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Srinivas Aluru
HANDBOOK OF DATA STRUCTURES AND APPLICATIONS
Dinesh P. Mehta and Sartaj Sahni
HANDBOOK OF DYNAMIC SYSTEM MODELING
Paul A. Fishwick
HANDBOOK OF ENERGY-AWARE AND GREEN COMPUTING
Ishfaq Ahmad and Sanjay Ranka
HANDBOOK OF GRAPH THEORY, COMBINATORIAL OPTIMIZATION, AND ALGORITHMS
Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman, Subramanian Arumugam, Andreas Brandstädt, and Takao Nishizeki
PUBLISHED TITLES CONTINUED
HANDBOOK OF PARALLEL COMPUTING: MODELS, ALGORITHMS AND APPLICATIONS
Sanguthevar Rajasekaran and John Reif
HANDBOOK OF REAL-TIME AND EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Insup Lee, Joseph Y-T. Leung, and Sang H. Son
HANDBOOK OF SCHEDULING: ALGORITHMS, MODELS, AND PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
Joseph Y.-T. Leung
HIGH PERFORMANCE COMPUTING IN REMOTE SENSING
Antonio J. Plaza and Chein-I Chang
HUMAN ACTIVITY RECOGNITION: USING WEARABLE SENSORS AND SMARTPHONES
Miguel A. Labrador and Oscar D. Lara Yejas
IMPROVING THE PERFORMANCE OF WIRELESS LANs: A PRACTICAL GUIDE
Nurul Sarkar
INTEGRATION OF SERVICES INTO WORKFLOW APPLICATIONS
Paweł Czarnul
INTRODUCTION TO NETWORK SECURITY
Douglas Jacobson
LOCATION-BASED INFORMATION SYSTEMS: DEVELOPING REAL-TIME TRACKING APPLICATIONS
Miguel A. Labrador, Alfredo J. Pérez, and Pedro M. Wightman
METHODS IN ALGORITHMIC ANALYSIS
Vladimir A. Dobrushkin
MULTICORE COMPUTING: ALGORITHMS, ARCHITECTURES, AND APPLICATIONS
Sanguthevar Rajasekaran, Lance Fiondella, Mohamed Ahmed, and Reda A. Ammar
PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS OF QUEUING AND COMPUTER NETWORKS
G. R. Dattatreya
THE PRACTICAL HANDBOOK OF INTERNET COMPUTING
Munindar P. Singh
SCALABLE AND SECURE INTERNET SERVICES AND ARCHITECTURE
Cheng-Zhong Xu
SOFTWARE APPLICATION DEVELOPMENT: A VISUAL C++®, MFC, AND STL TUTORIAL
Bud Fox, Zhang Wenzu, and Tan May Ling
SPECULATIVE EXECUTION IN HIGH PERFORMANCE COMPUTER ARCHITECTURES
David Kaeli and Pen-Chung Yew
VEHICULAR NETWORKS: FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE
Stephan Olariu and Michele C. Weigle
 Handbook of
Graph Theory,
Combinatorial
Optimization, and
Algorithms
Editor-in-Chief
Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman
University of Oklahoma
Norman, Oklahoma, USA

Edited by
Subramanian Arumugam
Kalasalingam University
Tamil Nadu, India

Andreas Brandstädt
University of Rostock
Rostock, Germany

Takao Nishizeki
Tohoku University
Sendai, Japan
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20151116

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4200-1107-4 (eBook - PDF)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and
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Contents

Preface xi
Editors xiii
Contributors xv

Section I Basic Concepts and Algorithms

Chapter 1  Basic Concepts in Graph Theory and Algorithms 3
Subramanian Arumugam and Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman

Chapter 2  Basic Graph Algorithms 21

Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman

Chapter 3  Depth-First Search and Applications 59

Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman

Section II Flows in Networks

Chapter 4  Maximum Flow Problem 79
F. Zeynep Sargut, Ravindra K. Ahuja, James B. Orlin, and Thomas L. Magnanti

Chapter 5  Minimum Cost Flow Problem 113

Balachandran Vaidyanathan, Ravindra K. Ahuja, James B. Orlin, and Thomas L. Magnanti

Chapter 6  Multicommodity Flows 157

Balachandran Vaidyanathan, Ravindra K. Ahuja, James B. Orlin, and Thomas L. Magnanti

Section III Algebraic Graph Theory

Chapter 7  Graphs and Vector Spaces 177
Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman and M. N. S. Swamy

Chapter 8  Incidence, Cut, and Circuit Matrices of a Graph 191

Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman and M. N. S. Swamy

vii
viii  Contents

Chapter 9  Adjacency Matrix and Signal Flow Graphs 215

Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman and M. N. S. Swamy

Chapter 10  Adjacency Spectrum and the Laplacian Spectrum of a Graph 227

R. Balakrishnan

Chapter 11  Resistance Networks, Random Walks, and Network

Theorems 247
Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman and Mamta Yadav

Section IV Structural Graph Theory

Chapter 12  Connectivity 273
Subramanian Arumugam and Karam Ebadi

Chapter 13  Connectivity Algorithms 291

Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman

Chapter 14  Graph Connectivity Augmentation 315

András Frank and Tibor Jordán

Chapter 15  Matchings 349

Michael D. Plummer

Chapter 16  Matching Algorithms 373

Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman

Chapter 17  Stable Marriage Problem 403

Shuichi Miyazaki

Chapter 18  Domination in Graphs 419

Subramanian Arumugam and M. Sundarakannan

Chapter 19  Graph Colorings 449

Subramanian Arumugam and K. Raja Chandrasekar

Section V Planar Graphs

Chapter 20  Planarity and Duality 475
Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman and M. N. S. Swamy

Chapter 21  Edge Addition Planarity Testing Algorithm 489

John M. Boyer

Chapter 22  Planarity Testing Based on PC-Trees 525

Wen-Lian Hsu
 Contents  ix

Chapter 23  Graph Drawing 537

Md. Saidur Rahman and Takao Nishizeki

Section VI Interconnection Networks

Chapter 24  Introduction to Interconnection Networks 587
S. A. Choudum, Lavanya Sivakumar, and V. Sunitha

Chapter 25  Cayley Graphs 627

S. Lakshmivarahan, Lavanya Sivakumar, and S. K. Dhall

Chapter 26  Graph Embedding and Interconnection Networks 653

S.A. Choudum, Lavanya Sivakumar, and V. Sunitha

Section VII Special Graphs

Chapter 27  Program Graphs 691
Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman

Chapter 28  Perfect Graphs 707

Chı́nh T. Hoàng and R. Sritharan

Chapter 29  Tree-Structured Graphs 751

Andreas Brandstädt and Feodor F. Dragan

Section VIII Partitioning

Chapter 30  Graph and Hypergraph Partitioning 829

Sachin B. Patkar and H. Narayanan

Section IX Matroids
Chapter 31  Matroids 879
H. Narayanan and Sachin B. Patkar

Chapter 32  Hybrid Analysis and Combinatorial Optimization 923

H. Narayanan

Section X Probabilistic Methods, Random Graph Models,

and Randomized Algorithms

Chapter 33  Probabilistic Arguments in Combinatorics 945

C.R. Subramanian

Chapter 34  Random Models and Analyses for Chemical Graphs 997

Daniel Pascua, Tina M. Kouri, and Dinesh P. Mehta
x  Contents

Chapter 35  Randomized Graph Algorithms: Techniques and Analysis 1011

Surender Baswana and Sandeep Sen

Section XI Coping with NP-Completeness

Chapter 36  General Techniques for Combinatorial Approximation 1027
Sartaj Sahni

Chapter 37  ε-Approximation Schemes for the Constrained Shortest Path

Problem 1035
Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman

Chapter 38  Constrained Shortest Path Problem: Lagrangian

Relaxation-Based Algorithmic Approaches 1041
Ying Xiao and Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman

Chapter 39  Algorithms for Finding Disjoint Paths with QoS Constraints 1063
Alex Sprintson and Ariel Orda

Chapter 40  Set-Cover Approximation 1075

Neal E. Young

Chapter 41  Approximation Schemes for Fractional Multicommodity

Flow Problems 1079
George Karakostas

Chapter 42  Approximation Algorithms for Connectivity Problems 1097

Ramakrishna Thurimella

Chapter 43  Rectilinear Steiner Minimum Trees 1115

Tao Huang and Evangeline F. Y. Young

Chapter 44  Fixed-Parameter Algorithms and Complexity 1141

Venkatesh Raman and Saket Saurabh

Index 1197
Preface

Research in graph theory and combinatorial optimization has experienced explosive growth
in the last three decades or so. Rapid technological advances such as those in telecommu-
nication networks and large-scale integrated circuit design; emergence of new areas such as
network science, which emphasizes applications in social networks and biological networks;
and advances in theoretical computer science have all contributed to this explosion of inter-
est and knowledge in graph theory and combinatorial optimization and related algorithmic
issues. Therefore, it is no surprise that these disciplines have come to play a central role in
engineering and computer science curricula. Several excellent textbooks dealing with graph
theory or combinatorial optimization are now available. These books can be broadly classi-
fied into two categories. In the first category are the books that deal with all the essential
topics in graph theory or combinatorial optimization. These books are intended to serve as
textbooks for senior undergraduate students and beginning graduate students. In the second
category are books that give an in-depth treatment of certain specific topics. They are appro-
priate for students who intend to pursue a research career in graph theory or combinatorial
optimization. Since these disciplines have reached a certain level of maturity, we see a need
for a book that gives a broader and an integrated treatment of both graph theory and combi-
natorial optimization. Such a book will help students and researchers equip themselves with
techniques and tools that will strengthen their ability to see opportunities to apply graph
theory and combinatorial optimization in solving problems they encounter in their applica-
tions. Our long years of experience in teaching and applying graph theory and combinatorial
optimization have convinced us that while tools and techniques enhance one’s ability to solve
problems, a broader exposure to them will also help an individual see problems that will not
be visible otherwise. This philosophy is the underlying motivating factor for undertaking this
project.
A book that satisfies the above objective has to be necessarily a handbook with contribu-
tions from experts on the various topics to be covered. Size limitations also require that we
make some sacrifices in the treatment of the topics. We decided to emphasize proofs of results
and underlying proof techniques, since exposure to them would help enhance the analytical
skills of students. So, the authors were requested to give proofs of all theorems unless they
were too long, and limit the illustrations of theorems and algorithms to a minimum.
This book is organized into 11 sections, with each section consisting of chapters focusing
on a specific theme. Overall there are 44 chapters. Roughly speaking, there are 21 chapters
dealing exclusively with graph theory, 19 dealing exclusively with combinatorial optimization,
and 24 dealing with algorithmic issues. We believe that this book will serve as a reference
and also provide material to develop different courses according to the needs of the students.
The coverage of this book is by no means exhaustive. Advances in graph minors and
extremal graph theory are obvious omissions. There is also room for including additional
topics in combinatorial optimization, particularly, approximation algorithms and recent

xi
xii  Preface

applications. We hope the survey section at the end of each chapter provides adequate point-
ers for exploring other related issues. We also hope a future edition will make the coverage
more complete.
It has been a pleasure working with the editorial and production teams at Taylor &
Francis Group. In particular we are thankful to Randi Cohen, senior acquisition editor;
Joette Lynch, project editor; and Indumathi Sambantham, project management executive at
Lumina Datamatics, for making the production process smooth, swift, and painless.
“KT” thanks Sartaj Sahni of the University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, for the oppor-
tunity to undertake this project and graduate students Mamta Yadav (now at the University
of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma), Dr. Yuh-Rong Chen (now at Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore), and Dr. Jincheng Zhuang (now at the Chinese Academy of Sciences,
China) for their valuable help at different stages during the preparation of this book.
For “KT” it all started when he was introduced to graph theory during 1963–1964 by
Professor Myril B. Reed of the University of Illinois who was then visiting the College of
Engineering, Guindy (now Anna University, Chennai, India), under the USAID educational
program. This marked the beginning of a career in exploring graph theoretic applications.
“KT” gratefully dedicates this handbook to the memory of Professor Myril Reed whose
inspirational teaching and works triggered all that happened to him in his academic life.

Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman

University of Oklahoma

Subramanian Arumugam
Kalasalingam University

Andreas Brandstädt
University of Rostock

Takao Nishizeki
Tohoku University
Editors

Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman, PhD, has been professor and Hitachi chair in com-
puter science at the University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, since 1994 and holds the
professor emeritus position in electrical and computer engineering at Concordia University,
Montreal, Québec, Canada. His prior appointments include professorships in electrical engi-
neering and computer science at the Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
(1965–1981) and in electrical and computer engineering at the Technical University of Nova
Scotia, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (1981–1982), and at Concordia University (1982–1994).
He has held visiting positions at the University of Illinois, Champaign, Illinois; University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada; University of Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany; Tokyo
Institute of Technology, Meguro, Japan; and the National Chiao-Tung University, Hsinchu,
Taiwan.
“KT” earned his bachelor’s and master’s degrees in electrical engineering from Anna
University (formerly College of Engineering, Guindy), Chennai, India, in 1963 and 1965,
respectively, and a PhD in electrical engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology
Madras, Chennai, India, in 1968. His research interests have been in graph theory, combi-
natorial optimization, and related algorithmic issues with a specific focus on applications in
electrical and computer engineering. He has published extensively in archival journals and
has coauthored two textbooks entitled Graphs, Networks and Algorithms and Graphs: Theory
and Algorithms published by Wiley-Interscience in 1981 and 1992, respectively. He has been
professionally active within the IEEE, in particular, IEEE Circuits and Systems, Computer
and Communications Societies, and the ACM.
“KT” has received several honors and awards, including the Distinguished Alumnus
Award of the Indian Institute of Technology Madras; IEEE Circuits and Systems Society
Charles Desoer Technical Achievement Award; IEEE Circuits and Systems Society Golden
Jubilee Medal; senior fellowship of the Japan Society for Promotion of Science; and fellowship
of the IEEE, AAAS, and the European Academy of Sciences.

Subramanian Arumugam, PhD, is currently senior professor (research) and director,

National Centre for Advanced Research in Discrete Mathematics, Kalasalingam University,
Krishnankoil, India. He was previously professor and head of the Department of Mathematics
at Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli, India. He is also a visiting professor
at Liverpool Hope University, Liverpool, UK, and adjunct professor at Ball State University,
Muncie, Indiana. He was conjoint professor at the University of Newcastle, Australia, from
2009 to 2012. His current area of research is graph theory and its applications. He has guided
35 PhD candidates and has published approximately 195 papers in national and international
journals. He has 47 years of academic experience and has authored 32 books, including two
textbooks in Tamil, which are widely used by undergraduate students of various universities
in India. He has organized 27 conferences and workshops and has edited 12 proceedings. He
is the founder editor-in-chief of AKCE International Journal of Graphs and Combinatorics,
which has been indexed in SCOPUS and is to be published jointly with Elsevier from 2015
onward.

xiii
xiv  Editors

Andreas Brandstädt, PhD, has been a professor in computer science at the University of
Rostock, Rostock, Germany, since 1994 (officially retired October 2014). His prior appoint-
ments include a professorship in computer science at the University of Duisburg, Germany
(from 1991 to 1994), and assistant professorships in computer science at the University of
Hagen, Hagen, Germany (from 1990 to 1991), and in mathematics at the University of Jena,
Jena, (then) East Germany (from 1974 to 1990).
He has held various visiting professorships in France, for example, at the University of
Amiens (thrice), University of Clermont-Ferrand (twice), University of Metz, as well as the
University of Koper, Slovenia; and he has presented invited lectures at various international
conferences.
Dr. Brandstädt earned his master’s degree (diplom), his PhD (Dr. rer. nat.), and his
habilitation (Dr. rer. nat. habil.) in mathematics from the University of Jena, East Germany,
in 1974, 1976, and 1983, respectively.
His research interests have been in stochastics, complexity theory, formal languages, graph
algorithms, graph theory, combinatorial optimization, and related algorithmic issues with
a specific focus on efficient algorithms based on graph structure and graph classes with
tree structure. He has published extensively in various international journals and conference
proceedings, is the author of a textbook Graphen und Algorithmen (in German), and has
coauthored a widely cited monograph, Graph Classes: A Survey.
He has been active within various program committees, such as the WG conferences and
the ODSA conferences, as co-organizer of such conferences and coeditor of the corresponding
conference proceedings.

Takao Nishizeki, PhD, was a student at Tohoku University, Japan, earning a bachelor’s
degree in 1969, a master’s in 1971, and a PhD in 1974, all in electrical communication
engineering. He continued at Tohoku as a faculty member, and became a full professor there
in 1988. He retired in 2010, becoming a professor emeritus at Tohoku University, Japan,
but continued teaching as a professor at Kwansei Gakuin University, Nishinomiya, Japan,
over the period 2010–2015. He was also a visiting research mathematician at Carnegie-Mellon
University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, from 1977 to 1978.
Dr. Nishizeki has established himself, both nationally and internationally, as a world
leader in computer science, in particular, algorithms for planar graphs, edge coloring, net-
work flows, VLSI routing, graph drawing, and cryptology. His publication list includes 3
coauthored books, 5 edited books, and more than 300 technical papers in leading journals
and prestigious conferences, such as JACM, SIAM Journal on Computing, Algorithmica,
Journal of Algorithms, Journal of Cryptology, STOC, ICALP, and SODA.
Dr. Nishizeki is a fellow of many distinguished academic and scientific societies, including
ACM, IEEE, IEICE of Japan, Information Processing Society of Japan, and Bangladesh
Academy of Sciences. He served as advisory committee chair of ISAAC 1990–2009 and as
steering committee member of Graph Drawing Conference 1993–2009.
For his great achievements in computer science, Professor Nishizeki has received many
awards, including the Science and Technology Prize of the Japanese Ministry of Education,
IEICE Achievement Award, ICF Best Research Award, Funai Information Science Promotion
Award, TELECOM Technology Award, and Best Paper Awards of IEICE, JSIAM, IPSJ,
ISAAC, FAW-AAIM, and WALCOM.
Contributors

Ravindra K. Ahuja Andreas Brandstädt

Department of Industrial and Systems Department of Computer Science
Engineering University of Rostock
University of Florida Rostock, Germany
Gainesville, Florida
K. Raja Chandrasekar
Subramanian Arumugam National Centre for Advanced Research in
National Centre for Advanced Research in Discrete Mathematics (n-CARDMATH)
Discrete Mathematics (n-CARDMATH) Kalasalingam University
Kalasalingam University Krishnankoil, India
Krishnankoil, India
S. A. Choudum
and
Department of Mathematics
School of Electrical Engineering Indian Institute of Technology Madras
and Computer Science Chennai, India
The University of Newcastle
New South Wales, Australia S. K. Dhall
and School of Computer Science
University of Oklahoma
Department of Computer Science
Norman, Oklahoma
Liverpool Hope University
Liverpool, United Kingdom
Feodor F. Dragan
and Department of Computer Science
Department of Computer Science Kent State University
Ball State University Kent, Ohio
Muncie, Indiana
Karam Ebadi
R. Balakrishnan National Centre for Advanced Research in
Department of Mathematics Discrete Mathematics (n-CARDMATH)
Bharathidasan University Kalasalingam University
Tiruchirappalli, India Krishnankoil, India
Surender Baswana András Frank
Department of Computer Science Department of Operations Research
and Engineering Eötvös University
Indian Institute of Technology and
Kanpur MTA-ELTE Egerváry Research
Kanpur, India Group on Combinatorial
John M. Boyer Optimization
Budapest, Hungary
IBM Canada
Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
xv
xvi  Contributors

Chı́nh T. Hoàng Shuichi Miyazaki

Department of Physics and Computer Science Academic Center for Computing and Media
Wilfrid Laurier University Studies
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Kyoto University
Kyoto, Japan
Wen-Lian Hsu
Institute of Information Science
H. Narayanan
Academia Sinica
Taipei, Taiwan Department of Electrical
Engineering
Tao Huang Indian Institute of Technology
Synopsys, Silicon Valley Bombay
Sunnyvale, California Mumbai, India

Tibor Jordán
Takao Nishizeki
Department of Operations Research
Eötvös University Graduate School of Information Sciences
and Tohoku University
MTA-ELTE Egerváry Research Sendai, Japan
Group on Combinatorial
Optimization Ariel Orda
Budapest, Hungary Department of Electrical Engineering
Technion–Israel Institute
George Karakostas
of Technology
Department of Computer Science Haifa, Israel
McMaster University
Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
James B. Orlin
Tina M. Kouri Sloan School of Management
Department of Computer Science Massachusetts Institute of Technology
and Engineering Cambridge, Massachusetts
University of South Florida
Tampa, Florida Daniel Pascua

S. Lakshmivarahan Department of Electrical Engineering

and Computer Science
School of Computer Science
Colorado School of Mines
University of Oklahoma
Golden, Colorado
Norman, Oklahoma

Thomas L. Magnanti Sachin B. Patkar

Sloan School of Management Department of Electrical Engineering
Massachusetts Institute of Technology Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
Cambridge, Massachusetts Mumbai, India
Dinesh P. Mehta
Michael D. Plummer
Department of Electrical Engineering
and Computer Science Department of Mathematics
Colorado School of Mines Vanderbilt University
Golden, Colorado Nashville, Tennesse
 Contributors  xvii

Md. Saidur Rahman M. Sundarakannan

Department of Computer Science and Department of Mathematics
Engineering SSN College of Engineering
Bangladesh University of EngineeringInstitute Chennai, India
of Mathematical and Technology
V. Sunitha
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Department of Information and Communication
Venkatesh Raman Technology
The Institute of Mathematical Sciences Dhirubhai Ambani Institute of Information
Chennai, India and Communication Technology
Gandhinagar, India
Sartaj Sahni
Department of Computer and Information M.N.S. Swamy
Sciences and Engineering Department of Electrical and Computer
University of Florida Engineering
Gainesville, Florida Concordia University
Montreal, Québec, Canada
F. Zeynep Sargut
Department of Industrial Engineering Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman
Izmir University of Economics School of Computer Science
Izmir, Turkey University of Oklahoma
Norman, Oklahoma
Saket Saurabh
Ramakrishna Thurimella
The Institute of Mathematical Sciences
Chennai, India Department of Computer Science
University of Denver
Sandeep Sen Denver, Colorado
Department of Computer Science
Balachandran Vaidyanathan
and Engineering
Operations Research
Indian Institute of Technology Delhi
FedEx Corporation
New Delhi, India
Memphis, Tennessee
Lavanya Sivakumar
Ying Xiao
SRM Research Institute (Mathematics)
VT iDirect Inc.
SRM University
Herndon, Virginia
Chennai, India
Mamta Yadav
Alex Sprintson
School of Computer Science
Department of Electrical and Computer University of Oklahoma
Engineering Norman, Oklahoma
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas Evangeline F.Y. Young
Department of Computer Science and
R. Sritharan Engineering
Department of Computer Science The Chinese University of Hong Kong
The University of Dayton Hong Kong, China
Dayton, Ohio
Neal E. Young
C.R. Subramanian Department of Computer Science
The Institute of Mathematical Sciences University of California
Chennai, India Riverside, California
 I
Basic Concepts and Algorithms

1
 CHAPTER 1

Basic Concepts in Graph

Theory and Algorithms
Subramanian Arumugam

Krishnaiyan “KT” Thulasiraman

CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Subgraphs and Complements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.4 Connectedness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Operations on Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 Cutsets and Cuts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.8 Eulerian Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.9 Hamiltonian Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.10 Graph Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.11 Directed Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.12 Paths and Connections in Digraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.13 Directed Graphs and Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.14 Directed Trees and Arborescences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.15 Directed Eulerian Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.16 Directed Hamiltonian Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.17 Acyclic Directed Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.18 Tournaments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.19 Computational Complexity and Completeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

1.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter we give a brief introduction to certain basic concepts and results in graph the-
ory and algorithms, some of which are not explicitly defined in the remaining chapters of this
book. For easy reference we also provide a list of commonly used symbols for graph parame-
ters and concepts. For basic concepts in graphs, digraphs, and algorithms we refer to Bondy
and Murty [1], Chartrand and Lesniak [2], Swamy and Thulasiraman [3], Thulasiraman and
Swamy [4], and West [5].

3
4  Handbook of Graph Theory, Combinatorial Optimization, and Algorithms

1.2 BASIC CONCEPTS

A graph G consists of a pair (V, E) where V is a nonempty finite set whose elements are
called vertices and E is a set of unordered pairs of distinct elements of V. The elements of
E are called edges of the graph G. If e = {u, v} ∈ E, the edge e is said to join u and v. The
vertices u and v are called the end vertices of the edge uv. We write e = uv and we say that
the vertices u and v are adjacent. We also say that the vertex u and the edge e are incident
with each other. If two distinct edges e1 and e2 are incident with a common vertex, then
they are called adjacent edges. A graph with n vertices and m edges is called a (n, m) graph.
The number of vertices in G is called the order of G. The number of edges of G is called the
size of G.
A graph is normally represented by a diagram in which each vertex is represented by a
dot and each edge is represented by a line segment joining two vertices with which the edge
is incident. For example, if G = (V, E) is a graph where V = {a, b, c, d} and E = {ab, ac, ad},
then G is a (4, 3) graph and it is represented by the diagram given in Figure 1.1.
The definition of a graph does not allow more than one edge joining two vertices. It also
does not allow any edge joining a vertex to itself. Such an edge joining a vertex to itself is
called a self-loop or simply a loop. If more than one edge joining two vertices are allowed,
the resulting object is called a multigraph. Edges joining the same pair of vertices are called
multiple edges. If loops are also allowed, the resulting object is called a pseudo graph.
A graph in which any two distinct vertices are adjacent is called a complete graph. The
complete graph on n vertices is denoted by Kn . A graph whose edge set is empty is called a
null graph or a totally disconnected graph.
A graph G is called a bipartite graph if V can be partitioned into two disjoint subsets
V1 and V2 such that every edge of G joins a vertex of V1 to a vertex of V2 and (V1 , V2 ) is called
a bipartition of G. If G contains every edge joining the vertices of V1 to the vertices of V2 then
G is called a complete bipartite graph. If V1 contains r vertices and V2 contains s vertices,
then the complete bipartite graph G is denoted by Kr,s . The graph given in Figure 1.1 is
K1,3 .
A graph G is k-partite, k ≥ 1, if it is possible to partition V (G) into k subsets V1 , V2 , . . ., Vk
(called partite sets) such that every element of E(G) joins a vertex of Vi to a vertex of Vj , i ̸= j.
A complete k-partite graph G is a k-partite graph with partite sets V1 , V2 , . . ., Vk having
the additional property that if u ∈ Vi and v ∈ Vj , i ̸= j, then uv ∈ E(G). If |Vi | = ni , then
this graph is denoted by K(n1 , n2 , . . ., nk ) or Kn1 ,n2 ,...,nk .
The degree of a vertex vi in a graph G is the number of edges incident with vi . The degree
of vi is denoted by dG (vi ) or deg vi or simply d(vi ). A vertex v of degree 0 is called an isolated
vertex. A vertex v of degree 1 is called a pendant vertex.
Theorem 1.1 The sum of the degrees of the vertices of a graph G is twice the number of
edges. 
Corollary 1.1 In any graph G the number of vertices of odd degree is even. 
a

b c d

Figure 1.1 Example of a graph.

 Basic Concepts in Graph Theory and Algorithms  5

For any graph G, we define

δ(G) = min{deg v : v ∈ V (G)}

and
∆(G) = max{deg v : v ∈ V (G)}.

If all the vertices of G have the same degree r, then δ(G) = ∆(G) = r and in this case G is
called a regular graph of degree r. A regular graph of degree 3 is called a cubic graph.

1.3 SUBGRAPHS AND COMPLEMENTS

A subgraph of a graph G is a graph H such that V (H) ⊆ V (G) and E(H) ⊆ E(G) and
the assignment of end vertices to edges in H is the same as in G. We then write H ⊆ G
and say that G contains H. The graph H is called a proper subgraph of G if either E(H) is
a proper subset of E(G) or V (H) is a proper subset of V (G). Also H is called a spanning
subgraph of G if V (H) = V (G). If V1 ⊂ V, then the subgraph G1 = (V1 , E1 ) is called an
induced subgraph of G if G1 is the maximal subgraph of G with vertex set V1 . Thus, if G1 is
an induced subgraph of G, then two vertices in V1 are adjacent in G1 if and only if they are
adjacent in G. The subgraph induced by V1 is denoted by ⟨V1 ⟩ or G[V1 ]. It is also called a
vertex-induced subgraph of G.
If E1 ⊂ E, then the subgraph of G with edge set E1 and having no isolated vertices is
called the subgraph induced by E1 and is denoted by G[E1 ]. This is also called edge-induced
subgraph of G.
Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Let vi ∈ V. The subgraph of G obtained by removing the
vertex vi and all the edges incident with vi is called the subgraph obtained by the removal of
the vertex vi and is denoted by G − vi . Clearly G − vi is an induced subgraph of G. If G is
connected S ⊂ V and G − S is not connected, then S is called a vertex cut of G.
Let ej ∈ E. Then G − ej = (V, E − {ej }) is called the subgraph of G obtained by the
removal of the edge ej . Clearly G − ej is a spanning subgraph of G which contains all the
edges of G except ej .
Let G = (V, E) be a graph. Let vi , vj be two vertices which are not adjacent in G.
Then G + vi vj = (V, E ∪ {vi , vj }) is called the graph obtained by the addition of the edge
vi vj to G.
Two graphs G1 = (V1 , E1 ) and G2 = (V2 , E2 ) are said to be isomorphic if there exists a
bijection f : V1 → V2 such that u, v are adjacent in G1 if and only if f (u), f (v) are adjacent
in G2 . If G1 is isomorphic to G2 , we write G1 ∼ = G2 . The map f is called an isomorphism
from G1 to G2 .
Let f be an isomorphism of the graph G1 = (V1 , E1 ) to the graph G2 = (V2 , E2 ). Let
v ∈ V1 . Then deg v = deg f (v).
An isomorphism of a graph G onto itself is called an automorphism of G. Let Γ(G) denote
the set of all automorphisms of G. Clearly the identity map i : V → V defined by i(v) = v is
an automorphism of G so that i ∈ Γ(G). Further if α and β are automorphisms of G then αβ
and α−1 are also automorphisms of G. Hence Γ(G) is a group and is called the automorphism
group of G.
Let G = (V, E) be a graph. The complement G of G is defined to be the graph which has
V as its set of vertices and two vertices are adjacent in G if and only if they are not adjacent
in G. The graph G is said to be a self-complementary graph if G is isomorphic to G.
6  Handbook of Graph Theory, Combinatorial Optimization, and Algorithms

1.4 CONNECTEDNESS
A walk of a graph G is an alternating sequence of vertices and edges v0 , x1 , v1 ,
x2 , v2 , . . ., vn−1 , xn , vn beginning and ending with vertices such that each edge xi is incident
with vi−1 and vi .
We say that the walk joins v0 and vn and it is called a v0 − vn walk. Also v0 is called the
initial vertex and vn is called the terminal vertex of the walk. The above walk is also denoted
by v0 , v1 , . . ., vn , the edges of the walk being self evident. The number of edges in the walk is
called the length of the walk.
A single vertex is considered as a walk of length 0. A walk is called a trail if all its
edges are distinct and is called a path if all its vertices are distinct. A graph consisting of a
path with n vertices is denoted by Pn . A v0 − vn walk is called closed if v0 = vn . A closed
walk v0 , v1 , v2 , . . ., vn = v0 in which n ≥ 3 and v0 , v1 , . . ., vn−1 are distinct is called a cycle
(or circuit) of length n. The graph consisting of a cycle of length n is denoted by Cn .
Two vertices u and v of a graph G are said to be connected if there exists a u − v path
in G. A graph G is said to be connected if every pair of its vertices are connected. A graph
which is not connected is said to be disconnected.
It is an easy exercise to verify that connectedness of vertices is an equivalence relation on
the set of vertices V. Hence V can be partitioned into nonempty subsets V1 , V2 , . . ., Vn such
that two vertices u and v are connected if and only if both u and v belong to the same set Vi .
Let Gi denote the induced subgraph of G with vertex set Vi . Clearly the subgraphs
G1 , G2 , . . ., Gn are connected and are called the components of G. Clearly a graph G is
connected if and only if it has exactly one component.
For any two vertices u, v of a graph we define the distance between u and v by
{
the length of a shortest u − v path if such a path exists
d(u, v) =
∞ otherwise.

If G is a connected graph, then d(u, v) is always a nonnegative integer. In this case d is

actually a metric on the set of vertices V.

Theorem 1.2 A graph G with at least two vertices is bipartite if and only if all its cycles
are of even length. 

A cutvertex of a graph G is a vertex whose removal increases the number of components. A

bridge of a graph G is an edge whose removal increases the number of components. Clearly
if v is a cutvertex of a connected graph, then G − v is disconnected.

Theorem 1.3 Let v be a vertex of a connected graph G. The following statements are
equivalent:

1. v is a cutvertex of G.

2. There exists a partition of V − {v} into subsets U and W such that for each u ∈ U and
w ∈ W , the vertex v is on every u − w path.

3. There exist two vertices u and w distinct from v such that v is on every u − w path. 

Theorem 1.4 Let x be an edge of a connected graph G. The following statements are
equivalent:
 Basic Concepts in Graph Theory and Algorithms  7

1. x is bridge of G.

2. There exists a partition of V into two subsets U and W such that for every vertex
u ∈ U and w ∈ W, the edge x is on every u − w path.

3. There exist two vertices u, w such that the edge x is on every u − w path. 

Theorem 1.5 An edge x of a connected graph G is a bridge if and only if x is not on any
cycle of G. 

A nonseparable graph is a connected graph with no cutvertices. All other graphs are separable.
A block of a separable graph G is a maximal nonseparable subgraph of G.
Two u − v paths are internally disjoint if they have no common vertices except u and v.

Theorem 1.6 Every nontrivial connected graph contains at least two vertices that are not
cutvertices. 

Theorem 1.7 A graph G with n ≥ 3 vertices is a block if and only if any two vertices of G
are connected by at least two internally disjoint paths. 

A block G is also called 2-connected or biconnected because at least two vertices have to
be removed from G to disconnect it. The concepts of vertex and edge connectivities and
generalized versions of the above theorem, called Menger’s theorem, will be discussed further
in Chapter 12 on connectivity.

1.5 OPERATIONS ON GRAPHS

Next we describe some binary operations defined on graphs. Let G1 and G2 be two graphs
with disjoint vertex sets. The union G = G1 ∪ G2 has V (G) = V (G1 ) ∪ V (G2 ) and E(G) =
E(G1 ) ∪ E(G2 ). If a graph G consists of k(≥ 2) disjoint copies of a graph H, then we write
G = kH. The join G = G1 + G2 has V (G) = V (G1 ) ∪ V (G2 ) and E(G) = E(G1 ) ∪ E(G2 ) ∪
{uv|u ∈ V (G1 ) and v ∈ V (G2 )}.
A pair of vertices vi and vj in a graph G are said to be identified if the two vertices are
replaced by a new vertex such that all the edges in G incident on vi and vj are now incident
on the new vertex.
By contraction of an edge e we refer to the operation of removing e and identifying its
end vertices. A graph G is contractible to a graph H if H can be obtained from G by a
sequence of contractions.
The Cartesian product G = G1 ⊔ ⊓G2 has V (G) = V (G1 ) × V (G2 ) and two vertices (u1 , u2 )
and (v1 , v2 ) of G are adjacent if and only if either u1 = v1 and u2 v2 ∈ E(G2 ) or u2 = v2 and
u1 v1 ∈ E(G1 ).
The n-cube Qn is the graph K2 if n = 1, while for n ≥ 2, Qn is defined recursively as
Qn−1 ⊔⊓K2 . The n-cube Qn can also be considered as that graph whose vertices are labeled by
the binary n-tuples (a1 , a2 , . . ., an ) (i.e., ai is 0 or 1 for 1 ≤ i ≤ n) and such that two vertices
are adjacent if and only if their corresponding n-tuples differ at precisely one coordinate. The
graph Qn is an n-regular graph of order 2n . The graph Qn is called a hypercube.
The strong product G1 × ⊔
⊓ G2 of G1 and G2 is the graph with vertex set V (G1 ) × V (G2 )
and two vertices (u1 , u2 ) and (v1 , v2 ) are adjacent in G1 × ⊔
⊓ G2 if u1 = v1 and u2 v2 ∈ E(G2 ),
or u1 v1 ∈ E(G1 ) and u2 = v2 , or u1 v1 ∈ E(G1 ) and u2 v2 ∈ E(G2 ).
8  Handbook of Graph Theory, Combinatorial Optimization, and Algorithms

The direct product G1 ×G2 of two graphs G1 and G2 is the graph with vertex set V (G1 )×
V (G2 ) and two vertices (u1 , u2 ) and (v1 , v2 ) are adjacent in G1 × G2 if u1 v1 ∈ V (G1 ) and
u2 v2 ∈ E(G2 ).
The lexicographic product G1 ◦ G2 of two graphs G1 and G2 is the graph with vertex set
V (G1 ) × V (G2 ) and two vertices (u1 , u2 ) and (v1 , v2 ) are adjacent in G1 ◦ G2 if u1 v1 ∈ E(G1 )
or u1 = v1 and u2 v2 ∈ E(G2 ).

1.6 TREES
The graphs that are encountered in most of the applications are connected. Among connected
graphs trees have the simplest structure and are perhaps the most important ones. A tree is
the simplest nontrivial type of a graph and in trying to prove a general result or to test a
conjecture in graph theory, it is sometimes convenient to first study the situation for trees.
A graph that contains no cycles is called an acyclic graph. A connected acyclic graph is
called a tree. Any graph without cycles is also called a forest so that the components of a
forest are trees.
A tree of a graph G is a connected acyclic subgraph of G. A spanning tree of a graph G
is a tree of G having all the vertices of G. A connected subgraph of a tree T is called a
subtree of T.
The cospanning tree T ∗ of a spanning tree T of a graph G is the subgraph of G having
all the vertices of G and exactly those edges of G that are not in T. Note that a cospanning
tree may not be connected.
The edges of a spanning tree T are called the branches of T, and those of the corresponding
cospanning tree T ∗ are called links or chords.
A spanning tree T uniquely determines its cospanning tree T ∗ . As such, we refer to the
edges of T ∗ as the chords or links of T.

Theorem 1.8 The following statements are equivalent for a graph G with n vertices and m
edges:
1. G is a tree.

2. There exists exactly one path between any two vertices of G.

3. G is connected and m = n − 1.

4. G is acyclic and m = n − 1.

5. G is acyclic, and if any two nonadjacent vertices of G are connected by an edge, then
the resulting graph has exactly one cycle. 

Theorem 1.9 A subgraph G′ of an n-vertex graph G is a spanning tree of G if and only if

G′ is acyclic and has n − 1 edges. 

Theorem 1.10 A subgraph G′ of a connected graph G is a subgraph of some spanning tree

of G if and only if G′ is acyclic. 

A graph is trivial if it has only one vertex.

Theorem 1.11 In a nontrivial tree there are at least two pendant vertices. 
For a graph G with p components a spanning forest is a collection of p spanning trees, one
for each component.
 Basic Concepts in Graph Theory and Algorithms  9

The rank ρ(G) and nullity µ(G) of a graph G of order n and size m are defined by
ρ(G) = n − k and µ(G) = m − n + k, where k is the number of components of G. Note that
ρ(G) + µ(G) = m.
The arboricity a(G) of a graph G is the minimum number of edge disjoint spanning forests
into which G can be decomposed.

1.7 CUTSETS AND CUTS

A cutset S of a connected graph G is a minimal set of edges of G such that G − S is
disconnected. Equivalently, a cutset S of a connected graph G is a minimal set of edges of G
such that G − S has exactly two components.
Let G be a connected graph with vertex set V. Let V1 and V2 be two disjoint subsets of
V such that V = V1 ∪ V2 . Then the set S of all those edges of G having one end vertex in V1
and the other in V2 is called a cut of G. This is usually denoted by [V1 , V2 ].

Theorem 1.12 A cut in a connected graph G is a cutset or union of edge-disjoint cutsets

of G. 

Several results connecting spanning trees, circuits, and cutsets will be discussed in Chapters 7
and 8.

1.8 EULERIAN GRAPHS

Let G be a connected graph. A closed trail containing all the edges of G is called an Eulerian
trail. A graph G having an Eulerian trial is called an Eulerian graph.
The following theorem gives simple and useful characterizations of Eulerian graphs.
Theorem 1.13 The following statements are equivalent for a connected graph G.
1. G is Eulerian.
2. The degree of every vertex in G is even.
3. G is the union of edge-disjoint circuits. 

Corollary 1.2 Let G be a connected graph with exactly 2k(k ≥ 1) odd vertices. Then the
edge set of G can be partitioned into k open trails. 

Corollary 1.3 Let G be a connected graph with exactly two odd vertices. Then G has an
open trail containing all the edges of G. 

1.9 HAMILTONIAN GRAPHS

A Hamiltonian cycle in a graph G is a cycle containing all the vertices of G. A Hamiltonian
path in G is a path containing all the vertices of G. A graph G is defined to be Hamiltonian
if it has a Hamiltonian cycle.
An Euler trail is a closed walk passing through each edge exactly once and a Hamiltonian
cycle is a closed walk passing through each vertex exactly once. Thus there is a striking
similarity between an Eulerian graph and a Hamiltonian graph. This may lead one to expect
that there exists a simple, useful, and elegant characterization of a Hamiltonian graph, as in
the case of an Eulerian graph. Such is not the case; in fact, development of such a character-
ization is a major unsolved problem in graph theory. However, several sufficient conditions
have been established for a graph to be Hamiltonian.
10  Handbook of Graph Theory, Combinatorial Optimization, and Algorithms

We present several necessary conditions and sufficient conditions for a graph to be Hamil-
tonian. We observe that any Hamiltonian graph has no cutvertex.

Theorem 1.14 If G is Hamiltonian, then for every nonempty proper subset S of

V (G), ω(G − S) ≤ |S| where ω(H) denotes the number of components in any graph H. 

A sequence d1 ≤ d2 ≤ · · · ≤ dn is said to be graphic if there is a graph G with n vertices

v1 , v2 , . . ., vn such that the degree d(vi ) of vi equals di for each i. Also (d1 , d2 , . . ., dn ) is then
called the degree sequence of G.
If S : d1 ≤ d2 ≤ · · · ≤ dn and S ∗ : d∗1 ≤ d∗2 ≤ · · · ≤ d∗n are graphic sequences such that
di ≥ di for 1 ≤ i ≤ n, then S ∗ is said to majorize S.
∗

The following result is due to Chavátal [6].

Theorem 1.15 A simple graph G = (V, E) of order n, with degree sequence d1 ≤ d2

≤ · · · ≤ dn is Hamiltonian if dk ≤ k < n/2 ⇒ dn−k ≥ n − k. 

Corollary 1.4 A simple graph G = (V, E) of order n ≥ 3 with degree sequence d1 ≤ d2

≤ · · · ≤ dn is Hamiltonian if one of the following conditions is satisfied:

1. 1 ≤ k ≤ n ⇒ dk ≥ n
2 [7].

2. (u, v) ∈
/ E ⇒ d(u) + d(v) ≥ n [8].

3. 1 ≤ k < n
2 ⇒ dk > k [6].

4. j < k, dj ≤ j and dk ≤ k − 1 ⇒ dj + dk ≥ n [6]. 

The closure of a graph G with n vertices is the graph obtained from G by repeatedly joining
pairs of nonadjacent vertices whose degree sum is at least n until no such pair remains. The
closure of G is denoted by c(G).

Theorem 1.16 A graph is Hamiltonian if and only if its closure is Hamiltonian. 

Corollary 1.5 Let G be a graph with at least 3 vertices. If c(G) is complete, then G is
Hamiltonian. 

1.10 GRAPH PARAMETERS

Several graph parameters relating to connectivity, matching, covering, coloring, and dom-
ination will be discussed in different chapters of this book. In this section we give a brief
summary of some of the graph theoretic parameters.

Definition 1.1 The distance d(u, v) between two vertices u and v in a connected graph is
defined to be the length of a shortest u − v path in G. The eccentricity e(v) of a vertex v
is the number maxu∈V (G) d(u, v). Thus e(v) is the distance between v and a vertex farthest
from v. The radius rad G of G is the minimum eccentricity among the vertices of G, while
the diameter diam G of G is the maximum eccentricity. A vertex v is a central vertex if
e(v) = rad(G) and the center Cen(G) is the subgraph of G induced by its central vertices.
A vertex v is a peripheral vertex if e(v) = diam(G), while the periphery P er(G) is the
subgraph of G induced by its peripheral vertices.
 Basic Concepts in Graph Theory and Algorithms  11

Definition 1.2 If G is a noncomplete graph and t is a nonnegative real number such that
t ≤ |S|/ω(G − S) for every vertex-cut S of G, where ω(G − S) is the number of components
of G − S, then G is defined to be t-tough. If G is a t-tough graph and s is a nonnegative real
number such that s < t, then G is also s-tough. The maximum real number t for which a
graph G is t-tough is called the toughness of G and is denoted by t(G).
Definition 1.3 A subset S of vertices of a graph is called an independent set if no two
vertices of S are adjacent in G. The number of vertices in a maximum independent is called
the independence number of G.
Definition 1.4 The clique number ω(G) of a graph G is the maximum order among the
complete subgraphs of G.
We observe that the clique number of G is the independence number of its complement.
Definition 1.5 The girth of a graph G having at least one cycle is the length of a shortest
cycle in G. The circumference of G is the length of a longest cycle in G.
Definition 1.6 The vertex cover of a graph G is a set S of vertices such that every edge of
G has at least one end vertex in S. An edge cover of G is a set L of edges such that every
vertex of G is incident to some edge of L. The minimum size of a vertex cover is called the
vertex covering number of G and is denoted by β(G). The minimum size of an edge cover is
called the edge covering number of G and is denoted by β′ (G).

1.11 DIRECTED GRAPHS

A directed graph (or in short digraph) D is a pair (V, A) where V is a finite nonempty set and
A is a subset of V × V − {(x, x)/x ∈ V }. The elements of V and A are respectively called
vertices and arcs. If (u, v) ∈ A then the arc (u, v) is said to have u as its initial vertex (tail)
and v as its terminal vertex (head). Also the arc (u, v) is said to join u to v.
As in the case of graphs a digraph can also be represented by a diagram. A di-
graph is represented by a diagram of its underlying graph together with arrows on its
edges, each arrow pointing toward the head of the corresponding arc. For example D =
({1, 2, 3, 4}, {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3), (3, 1)}) is a digraph. The diagram representing D is given in
Figure 1.2.
The indegree d− (v) of a vertex v in a digraph D is the number of arcs having v as its
terminal vertex. The outdegree d+ (v) of v is the number of arcs having v as its initial vertex.
The ordered pair (d+ (v), d− (v)) is called the degree pair of v.
The degree pairs of the vertices 1, 2, 3 and 4 of the digraph in Figure 1.2 are (2,1), (1,1),
(1,2), and (0,0) respectively.
Theorem 1.17 In a digraph D, the sum of the indegrees of all the vertices is equal to the
sum of their outdegrees, each sum being equal to the number of arcs in D. 

1 2

4 3

Figure 1.2 Example of a directed graph.

12  Handbook of Graph Theory, Combinatorial Optimization, and Algorithms

Subgraphs and induced subgraphs of a directed graph are defined as in the case of undirected
graphs.
Let D = (V, A) be a digraph. The underlying graph G of D is a graph having the same
vertex set as D and two vertices u and w are adjacent in G whenever (u, w) or (w, u) is in A.
Similarly if we are given a graph G we can obtain a digraph from G by giving orientation
to each edge of G. A digraph thus obtained from G is called an orientation of G.
The converse digraph D′ of a digraph D is obtained from D by reversing the direction of
each arc.

1.12 PATHS AND CONNECTIONS IN DIGRAPHS

A walk (directed walk) in a digraph is a finite alternating sequence W = v0 x1 v1 . . . xn vn
of vertices and arcs in which xi = (vi−1 , vi ) for every arc xi . W is called a walk from
v0 to vn or a v0 − vn walk. The vertices v0 and vn are called origin and terminus of W,
respectively, and v1 , v2 , . . ., vn−1 are called its internal vertices. The length of a walk is the
number of occurrences of arcs in it. A walk in which the origin and terminus coincide is called
a closed walk.
A path (directed path) is a walk in which all the vertices are distinct. A cycle (directed
cycle or circuit) is a nontrivial closed path whose origin and internal vertices are distinct.
If there is a path from u to v then v is said to be reachable from u. A digraph is
called strongly connected or strong if every pair of vertices are mutually reachable. A di-
graph is called unilaterally connected or unilateral if for every pair of vertices, at least
one is reachable from the other. A digraph is called weakly connected or weak if the un-
derlying graph is connected. A digraph is called disconnected if the underlying graph is
disconnected.
Theorem 1.18 The edges of a connected graph G = (V, E) can be oriented so that the
resulting digraph is strongly connected if and only if every edge of G is contained in at least
one cycle. 
Let D = (V, A) be a digraph.
1. Let W1 be a maximal subset of V such that for every pair of vertices u, v ∈ W1 , u is
reachable from v and v is reachable from u. Then the subdigraph of D induced by W1
is called a strong component of D.
2. Let W2 be a maximal subset of V such that for every pair of vertices u, v ∈ W2 , either
u is reachable from v or v is reachable from u. Then the subdigraph of D induced by
W2 is called a unilateral component of D.
3. Let W3 be a maximal subset of V such that for every pair of vertices u, v ∈ W3 , u and v
are joined by a path in the underlying graph of D. Then the subdigraph of D induced
by W3 is called a weak component of D.
We observe that each vertex of D is in exactly one strong component of D. An arc x lies in
exactly one strong component if it lies on a cycle. There is no strong component containing
an arc that does not lie on any cycle.
The condensation D∗ of a digraph D has the strong components S1 , S2 , . . ., Sn of D as
its vertices with an arc from Si to Sj whenever there is at least one arc from Si to Sj in D.
A directed graph is said to be quasi-strongly connected if for every pair of vertices v1 and
v2 there is a vertex v3 from which there is a directed path to v1 and a directed path to v2 .
Note that v3 need not be distinct from v1 or v2 .
 Basic Concepts in Graph Theory and Algorithms  13

1.13 DIRECTED GRAPHS AND RELATIONS

A binary relation R on a set X = {x1 , x2 , . . .} is a collection of ordered pairs of elements of
X. If (xi , xj ) ∈ R, then we write xi R xj . A most convenient way of representing a binary
relation R on a set X is by a directed graph, the vertices of which stand for the elements of
X and the edges stand for the ordered pairs of elements of X defining the relation R.
For example, the relation is a factor of on the set X = {2, 3, 4, 6, 9} is shown in Figure 1.3.
Let R be a relation on a set X = {x1 , x2 , . . .}. The relation R is called reflexive if xi Rxi
for all xi ∈ X. The relation R is said to be symmetric if xi Rxj implies xj Rxi . The relation
R is said to be transitive if xi Rxj and xj Rxk imply xi Rxk . A relation R which is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive is called an equivalence relation. If R is an equivalence relation
defined on a set S, then we can uniquely partition S into subsets S1 , S2 , . . ., Sk such that
two elements x and y of S belong to Si if and only if xRy. The subsets S1 , S2 , . . ., Sk are all
called the equivalence classes induced by the relation R on the set S.
The directed graph representing a reflexive relation is called a reflexive directed graph.
In a similar way symmetric and transitive directed graphs are defined. We now make the
following observations about these graphs:

1. In a reflexive directed graph, there is a self-loop at each vertex.

2. In a symmetric directed graph, there are two oppositely oriented edges between any
two adjacent vertices. Therefore, an undirected graph can be considered as representing
a symmetric relation if we associate with each edge two oppositely oriented edges.

3. The edge (v1 , v2 ) is present in a transitive graph G if there is a directed path in G from
v1 to v2 .

1.14 DIRECTED TREES AND ARBORESCENCES

A vertex v in a directed graph D is a root of D if there are directed paths from v to all the
remaining vertices of D.

Theorem 1.19 A directed graph D has a root if and only if it is quasi-strongly connected. 

A directed graph D is a tree if the underlying undirected graph is a tree. A directed graph
D is a directed tree or arborescence if D is a tree and has a root.
We present in the next theorem a number of equivalent characterizations of a directed
tree.

4
3

6
9

Figure 1.3 Directed graph representation of a relation on the set X = {2, 3, 4, 6, 9}.
14  Handbook of Graph Theory, Combinatorial Optimization, and Algorithms

Theorem 1.20 Let D be a directed graph with n > 1 vertices. Then the following statements
are equivalent:

1. D is a directed tree.

2. There exists a vertex r in D such that there is exactly one directed path from r to every
other vertex of D.

3. D is quasi-strongly connected and loses this property if any edge is removed from it.

4. D is quasi-strongly connected and has a vertex r such that d− (r) = 0. 

Theorem 1.21 A directed graph D has a directed spanning tree if and only if D is quasi-
strongly connected. 

1.15 DIRECTED EULERIAN GRAPHS

A directed Euler trail in a directed graph D is a closed directed trail that contains all the
arcs of D. An open directed Euler trail is an open directed trail containing all the arcs of D.
A directed graph possessing a directed Euler trail is called a directed Eulerian graph.
The following theorem gives simple and useful characterizations of directed Eulerian
graphs.

Theorem 1.22 The following statements are equivalent for a connected directed graph D.

1. D is a directed Eulerian graph.

2. For every vertex v of D, d− (v) = d+ (v).

3. D is the union of some edge-disjoint directed cycles. 

Theorem 1.23 A directed connected graph D possesses an open directed Euler trail if and
only if the following conditions are satisfied:

1. In D there are two vertices v1 and v2 , such that d+ (v1 ) = d− (v1 ) + 1 and d− (v2 ) =
d+ (v2 ) + 1.

2. For every vertex v different from v1 and v2 , we have d+ (v) = d− (v). 

Theorem 1.24 The number of directed Euler trails of a directed Eulerian graph D without
∏
self-loops is τd (D) np=1 (d− (vp ) − 1)!, where n is the number of vertices in D and τd (D) is
the number of directed spanning trees of G with v1 as root. 

Corollary 1.6 The number of directed spanning trees of a directed Eulerian graph is the
same for every choice of root. 

1.16 DIRECTED HAMILTONIAN GRAPHS

A directed circuit in a directed graph D is a directed Hamilton circuit of D if it contains all
the vertices of D. A directed path in D is a directed Hamilton path of G if it contains all the
vertices of D. A digraph is a directed Hamiltonian graph if it has a directed Hamilton circuit.
A directed graph D is complete if its underlying undirected graph is complete.
 Basic Concepts in Graph Theory and Algorithms  15

Theorem 1.25 Let u be any vertex of a strongly connected complete directed graph with
n ≥ 3 vertices. For each k, 3 ≤ k ≤ n, there is a directed circuit of length k containing u. 

Corollary 1.7 A strongly connected complete directed graph is Hamiltonian. 

Theorem 1.26 Let D be a strongly connected n-vertex graph without parallel edges and
self-loops. If for every vertex v in D, d− (v) + d+ (v) ≥ n, then D has a directed Hamilton
circuit. 

Corollary 1.8 Let D be a directed n-vertex graph without parallel edges or self-loops. If
min (δ− , δ+ ) ≥ n/2 > 1, then D contains a directed Hamilton circuit. 

Theorem 1.27 If a directed graph D = (V, A) is complete, then it has a directed Hamilton
path. 

1.17 ACYCLIC DIRECTED GRAPHS

A directed graph is acyclic if it has no directed circuits. Obviously the simplest example of
an acyclic directed graph is a directed tree.
We can label the vertices of an n-vertex acyclic directed graph D with integers from the
set {1, 2, . . ., n} such that the presence of the edge (i, j) in D implies that i < j. Note that
the edge (i, j) is directed from vertex i to vertex j. Ordering the vertices in this manner is
called topological sorting.

Theorem 1.28 In an acyclic directed graph D there exists at least one vertex with zero
indegree and at least one vertex with zero outdegree. 

Select any vertex with zero outdegree. Since D is acyclic, by Theorem 1.28, there is at least
one such vertex in D. Label this vertex with the integer n. Now remove from D this vertex
and the edges incident on it. Let D′ be the resulting graph. Since D′ is also acyclic, we can
now select a vertex whose outdegree in D′ is zero. Label this with the integer n − 1. Repeat
this procedure until all the vertices are labeled. It is now easy to verify that this procedure
results in a topological sorting of the vertices of D.

1.18 TOURNAMENTS
A tournament is an orientation of a complete graph. It derives its name from its application
in the representation of structures of round-robin tournaments. In a round-robin tournament
several teams play a game that cannot end in a tie, and each team plays every other team
exactly once. In the directed graph representation of the round-robin tournament, vertices
represent teams and an edge (v1 , v2 ) is present in the graph if the team represented by the
vertex v1 defeats the team represented by the vertex v2 . Clearly, such a directed graph has
no parallel edges and self-loops, and there is exactly one edge between any two vertices. Thus
it is a tournament.
The teams participating in a tournament can be ranked according to their scores. The
score of a team i is the number of teams it has defeated. This motivates the definition of the
score sequence of a tournament.
The score sequence of an n-vertex tournament is the sequence (s1 , s2 , . . ., sn ) such that
each si is the outdegree of a vertex of the tournament. An interesting characterization of a
tournament in terms of the score sequence is given in the following theorem.
16  Handbook of Graph Theory, Combinatorial Optimization, and Algorithms

Theorem 1.29 A sequence of nonnegative integers s1 , s2 , . . ., sn is the score sequence of a

tournament G if and only if
∑n n(n−1)
1. i=1 si = 2 .
∑k k(k−1)
2. i=1 si = 2 for all k < n. 

Suppose we can order the teams in a round-robin tournament such that each team precedes
the one it has defeated. Then we can assign the integers 1, 2, . . ., n to the teams to indicate
their ranks in this order. Such a ranking is always possible since in a tournament there exists
a directed Hamilton path and it is called ranking by a Hamilton path.
Note that ranking by a Hamilton path may not be the same as ranking by the score.
Further, a tournament may have more than one directed Hamilton path. In such a case there
will be more than one Hamilton path ranking. However, there exists exactly one directed
Hamilton path in a transitive tournament. This is stated in the following theorem, which is
easy to prove.

Theorem 1.30 In a transitive tournament there exists exactly one directed Hamilton path. 

1.19 COMPUTATIONAL COMPLEXITY AND COMPLETENESS

In assessing the efficiency of an algorithm two metrics are used; time complexity and space
complexity. In this book we will be mainly concerned with time complexities of algorithms.
The computational time complexity of an algorithm is a measure of the number of primitive
operations (low level instructions) performed during the execution of the algorithm. We will
use what is known as the random access machine (RAM) model in which it is assumed that
the computer can perform any primitive operation in a constant number of steps which do
not depend on the size of the input.
A function t(n) is said to be O(g(n)) if there exist some constant c and some nonnegative
integer n0 such that
t(n) ≤ c g(n) for all n ≥ n0
This definition is referred to as the big-Oh notation. Usually it is pronounced as t(n) is big
Oh of g(n). We can also say as t(n) is order g(n). For example 5n2 + 100n is O(n2 ).
A function t(n) is said to be Ω(g(n)), if there exist some positive constant c and some
nonnegative integer n0 such that

t(n) ≥ c g(n) for all n ≥ n0

This definition is referred to as the big-Omega notation. Usually it is pronounced as t(n) is

big-Omega of g(n). For example, n3 is Ω(n2 ).
A function t(n) is said to be Θ(g(n)), if t(n) is O(g(n)) and Ω(g(n)). It is pronounced as
t(n) is big-Theta of g(n). For example, (1/2) n(n − 1) is Θ(n2 ).
There are several texts that discuss the above and other asympototic notations as well
as properties involving them. For example, see Levitin [9], Goodrich and Tamassia [10], and
Cormen et al. [11].
An algorithm for a problem is efficient [12] if there exists a polynomial p(k) such that an
instance of the problem whose input length is k takes at most p(k) elementary computational
steps to solve. In other words any algorithm of polynomial time complexity is accepted to be
efficient. There are several problems that defy polynomial time algorithms in spite of massive
efforts to solve them efficiently. This family includes several important problems such as the
 Basic Concepts in Graph Theory and Algorithms  17

traveling salesman problem, the graph coloring problem, the problem of simplifying Boolean
functions, scheduling problems, and certain covering problems.
In this section we present a brief introduction to the theory of N P -completeness.
A decision problem is one that asks only for a yes or no answer. For example the ques-
tion Can this graph be 5-colored? is a decision problem. Many of the important optimization
problems can be phrased as decision problems. Usually, if we find a fast algorithm for a
decision problem, then we will be able to solve the corresponding original problem also
efficiently. For instance, if we have a fast algorithm to solve the decision problem for graph
coloring, by repeated applications (in fact, n log n applications) of this algorithm, we can find
the chromatic number of an n-vertex graph.
A decision problem belongs to the class P if there is a polynomial time algorithm to solve
the problem. A verification algorithm is an algorithm A which takes as input an instance
of a problem and a candidate solution to the problem, called a certificate and verifies in
polynomial time whether the certificate is a solution to the given problem instance. The
class NP is the class of problems which can be verified in polynomial time.
The fundamental open question in computational complexity is whether the class P
equals the class N P. By definition, the class N P contains all problems in class P. It is not
known, however, whether all problems in N P can be solved in polynomial time.
In an effort to determine whether P = N P, Cook [13] defined the class of N P -complete
problems. We say that a problem P1 is polynomial-time reducible to a problem P2 , written
P1 ≤p P2 , if

1. There exists a function f which maps any instance I1 of P1 to an instance of P2 in such

a way that I1 is a yes instance of P1 if and only if f (I1 ) is a yes instance of P2 .

2. For any instance I1 , the instance f (I1 ) can be constructed in polynomial time.

If P1 is polynomial-time reducible to P2 , then any algorithm for solving P2 can be used to

solve P1 . We define a problem P to be N P -complete if (1) P ∈ N P, and (2) for every problem
P ′ ∈ N P, P ′ ≤p P. If a problem P can be shown to satisfy condition (2), but not necessarily
condition (1), then we say that it is N P -hard. Let NPc denote the class of N P -complete
problems.
The relation ≤p is transitive. Because of this, a method frequently used in demonstrating
that a given problem is N P -complete is the following:

1. Show that P ∈ N P .

2. Show that there exists a problem P ′ ∈ N P c, such that P ′ ≤p P.

It follows from the definition of N P -completeness that if any problem in NPc can be solved in
polynomial time, then every problem in NPc can be solved in polynomial time and P = N P.
On the other hand, if there is some problem in NPc that cannot be solved in polynomial
time, then no problem in NPc can be solved in polynomial time.
Cook [13] proved that there is an N P -complete problem. The satisfiability problem is
defined as follows:
Let X = {x1 , x2 , . . ., xn } be a set of Boolean variables. A literal is either a variable xi
or its complement xi . Thus the set of literals is L = {x1 , x2 , . . ., xn , x1 , x2 , . . ., xn }. A clause
C is a subset of L. The satisfiability problem (SAT) is: Given a set of clauses, does there
exist a set of truth values (T or F ), one for each variable, such that every clause contains at
least one literal whose value is T. Cook’s proof that SAT is N P -complete opened the way to
demonstrate the N P -completeness of a vast number of problems. The second problem to be
18  Handbook of Graph Theory, Combinatorial Optimization, and Algorithms

1 2

3 4

Figure 1.4 Graph for the illustration of the concept of reducibility.

proved N P -complete is 3-SAT the 3-satisfiability problem, which is the special case of SAT
in that only three literals are permitted in each clause.
The list of N P -complete problems has grown very rapidly since Cook’s work. Karp [14,15]
demonstrated the N P -completeness of a number of combinatorial problems. Garey and
Johnson [16] is the most complete reference on N P -completeness and is highly recom-
mended. Other good textbooks recommended for this study include Horowitz and Sahni [17],
Melhorn [18], and Aho et al. [19]. For updates on N P -completeness see the article titled
“N P -completeness: An ongoing guide” in the Journal of Algorithms.
Since the concept of reducibility plays a dominant role in establishing the N P -
completeness of a problem, we shall illustrate this with an example.
Consider the graph G = (V, E) in Figure 1.4 and the decision problem Can the vertices
of G be 3-colored? We now reduce this problem to an instance of SAT.
We define 12 Boolean variables xi,j (i = 1, 2, 3, 4; j = 1, 2, 3) where the variable xi,j
corresponds to the assertion that vertex i has been assigned color j. The clauses are defined
as follows:

C(i) = {xi,1 , xi,2 , xi,3 }, 1 ≤ i ≤ 4;

T (i) = {xi,1 , xi,2 }, 1 ≤ i ≤ 4;
U (i) = {xi,1 , xi,3 }, 1 ≤ i ≤ 4;
V (i) = {xi,2 , xi,3 }, 1 ≤ i ≤ 4;
D(e, j) = {xu,j , xv,j }, for every e = (u, v) ∈ E, 1 ≤ j ≤ 3.

Whereas, C(i) asserts that each vertex i has been assigned at least one color, the clauses
T (i), U (i) and V (i) together assert that no vertex has been assigned more than one color. The
clauses D(e, j)’s guarantee that the coloring is proper (adjacent vertices have been assigned
distinct colors).
Thus, the graph of Figure 1.4 is 3-colorable if and only if there exists an assignment of
truth values T and F to the 12 Boolean variables x1,1 , x1,2 , . . ., x4,3 such that the each of the
clauses contains at least one literal whose value is T.

References
[1] J. A. Bondy and U. S. R. Murty, Graph Theory, Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2008.

[2] G. Chartrand and L. Lesniak, Graphs and Digraphs, 4th Edition, CRC Press, Boca
Raton, FL, 2005.
 Basic Concepts in Graph Theory and Algorithms  19

[3] M. N. S. Swamy and K. Thulasiraman, Graphs, Networks and Algorithms, Wiley-

Interscience, New York, 1981.

[4] K. Thulasiraman and M. N. S. Swamy, Graphs: Theory and Algorithms, Wiley-

Interscience, New York, 1992.

[5] D. B. West, Introduction to Graph Theory, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle
River, NJ, 2001.

[6] V. Chavátal, On Hamilton’s ideals, J. Comb. Th. B, 12 (1972), 163–168.

[7] G. A. Dirac, Some theorems on abstract graphs, Proc. London Math. Soc., 2 (1952),
69–81.

[8] O. Ore, Note on Hamilton circuits, Amer. Math. Monthly, 67 (1960), 55.

[9] A. Levitin, Introduction to the Design and Analysis of Algorithms, Pearson, Boston, MA,
2012.

[10] M. T. Goodrich and R. Tamassia, Algorithm Design: Foundations, Analysis and Internet
Examples, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 2002.

[11] T. H. Cormen, C. E. Liercersona, and R. L. Rivest, Introduction to Algorithms, MIT

Press, Cambridge, MA, 1990.

[12] J. Edmonds, Paths, trees and flowers, Canad. J. Math., 17 (1965), 449–467.

[13] S. A. Cook, The complexity of theorem proving procedures, Proc. 3rd ACM Symp. on
Theory of Computing, ACM, New York, 1971, 151–158.

[14] R. M. Karp, Reducibility among combinatorial problems, Complexity of Computer Com-

munications, R. E. Miller and J. W. Thatcher, Eds., Plenum Press, New York, 1972,
85–104.

[15] R. M. Karp, On the computational complexity of combinatorial problems, Networks, 5

(1975), 45–68.

[16] M. R. Garey and D. S. Johnson, Computers and Intractability: A Guide to the Theory
of NP-Completeness, Freeman, San Francisco, CA, 1979.

[17] E. Horowitz and S. Sahni, Fundamentals of Computer Algorithms, Computer Science

Press, Potomac, MD, 1978.

[18] K. Melhorn, Graph Algorithms and NP-Completeness, Springer-Verlag, New York,

1984.

[19] A. V. Aho, J. E. Hopcroft, and J. D. Ullman The Design and Analysis of Computer
Algorithms, Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA, 1974.
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DELIGHT

AND POWER IN SPEECH ***
 DELIGHT and POWER
IN SPEECH
A UNIVERSAL DRAMATIC READER

BY

LEONARD G. NATTKEMPER
Polytechnic High School, Long Beach, Cal.
Formerly Professor of Public Speaking,
University of Southern California
AND

GEORGE WHARTON JAMES, Litt. D.

Author of “California, Romantic and Beautiful,”
“Arizona, the Wonderland,” “In and Out
of the Old Missions of California,”
“Reclaiming the Arid West,”
Etc., Etc.

A New, Complete and Practical Method of

Securing Delight and Efficiency in
Silent and Oral Reading and
Private and Public Speech

TOGETHER WITH A LARGE AND VARIED COLLECTION

OF CAREFULLY CHOSEN
SELECTIONS IN PROSE AND POETRY,
WITH CHAPTERS ON “THE CULTIVATION OF THE
MEMORY” AND “AFTER DINNER SPEAKING”

THE RADIANT LIFE PRESS

Pasadena, California
1919

Copyright, 1919,
By The Radiant Life Press

J. F. TAPLEY CO.
NEW YORK
 INTRODUCTION
Speech is one of God’s greatest gifts to man, yet, comparatively
speaking, how few there are whose speech is pleasing to hear, clear
and understandable, impressive and stimulative to action.
From the cradle to the grave every person, perforce, uses speech,
just as he eats, breathes, drinks, sleeps. It is one of the important,
ever exercised functions of life. Upon it all our social, business and
professional intercourse is based. Without it, life as we know it,
would be impossible. With it, developed to its natural, normal, proper,
and readily attainable efficiency, there are few limits to what man
may aspire to attain.
Recognizing to the full the truth of the aphorism that “the things we
enjoy doing are the things we do best,” it is the purpose of this book
so to present its subject as to create in its readers a firm resolve to
so thoroughly enjoy good reading that they will do it well.
The aim is twofold: first, to stimulate a natural desire on the part of
the student for the proper use of voice and body in the oral
interpretation of literature; and second, to present a natural and
practical scheme for the attainment of this end.
After a number of years of experience and observation the authors
have come to believe that when even the most diffident pupil has
once had aroused in him a real enjoyment in the acts of speaking
and reading aloud, he is destined to become not only an intelligent,
but an intelligible reader.
It is no longer necessary to argue for the recognition of vocal
expression as a worthy and definite part of the curriculum of High
School and College. Training in the spoken word is to-day, as never
before, looked upon as a prerequisite to professional and business
success. Henry Ward Beecher, speaking of the rightful place of
speech culture, says:

A living force that brings to itself all the resources of the

imagination, all the inspirations of feeling, all that is influential
in body, in voice, in eye, in gesture, in posture, in the whole
animated man, is in strict analogy with the divine thought and
the divine arrangement ... and so regarded, it should take its
place among the highest departments of education.

The majority of mankind, however, seems to feel that beautiful,

powerful, and effective speech or the ability to read well and
acceptably is the gift or attainment of the chosen few. Nothing can be
further from the fact. Beauty is the normal condition in the universe in
every realm of nature, and is attained by the simple effort of each
thing to express itself in natural and spontaneous fashion. Likewise,
clear, impressive, delight-giving, thought-provoking speech, and the
power to read well are as easy to attain, and may be obtained in the
same natural, spontaneous, unaffected manner.
Unfortunately in the past the teachers of these simple and natural
arts befogged the whole subject by their artificialities, formalities,
conventionalities and pretenses. Their text-books were filled with
unnecessary and injurious rules, mandates, and requirements. And
thus the pseudo-science of “Elocution,” with its stilted expressions,
its fixed gestures, its artificial inflections, came into being. And the
students who were eager to acquire the mastery of effective speech,
—than which there is no greater accomplishment,—were intimidated,
frightened away by the multiplicity of rules and theories.
Let us be thankful that the day is dawning when instruction in
correct spoken language comes through the easy avenues of
naturalness, spontaneity, simplicity and normal enthusiasm. Too long
have we been discouraged by the glib aphorism that there is no easy
road to learning. It is not true, if by learning we mean the attainment
of the real intellectual things, instead of the sham, pretentious things
that men in the past too often have called learning.
 The authors of this book venture the affirmation that hardly one of
the great readers, public speakers of power, or orators of influence
have ever taken a lesson in the so-called art of “elocution” or heeded
any of its straight-jacket rules. Daniel Webster has well expressed
the difference between the man with a heart full of burning thoughts
demanding utterance, and the one with a mouth full of carefully
chosen words, and exquisitely modulated phrases, meaning little or
nothing to the soul of him:

True eloquence, indeed, does not consist in speech. It

cannot be brought from afar. Labor and learning may toil for it,
but they will toil in vain. Words and phrases may be
marshaled in every way, but they cannot compass it. It must
exist in the man, in the subject, and in the occasion. Affected
passion, intense expression, the pomp of declamation, all
may aspire after it,—they cannot reach it. It comes, if it comes
at all, like the outbreaking of a fountain from the earth, or the
bursting forth of volcanic fires, with spontaneous, original,
native force. The graces taught in the schools, the costly
ornaments and studied contrivances of speech, shock and
disgust men, when their own lives, and the fate of their wives,
their children, and their country hang on the decision of the
hour. Then words have lost their power, rhetoric is in vain, and
all elaborate oratory contemptible. Even genius itself then
feels rebuked and subdued, as in the presence of higher
qualities. Then patriotism is eloquent; then self-devotion is
eloquent. The clear conception, out-running the deductions of
logic, the high purpose, the firm resolve, the dauntless spirit,
speaking on the tongue, beaming from the eye, informing
every feature, and urging the whole man onward, right
onward to his object,—this, this is eloquence; or, rather, it is
something greater and higher than all eloquence: it is action,
—noble, sublime, God-like action.

The natively-eloquent learned to speak with power because they

had a message, because they felt, were deeply moved, saw a vision,
experienced a deep emotion, had a thought they strongly desired to
communicate to others, and with a few fundamental, simple, readily-
grasped principles before them, generally unconsciously exercised,
they said their say, and convinced the world.
To state these basic principles with the simplicity and naturalness
they call for, and to show the pleasure and power that come from
their development is the purpose of the authors of this book.
By following these self-evident steps one who has something
worth saying, whose heart is deeply stirred, will become a good
reader, a fluent, convincing public speaker with little or no conscious
effort. Just as a few simple exercises, regularly persisted in, produce
glowing, radiant health and physical strength, so will these simple,
enjoyable exercises, kept ever in mind and daily used, bring to one
the glowing delight of reading to oneself with appreciation and
intelligence, reading publicly with intelligibility and effectiveness, and
speaking to a large or small audience with convincing power.

The Selections of the Book

While there are many and varied text-books that deal with this
important subject in a more or less modern fashion, they all use, to a
greater or lesser extent, the same old selections from well-known
authors and orators, which, unfortunately, were used by the teachers
of the stilted, artificial, sophomoric and altogether discredited
“elocution.” Hence, the authors and editors of this volume have
made an almost entirely new choice of Selections for illustrative
purposes and for public reading. But few will be found that have
been used elsewhere. References are made to the writings of
standard authors which may be obtained in any ordinary library, but
a large percentage of the prose and poetry of this collection is taken
from the more modern and popular American writers.
It is neither the intent nor the desire of the editors to limit the field
of thought of their readers or students to any one field of English
literature. Our aim is quite the contrary. We would so emphasize the
worth of the literature of the West, however, that those who have
hitherto deemed that “no good can come out of Nazareth,” may be
led to search for literary good in other Nazareths.
Literature is as wide as civilized human life, and according to the
intensity with which life is lived, and the desire of those who live to
express that intensity, will literature of strength and power be
produced. The West lives intensely, rapidly, urgently, individually,
hence its literature is intense, strong and powerful.
Just as sure as history records the existence of an early West—a
West where the gun and knife settled men’s heated controversies, a
West where, for many years, there was a dearth of woman’s soft
voice and tender smile—just so sure are the writings of the Western
poets, philosophers and storytellers of this period a vital part of our
early American literature. The literature of the West, as with the
literature of any country, needs only be a true, sincere, worthy
expression of the life it professes to portray.
The greater one’s knowledge of the literatures of the various
peoples of the world, the deeper one’s sympathies become, and the
easier it is to grasp the divine principles of human brotherhood.
The authors also wish to call attention to what they deem another
important feature of their work. It will be seen from the outline plan of
the book that it is divided into four parts, viz.: Intelligible Reading,
Sympathetic Reading, Melodious Reading, Oratorical Reading.
The selections have been arranged, in the main, under these
respective headings, that they may accompany the explanations,
serve to elucidate the principles laid down, and afford copious
examples for their practice.
There is also an important and practical chapter on the
Development and Use of the Memory.
That this book will fill a long felt and continuously expressed want
on the part of teachers of Oral Reading is the confident assurance of
the editors.
In the preparation of the technical part of the book the authors
have been immeasurably aided by their large and personal
knowledge of, and acquaintance or friendship with, leading orators in
politics, the law, the church, on the lecture platform, and at public
dinners and other functions. They have also availed themselves of
the same knowledge of the great interpreters in the theater. A long,
intimate study of the essential characteristics which made for the
success of many masters in the art of using the spoken word has
been made. Thus the authors are assured that no factor that leads
towards, and assures, success in dramatic or private reading or
speaking has been ignored. All academic and purely theoretical
matter has been rigorously excluded.
The old methods of sophomoric oratory are gone, never to return.
Men and women of purpose have learned that simplicity, directness,
naturalness, are the most potent factors in conveying their ideas to
others. It is gratifying to know that modern methods of teaching Oral
Reading and Private and Public Speaking seek to emphasize these
fundamental principles and reduce to the lowest possible minimum
all introductions of the artificial.
Leonard G. Nattkemper,
George Wharton James.
 PART ONE
Intelligent and Intelligible Reading
FIRST STEP. Getting the author’s thought. Discussing
INTELLIGENT reading. Giving material for training the pupil in
getting the thought from the printed page. Reading at sight and
reproducing in his own words. Making outlines of simple selections,
principally prose selections.
SECOND STEP. Discussion of INTELLIGIBLE reading. Two-fold
purpose: Thought-getting and thought-giving in the author’s words.
General and Special preparation. Exercises in Enunciation,
Pronunciation, Articulation, Vocabulary.
 CHAPTER I
READING AND PUBLIC SPEECH

It is the first and last object of education “to teach people how to
think.” When we consider the vast wealth of great thoughts felt and
expressed by great men of all times and recorded for us in books,
should we not give serious reflection upon what we read and how we
read?
This book has to do primarily with how rightly to speak thoughts
and feelings hidden in great literature—yet it is strictly in keeping
with this purpose to give some attention to silent reading as
distinguished from oral reading. For how can one hope to become an
intelligible reader who is not first an intelligent one? This does not
argue that an intelligent reader is likewise intelligible, for the mere
comprehension of the author’s thought and mood does not in itself
insure a proper or adequate oral rendition of the same. In this sense
we think of the former act as a necessity, and of the latter as an
accomplishment.
Yet in this twentieth century we can hardly make the above
limitations, for he who is to become most useful to himself and to
others, must not only be able to understand what he reads, but must,
at the same time, be able effectively to communicate it to others. The
latter accomplishment, of course, necessitates systematic drill and
practice, and the greater portion of this book is devoted to a series of
lessons for carrying on such a course of instruction. In this
immediate chapter, however, we are concerned more particularly
with reading in general.
One of the first steps toward fitting oneself to become an
impressive reader and speaker is to acquire a real love for the best
literature. The only way to do this is by making the acquaintance of
great authors, and the best way to come into companionship with
noble writers is conscientiously to study their works. Because, at first
glance, an author may seem obscure, too many are fain to put the
book aside, or substitute for it one that does not require any effort to
enjoy. But, after all, is it not the books over which we struggle most
that yield us the most joy and the most good? When once we form
the friendship of great books and catch their vision, we cannot help
but pattern our lives, in a very large measure, in accordance with
those fundamental and lasting principles of right living and right
thinking which characterize the writings of all great men and women.
Their ideals become our ideals.
It seems, therefore, that if we hope to become agreeable speakers
or conversationalists we must, at the outset, realize it as imperative
that we, make ourselves familiar with the writings, in verse and
prose, of noble minds. It is by this close association with great
people, who have not only understood and felt the deeper meanings
of life, but who have put their experiences and knowledge into
permanent literature, that we may have our smaller souls kindled to
glow brighter and longer. It is by giving an attentive ear to the voices
that call to us from our bookshelves that our finer sensibilities are
quickened to fuller appreciation of nature, of art, and of the joy of
living.
We must realize that training in the development of oral
expression is primarily a cultural course, but, at the same time, a
practical one. Many people would invert the order of this statement,
but all are agreed that correct vocal expression aids immeasurably in
the development of taste and refinement, and, at the same time,
affords, in many ways, practical assistance in daily living.
Pure water is more likely to be drawn from a deep well than from a
shallow pool. So, also, he who possesses depth of feeling and
appreciation of noble thoughts and pure emotions is more likely to
give adequate and satisfactory oral expression to them than he
whose feeling is shallow and indifferent. Experience teaches that
nothing gives greater aid to a spontaneous, irresistible flow of
thought, revealing, through voice and body, the finer conceptions of
the human soul, than a constant familiarity with the deep wells of the
best literature.
 By listening eagerly to the best words great men of all times have
said to the world, we make our own natures responsive. Then, in
greater or lesser measure, as readers or speakers, we translate or
interpret these words for the enjoyment or uplift of others.
How can the man, the woman, of limited time and means, proceed
so as to find these treasures of literature?
Let us here set down, briefly and clearly, what seems to us the
most enjoyable and natural method to use. In the first place, ask
yourself if you are willing to be a hard worker, self-sacrificing and
humble. Unless you are, you will find that great spirits are slow to
share with you their richest treasures. You must first make yourself
worthy before you can expect to enter into their sanctum. In the
words of Ruskin:

You must be willing to work hard to find the hidden meaning

of the author. Ask yourself, “Am I inclined to work as an
Australian miner would? Are my pick-axes and shovels in
good order, and am I in good trim myself, my sleeves well up
to my elbows, and my breath good, and my temper?” ... The
metal you are in search of being the author’s mind or
meaning, his words are as the rock which you have to crush
and smelt in order to get at it. And your pick-axes are your
own care, wit, and learning; your smelting furnace is your own
thoughtful soul. Do not hope to get at any good author’s
meaning without those tools and that fire; often you will need
sharpest, finest chiseling, and patientest fusing, before you
can gather one grain of the metal.

Then, too, you must be patient. An untrained reader is, as it were,

wandering in a great forest where he sees many paths, but he knows
not which to take. If he pursue a wrong path the first, second or the
third time, he should not lose hope, but seek again and again. By
such experiences he is sharpening his faculty of discrimination, and
erelong can, in a brief space, detect which paths he should follow.
No one but yourself can prescribe rightly a course of reading best
suited to your particular needs. It must be a voluntary search on your
own part, and an enjoyable one, if you are to get the most from it.
But here enters a serious consideration: Is what I enjoy most the
best for me? The answer is Yes and No! Yes, if you enjoy most what
appeals to the best in you; no, if you enjoy most what in your heart
you know appeals to what is the worst in you. Therefore, the
important question for you to answer is—does this book, article,
essay or poem merely interest me, or does it appeal to the best in
me?
Henry Van Dyke expresses the matter perfectly:

The person who wants to grow, turns to books as a means

of purifying his tastes, deepening his feelings, broadening his
sympathies, and enhancing his joy of life. Literature he loves
because it is the most humane of the arts. Its forms and
processes interest him as expressions of the human striving
towards clearness of thought, purity of emotion, and harmony
of action with the ideal. The culture of a finer, fuller manhood
is what this reader seeks. He is looking for the books in which
the inner meanings of nature and life are translated into
language of distinction and charm, touched with the human
personality of the author, and embodied in forms of
permanent interest and power. This is literature. And the
reader who sets his affections on these things enters the
world of books as one made free of a city of wonders, a
garden of fair delights. He reads not from a sense of duty, not
from a constraint of fashion, not from an ambition of learning,
but from a thirst of pleasure; because he feels that pleasure of
the highest kind,—a real joy in the perception of things lucid,
luminous, symmetrical, musical, sincere, passionate, and
profound,—such pleasure restores the heart and quickens it,
makes it stronger to endure the ills of life and more fertile in
all good fruits of cheerfulness, courage and love. This reader
for vital pleasure has less need of maps and directories, rules
and instructions, than of companionship. A criticism that will
go with him in his reading, and open up new meaning in
familiar things, and touch the secrets of beauty and power,
and reveal the hidden relations of literature to life, and help
him to see the reasonableness of every true grace of style,
the sincerity of every real force of passion,—a criticism that
penetrates, illuminates, and appreciates, making the eyes
clearer and the heart more sensitive to perceive the living
spirit in good books,—that is the companionship which will be
most helpful, and most grateful to the gentle reader.
 CHAPTER II
EFFECTIVE SPEECH

There are four definite steps in the mastery of effective speech:

It must be Intelligible
It must be Sympathetic
It must be Melodious
It must be Forceful

In seeking to accomplish these four aims, the pupil will not only
increase his culture but his practical mental power as well.
The first step has to do with whatever makes understandable what
he has to say. But before he can be intelligible in address, he must
be an intelligent reader. He must train himself to master the real
meaning of words. This means taking in—comprehending—and
translating the thought of others. This is an important part in
accomplishing the first step. The mind must be trained quickly and
accurately to comprehend the printed page.

The Basis for Good Oral Reading

Grasp this idea firmly: Before one may hope to read intelligibly, he
must first be an intelligent reader. You cannot express outwardly
what you have not received and do not feel inwardly. Therefore the
basis of good oral reading is understanding—intelligent silent
reading. Some one has well said, “Unless a child can read, he
cannot be educated.” How few can read at sight a short passage and
then close the book and relate its context. Why is this the case?
Because the pupil has not been properly trained to read.

The Basis for Good Silent Reading

 In the study of the printed word we must remember that its real
meaning depends altogether upon its relation to other words in the
same group. For instance, the word “fire” does not mean the same
thing at all times. The real meaning of this word depends upon its
kinship with other members of the same group. When we say, “The
house is on fire,” the word “fire” means an altogether different thing
from what it means when we say, “There is need of a fire in the stove
this morning.” We must continually take care that we do not isolate
words, but that we get their associated meaning. For too long a time
in our public schools the pupils have been taught to read words and
not ideas or thoughts. They have been taught to read word by word
and not group by group. For instance, the most elementary pupils
will read as follows: “The—cat—can—run—and—play—with—the—
ball.” The grouping is altogether overlooked. The children are
concentrating their attention upon single or isolated words instead of
upon thought groups made up of several words as follows: “The cat
can run—and play with the ball.”

Get the Author’s Thought

Whatever one reads, he must first determine for what purpose he
is reading. A definite aim or end in view must be had to serve as a
motive power. The pupil who can relate the successive events in a
narrative after having read it carefully, has trained his memory. But
memory training is not the highest aim or end. The thing of
paramount importance is: What is the application of the author’s
meaning? The value lies in what use the student can make of the
knowledge. This act of getting the author’s thought draws upon the
student’s stock of experience. All new matter comes to the pupil in
terms of his past experiences. The task of the teacher is to aid him in
identifying himself with the lesson taught by the author, so that he
can make practical use of it.

We Are Not Studying Style

In this present step in the development of the student in effective
speech the style of an author is nothing more than a means to an
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