EDDY CURRENT TESTING 6.1. INTRODUCTION: * Eddy currents are defined as oscillating electrical currents induced in a conductive material by an alternating magnetic field, due to electromagnetic induction. %* Eddy current testing (ECT) is used for sorting materials, measurement and control of dimensions of tubes, sheets and rods, coating thickness and for pre-service and in-service examination of heat exchanger tubes for detection of defects. % Eddy current testing is one of the electromagnetic testing methods Used in non-destructive testing (NDT) making use of electromagnetic induction to defect and characterize surface and sub-surface flaws in Conductive material.6.2. EDDY CURRENT: Whenever relative motion 0¢ ¢ between a metal conducto u o ¢ yer relative ™ ic currents are induced in the surface of y,. magnetic lines of force, electri metal conductor. 6.2.1. Properties of Eddy Currents: 1. Eddy current density decreases with the depth exponentially. Th; phenomenon is known as the skin effect. Eddy currents are closed loops of induced current circulating in planes perpendicular to the magnetic flux. 3. Eddy currents normally travel parallel to the coil’s windings and the flow is limited to the area of inducing magnetic field and perpendicular to the axis of the coil’s flux field. 6.2.2. Generation of Eddy currents: %* Eddy currents are loops of electrical current induced within conductors by a changing magnetic field in the conductor, due to Faraday’s law of induction. * A probe is used to generate eddy currents for an inspection. Inside the probe is of length of electrical conductor which is formed into 2 coil at a frequency according to the type of test involved. * A dynamic expanding coil collapsing magnetic field forms in and around the coil as the alternating current flows through the coil. % When an electrically conductive material is placed on the coil’s dynamic magnetic field, electromagnetic induction will occur and e¢¢) currents will be induced in the materialrent: x Eddy currents flowing in the material will generate their ow “secondary” magnetic field which oppose the coil’ magnetic field. coil's primary” This entire electromagnetic induction Process to produce Eddy currents may occur from several million times per second depending upon inspection frequency. Figure 6.1 shows the generation of eddy current in different types of oil. Specimen ~ (b) Coil (Probe) Testing the Cylindrical Member (a) Coil (Probe) at the — end of the Specimen LLM LLL Probe (c) Coil (Probe) Testing the hollow Cylindrical Membrance Fig. 6.46.3. PRINCIPLE OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING: In Eddy current testing, an alternating current (A.C) of frequency | kHz — 2 MHz is made to flow in a coil which in turn, produces an alternating magnetic field around it. This coil when brought close to the electrically conducting surface of a metallic material to be inspected, induces an eddy current flow in the material due to electromagnetic induction as shown in Figure 6.2. Display Magnetic Field Primary Field Induced Second: Direction of “w Eddy Current Magnetic Field Eddy Currents Test Piece Fig. 6.2: Working Principal of Eddy Current % These eddy currents are generally parallel to the coil winding. The presence of any defect or discontinuity in the material disturbs the eddy current flow. % These eddy currents in turn generate an alternating magnetic field which may be detected either as a voltage across a secondary coil oF by the perturbation of the impedance of the original coil.When a flaw is i i * 18 introduced in the conductive material to be tested, edd i ae y cone are disrupted and is sensed through suitable instrumentation. % Eddy current testing can detect very small cracks of any physical complex geometry with minimal surface penetration. 64, PHYSICS-ASPECTS OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING: % Since eddy current testing and inspection makes use of electromagnetic induction, so it is important to know about the scientific principles of electricity and magnetism. * =A number of factors, apart from flaws, will affect the eddy current response from a probe. % Successful assessment of flaws or any of these factors rely on holding constant, or eliminating their effect on results. The factors influencing eddy current testing are: 1. Conductivity. 2. Permeability. 3. Frequency. 4. Resistivity. 5. Inductance. 6. Inductive Reactance. 7. Impedance. 8. Electricity. 9. Electromotive force. 10. Design or geometry of the coil.6.4.1. Conductivity: 4% The material in which eddy current can be induced should be of conductive nature. % All materials have characteristic resistance to the flow of electric current depending on which they can be classified into three categories: 1. Insulators. 2. Semi-conductors. 3. Conductors. %* Conductivity is the reverse of resistivity and is the measure of how easily the current can flow through the material. * Conductivity is often measured by an eddy current technique, and inferences can then be drawn about the different factors. In general conductivity of material is affected by the (i) Chemical composition, (ii) Heat treatment. (iii) Temperature. Eddy current testing can be used to detect chan; ges in any one of these Properties in isolation.642+ permeability: 4 Magnetic permeability is the ratio of magnetic flux density to the magnetizing force of the coil. 4% The magnetic permeability of a metal affects the ease with which magnetic lines will flow through it. % Ina material with a high permeability, a large density of these lines will be created for a given source and the lines will tend to concentrate in the material. 4 This has two effects — Firstly a greater amount of magnetic energy can be stored in the coil which increases inductance. 4 Secondly plenty of eddy currents are generated which increase. the “dift off? effect. The tendency -of the lines of-force to concentrate in the material causes very little penetration. % As material permeability increases, noise signals resulting from permeability variations increasingly mask eddy current signal variations. Permeability thus limits effective penetration of eddy current. Magnetic permeability of various materials which affect the eddy current testing are given below: 1 Paramagnetic materials like aluminium has a relative magnetic Permeability slightly greater than unity. (i.e.) #21. Diamagnetic material such as copper and lead create a magnetic field in opposition to an externally applied magnetic field, thus causing repulsive effect. Magnetic permeability is less than unity. ie. p, <1.3. Ferromagnetic materials like iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys are strongly attracted by magnetic fields and concentrate the flux of magnetic field. Their relative permeability is much greater than unity ie, HW. >> 1. 6.4.3. Frequency: 4% The importance of test frequency is that it determines the depth of penetration of eddy currents in the material. % The eddy current density decreases exponentially from the material surface but the rate of decreases depends on the test frequency, the electrical conductivity and the magnetic permeability of the test material. Fig. 6.3 shows the eddy current and magnetic flux distribution with depth, into a conductor. $= 4, sin (wt) T=], sin (wt) I= I, sin (ot) ; } \\ ae 45sin (at) Fig. 6.3: Eddy Current and Magnetic Flux in a Conductor$6 = Magnetic flux density. Ii — Applied current Is = — Induced current / secondary. @ — Angular frequency (2 7 f). — Phase change. t — Time x —> Thickness (variable) x The frequency is the only parameter that can be varied by the inspector during inspection. % Eddy current testing is performed within a frequency range of approximate 50 Hz to 10 MHz. + As test frequency is increased, sensitivity to surface discontinuities increases permitting increasingly smaller surface discontinuities to be detected. * As frequency is decreased, eddy current penetration into the material increases. In addition, as frequency is decreased, the speed of coil motion must be decreased in order to obtain full coverage. The optimum frequency is best determined by experimentation. 6444. Resistivity: Resistance is the opposition of a body or substance to the flow of ergy into clectrical current through it, resulting in @ change of electrical en heat, }; “t light, or other forms of energy:6.4.5. Inductance: When induction occurs in an electrical circuit and affects the flow of electricity it is called as inductance (L). An inductance is shown in Figure 6.4 Fig. 6.4: Inductance % Self inductance, or simply inductance is the property of circuit where by a change in current causes a change in voltage in the same circuit. %& When one circuit induces current flow in a second near by is known as mutual inductance. * It should be noted that since it is the changing magnetic field that is responsible for inductance, it is only present in AC circuits. The common types of inductance 1. Self inductance. 2. Mutual inductance. Self inductance: % Self inductance is defined as the induction of a voltage in a current carrying wire when the current in the wire itself is changing. %*& In case of self-inductance, the magnetic field created by a changing current in the circuit itself induces a voltage in same circuit.x Therefore, the voltage is self-induced, and the sketch of it is shown in Figure 6.5. D ® | Fig. 6.5: Self Inductance %& Increasing the number of tums or the rate of change of magnetic flux increases the amount of induced voltage. % Therefore Faraday’s law must be modified for coil of wire and becomes the following. Ldi VL at where, VL ~The induced voltage in volts. L — The value of inductance in henries. didt — The rate of change of current in amperes per second.Mutual Inductance: The magnetic flux through a circuit can be related to the current in that circuit and the currents in other nearby circuits, assuming that there are ne nearby permanent magnates. A schematic of mutual inductance is shown in Figure 6.6. Fig. 6.6: Mutual Inductance %* The magnetic field produced by circuit 1 will intersect the wire in circuit 2 and create current flow. %& The induced current flow in circuit 2 will have its own magnetic field which will interact with the magnetic field of circuit 1, %*& At some point Pp, the magnetic field consists of a part due to i, and a part due to iy, %& = These fields are Proportional to the current Producing them. % The coils in the Circuits are labeled as L, and L, and this term represents the self inductance of each of the coils, %& The value of L, and L, depend on the geometrical arrangement of the circuit, and the Conductivity of the material. % The constant M called the mutual inductance of the two circuits, is dependent on the geometrical arrangement of both circuits,6.4.6. Inductive Reactance: x «The reduction of curr i ; ‘ ; ent flow in a circuit as a result of induction is called as inductive reactance metion Is t a coil i i we A il of wire, applying Lenz's law, one can find, how inductance reduces the flow of current in the circuit. % An inductive reactance illustration is given in Figure 6.7. Fig, 6.7: Inductive Reactance +k The direction of the magnetic field can be determined by Lenz’s law. * According to Lenz’s law, the induced current must flow in the opposite direction of the primary current. & The induced current working against the primary current results in a reduction of current flow in the circuit. 64.7. Impedance: %*& Impedance is the total opposition that a circuit presents to alternating Current. 7 * Impedance is measured in ohms, and may include resistance (R), inductive reactance (X,) and capacitive reactance (Xc).% The impedance change is effected, mainly by electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability and geometry of the material, test frequency and the spacing between the coil and the material. 4x This impedance change can be measured and correlated with the change in the above mentioned parameter. %* Figure 6.8 shows the correlation between the inductive reactance and resistance. i i i 4 (Phase Angle) ° Resistance (R) Fig. 6.8: Relation between ZRX %& The impedance in a circuit with resistance and inductive reactance can be calculated using the following equation Z= V(X} +R?) Z =~ Impedance. R > _ Resistance. X, — Inductive Reactance.448. Electricity: 4 Movement of electrons in a particular direction through a conductor is called as electricity. 4 The basic law of electricity is ohm’s law. where, V=IxR V_ — Voltage in volts. I — Electrical current in Ampere. R — Resistance in ohm’s. 6.4.9. Electromotive force: * * The force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit is called the electromotive force. At is the force that makes electrons move in a certain direction within a conductor. There are many sources of electromotive force, the most common being batteries and electrical generators. 6.4.10. Design or Geometry of coil: * The geometry of a component under test causes many difficulties in ECT. A curved piece of metal will have a different ‘lift off response compared to a flat one, and the edge effect can distort the eddy current field and produces a signal lag. Another feature of geometry is on the actual thickness of the material under test.*& If the eddy current penetrates the full thickness, there will be some effect when the thickness changes. %* Signals from thickness changes are used to detect the loss of metal due to corrosion. 6.5. EQUIPMENT AND ACCESSORIES FOR EDDY CURRENT TESTING: * Special instruments have been developed in incorporating various methods of detecting and amplifying small impedance changes. %* The functions of an eddy current instruments are given in block diagram of Figure 6.9. Oscillator Transformer Fig. 6.9: Function of ECT Explanation: : ; * A sine wave oscillator generates sine current, at an specified frequency, that passes through a test coil, * = Since the impedance of two coils ig never exactly equal, balancing is required to eliminate the voltage difference between them, %*& Most eddy current instruments achieve this through an AC bridge or by subtracting a voltage equal to the unbalance voltage.* Once balanced, the presence of a defect in one coil creates a small unbalanced signal which is then amplified, filtered and displayed on the storage oscilloscope after converting to DC signal The coil output may vary in both amplitude and phase and the relative variation of the parameters may be important for evaluation of the material under test. Simple Eddy Current Testing (ECT) instruments usually operate at a fixed frequency and have an analog meter output, thus have limited applications. Modern ECT instruments use both amplitude and phase information of the eddy currents. These instruments permit test frequency to be varied over a wide range enabling selection of suitable skin depth. The calibration and inspection results are normally recorded on dual channel chart recorders and on magnetic tapes. The data stored on magnetic tapes can be played back at a later stage for further evaluation or documentation. The common accessories are explained below: Coils: * * * Coils are necessary in-ECT to produce a sufficient magnetic field from limitedcurrent‘or ‘a sufficient current from a limited magnetic field. A field from adjacent wires in a nearby coil add to provide a total magnetic field depending on the number of turns in the coils. , This type of magnetic field from a‘ coil’is similar to that from a Permanent magnet.Eddy current generation: % When the coil is brought in close proximity with the conductive material, the alternating magnetic field will pass through the material, % The coil can be placed onto the material (or) encircle it (or) be inside a tube (or) sideway to the object as shown in Figure 6.10. and eddy currents will be induced into the material. (b) Coil Inside object (c) Coll encircling object (a) Coll at end of object raany Eddy Current Flow (d) Coll Edge on object Fig. 6.10: Eddy Current with different coil arrangement *& Itcan ke shown that they normally have circular paths at right angles to the primary field parallel to the coil winding.%* =This arrangemen Eddy current detection: * The eddy ao in the conducting material generate their own magnetic field which in fact opposes and modifies the primary field. %& This in turn modifies the primary current usually in both phase and amplitude. * Ifthe current flowing through the primary field is shown on a display, then variations in it can be seen in the presence of defects. %& The coil which is used for both generating the primary field and detecting the secondary field is called an absolute coil as shown in Figure 6.11. (a) Absolute Coil (b) Differential Coils Fig. 6.11: Coil Variations % It is necessary to have two coils in close proximity which are electrically arranged to be in opposite i.e. wound in opposite directions. t reduces the effects which can affect both coils for material variations and temperature. Signals affect each coil differently, for example a crack sensed by one coil at a time is enhanced and this arrangement. is called differential coil mode.Probe Selection: The selection of a test coil is influenced by a number of factors: 1. Shape of test specimen. 2. Likely distribution of variables affecting eddy currents and type of information required —- crack detection, conductivity variation, permeability variation. 3. Accessibility. Probe size requirements: The probe size requirements for ECT of the tubes are determined by the fill factor, where, D2 Fill factor = 4 Dy where, D, — Diameter of the probe. D,-> ID of the’ tube 6.5.1. Eddy Current Testing (ECT) probes types: Eddy current probes are classified on the basis of model of operation. The four general types of probes are: 1. Absolute probes. 2. Differential probes. : 3. Reflection probes. 4. Hybrid probes.pte Absolute Probes: * Absolute probe is also called as single coil probe in which the change in material geometry can be detected by excitation coil as a change jn coil impedance. x These probes are used for flaw detection, conductivity measurement, lift off measurement and thickness measurements x Figure 6.12 shows the arrangement of sensing element of the eddy current testing. Resistors osc (Oscillator) Display as Reference Coil Detectors = Test Coil Fig. 6.12: Absolute Probe * The simple coil consists of a ferrite rod with several turns of wire wound at one end which is positioned close to the surface of the Product tested. * Primary functional element of the eddy current probe is the sensing coil. This is a coil of wire near the end of the probe.6.5.1.2. * 6.5.1.3. Alternating current is passed through the coil which creates an alternating magnetic field and this field is used to sense the defect in the target. The coil is encapsulated in plastic and epoxy installed in a Stainless steel housing. Differential Probe: Differential probe consists of two active coils and are arranged in pairs, generally called a driven pair and this arrangement can be used with the coils connected differentially. ° When a defectless test specimen is tested using this probe, no differential signal is developed between these two active coils. When one coil is over a defect part of the test specimen and the other coil is over a defectless part of same specimen, differential signal is produced. Figure 6.13 shows the construction of differential probe. Ferro Core Reference Coil Test Crack Specimen Fig. 6.13: Differential Probe Reflection Probe: Reflection probe combines the features of both absolute and differential probe. In this probe, one coil is used to generate eddy current and other one is coupled to a reference Standard, which evaluates the change in test specimen whenever indications from test specimen differs from the standard.x Figure 6.14 shows the working of reflection probe © Primary Coil Detection of © Secondary S, and S, windings© Windings Connected Differential ntially CQ) | Test Specimen Moves Through the Coil Fig. 6.14: Reflection Probe Working This type of probe has 3 windings. % One primary. * Two secondary windings. It is also called as probe with transformer type coil. 6.5.1.4. Hybrid Probe: %* It has a driver coil working on reflection mode and surrounded by two sensing coil working on differential mode. %* Hybrid probes are very sensitive to surface defects only. 6.5.1.5, Comparison of Absolute and Differential Probe: Differential Probe Absolute Probe It can detect the entire length of defects. Detects only the ends of long defects. Sensitive to probe wobble. © Less sensitive to probe wobble. Interpretation of signals is| * May yield signals difficult to simple interpret. Prone to drift due to| * Immune to drift due to temperature changes. Respond for abrupt and gradual Change in properties and dimensions. temperature changes. © More sensitive to abrupt localised changes.6.6. LIFT OFF EFFECT: * * The distance between a surface coil and the test surface is called as proximity or lift off. Since flux density decreases exponentially with distance from the test coil, the amount of lift off or separation between the coil and test specimen. has a significant effect on sensitivity. The closer the coupling between coil and test specimen, the denser the eddy current field that can be developed, and thus more sensitive to any material variable. Similarly close coupling increases the sensitivity to lift off effect, noise due to probe nobbles, when encircling coils are used. Lift off is equivalent to fill factor. 6.7. EDGE EFFECT: * * This refers to the effect that the component’s edge or shape changes in geometry due to the eddy currents. This can be neglected by placing a balancing probe near to the edge and scanning at that distance. Edge effect is phenomenon that occurs when an inspection coil is at the end of the test piece. At that instances, eddy current flow is distorted as currents cannot flow at the edge. In order to avoid the confusion with flaws, inspection is limited near the edges. The distance where the edge effect Present is from approximately one to three times the diameter of the inspection coils in the case of encircling probes. So, a reduction in coil size reduces the edge effect, although there is a limit as the diameter of external encircling coils must be higher than that of the inspected materials.er. 68. FILL FACTOR: x Fill factor is number which measures how well the test Piece fills the coil in external encircling probes. Fill factor is calculated by Di 2 Fill factor = DiaMe**ies piece)” i 2 Wiameter,,) where, Diametetyest piece — Test piece diameter Diameter,,;, > Diameter of the coil probe. Note: Both the diameters are measured in same unit. * Fill factor is the ratio of the cross sectional area of the test piece and area of the coil section. * It is necessary that the coil wires be as close as possible to the test piece, in order to have a greater response potential to cracks. * Fill factor should be as near as unity. 69. END EFFECT: *& In eddy current testing, end effect is defined as the disturbance of the magnetic field eddy current distribution, impedance due to Proximity of the coil to an abrupt change in geometry. * The end effect is common for cylindrical parts being inspected with encircling or inside diameter bobbin coils. struction, an uninspected region at the navoidable because the large nating from defects near the Based on the specific coil con end of the cylindrical part is always u! end effect ‘signals’can mask signals origi tube end zone.6.10. IMPEDANCE PLANE DIAGRAM: * where, In an eddy current testing instrumentation, eddy current circuits usually have only resistance (R) and reactance (X;) components For an eddy current circuit with resistance and inductive reactance components, the total impedance is calculated using the following equation. Z=\R?+ x? Z — Total impedance. R_ — Resistance. X, — Inductive Reactance. The resistance and reactance component'are not in phase, so vector addition must be used to relate them with impedance. Figure 6.8 shows a simple impedance plane diagram indicating the impedance with associated angle, called as phase angle. During inspection, the eddy current signals generated during testing of components are displayed by impedance plane diagram. The strength of the eddy currents and the magnetic permeability of the test material. causes the eddy current signal on the impedance plane.a 60-1. Impedance plane diagram for magnetic material: Conductivity Magnetic Material a zB 8 3 8 2 « ° 2 3 3 3 £ Resistance (R) Fig. 6.15: Impedance Plane Diagram for Magnetic Material x Figure 6.15 shows the eddy current response on impedance plane for magnetic materials such as steel. * % Table 6.1 shows the various display pattern and their reasons in eddy current testing for magnetic materials. Table 6.1: Display Pattern Display pattern Reason 1. Decrease in the coil resistance. Formed eddy currents taking energy away from the coil. Due to magnetic permeability of the steel concentrating the coil’s Increase in reactance magnetic field. Presence of crack causes fewer eddy current to form. Decrease in resistance and Increase in inductive reactance.6.10.2. Impedance plane diagram for non-magnetic material: Aimpoint wane n-------- (Non Magnetic Material) Inductive Reactance (X,) Conductivity Resistance (R) Fig. 6.16: Impedance Plane Diagram for Non-Magnetic Material %& Figure 6.16 shows the eddy current response on impedance plane for non-magnetic materials such as aluminium. % = Table 6.2 shows the variation in display patterns and their reasons in eddy current testing for non-magnetic material. Table 6.2 Display pattern Reason 1. Increase in coil resistance Eddy currents are being generated in the Aluminium and this takes energy away from the coil, which shows up increase in resistance. The magnetic field created by the eddy currents Opposes the coil Magnetic field and the net effect is weaker magnetic field. Presence of crack causes fewer eddy current signals. 2. Decrease in inductive reactance 3. Reversal of both resistance and inductive reactance.a 1 pEPTH OF PENETRATION: pal. x addy current concentrates near to the surface adjacent to an excitation coil and their strength decreases with distance from the coil (ie.) Eddy current density decreases exponentially with depth. This phenomenon is known as the skin effect Skin effect arises when the eddy current flowing in the test object at any depth produces magnetic fields which oppose the primary field. thus reducing the net magnetic flux and causing a decrease in eddy current flow as the depth increases. * ‘Alternatively eddy current near the surface can be viewed as shielding the coil’s magnetic field, there by weakening the magnetic field at greater depths and reducing induced currents. 4 It is mathematically convenient to define the “standard depth of penetration” where the eddy current is 37% of its surface value. 612. RELATION BETWEEN FREQUENCY AND DEPTH OF PENETRATION: The depth of penetration of eddy currents in a material is a critical factor. % For example, in the case of tube inspection, if the eddy currents do not penetrate the wall thickness of the tube, then it is possible to miss the defects. * The depth of penetration of eddy current can be found by the relation. 500 b= a.) Vout where, 8 — Standard depth of penetration (mm) © > Conductivity (mhos/m) H — Relative permeability. f + Inspection frequency (Hz).where, The standard depth of penetration is generally taken to be the depth of which the eddy current field intensity drops to 37% of the intensity at the surface of the conductor Higher the frequency, lower the depth of penetration Thus a frequency must be chosen which permits penetration to the depth upto which defects are to be found. For general tube inspection, the frequency used is often the frequency at which the standard depth of penetration is equal to the wall thickness of the tube. This given by the equation, _ 250, f= ot Hz me) t — wall thickness of the tube in mm. Equation (1) shows that higher the permeability, lower is the depth of penetration. 7 * * * Since relative permeabilities of ferromagnetic materials are of 500 to 2000, eddy currents in these materials are concentrated at the surface. Subsurface defects are not detectable in ferromagnetic materials. Small variations in permeability gives rise to relatively high impedance change. Conventional ECT fails to inspect ferromagnetic materials. 6.13. APPLICATIONS OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING: Fyn Detection of Discontinuities / surface breaking cracks. Conductivity measurement. Inspection of tube. Thickness measurement.Detection of Discontinuities: 613. Eddy current testing is an excellent method for detecting near surface defects, B * surface and x Defects such as cracks are detected when they disrupt the path of eddy currents and weaken their strength, x The sensitivity of eddy current inspection to detect surface discontinuities depends on the factors such as type of material, surface finish and condition of the material, the design of the probe. For surface flaws, the frequency should be as high as possible for maximum resolution and high sensitivity. %* For subsurface flaws, lower frequencies are preferred to set the required depth of penetration and this results in less sensitivity. * High conductive or ferromagnetic materials require the use of an even lower frequency to arrive at some level of penetration. The steps involved in identification are listed below: 1. Selection of Instrument and Probe: %* The instrument includes the basic devices such as oscillator, probe/coil, signal processing and display. * To test surface cracks, pancake probe or surface probe is preferred. Py Selection of frequency to produce the desired Depth of Penetration: * Depth of penetration depends on frequency, conductivity and Permeability. * High frequency is used for surface cracks and low frequency is used ' locate deeper cracks.3. Placing the coil probe and setting the instrument to Null point: F the compo! to be tested % Place the coil (probe) on the surface of the compe nent je tested : ‘i 7 and set the instrument to null point as shown in Figure 6.1 Null Point s @ 8 & 8 S & o a @ 2 3S s 3 £ Resistance (R) Fig. 6.17: Probe to Null Point 4. Scanning the surface by moving the probe in a pattern: %& When the probe is moved over the surface of the specimen, eddy current strength is altered due to presence of crack. %& Depending on the density and phase lag of interrupted eddy current circulation, signal response is displayed through impedance plane. %& Since a discontinuity of any size will possess some degree of thickness, it will interrupt eddy currents over a range of current densities and phase lag depending on the dimension, shape and orientation of the discontinuity.x Figure 6.18 shows inspection of surface crack on the given plate Probe Coil ‘= Direction of Scanning ——Test Specimen Surface Cracks Fig. 6.18: Defect Discontinuities Detection by ECT 5. Monitoring the signal for a change in Impedance: % The effect of crack depth from the surface is shown in impedance diagram of Figure 6.19. | x 9 8 e s © 8 2 a @ 2 o s 3 & Surface Q@:@ 1 @)—Cracks Resistance (R) Fig. 6.19: Impedance DiagramsWith increasing depth of crack from the test surface, the impedance locations are (1) = Nearer to the surface (3) — Crack at greater depth Figure 6.19 shows that a change in impedance includes a change in magnitude as well as phase. The direction of movement of the signal curve reveals the possible discontinuity in the material. 6.13.2. Conductivity Measurements for the Verification of Heat Treatment: * * One of the uses of eddy current instruments is for the measurement of electrical conductivity. The value of the electrical conductivity of a material depends on several factors such as its chemical composition and the stress state of its crystalline structure. Electrical conductivity information can be used for sorting metals, checking for proper heat treatment, and inspecting for heat damage. The technique usually involves nullifying an absolute probe in air and placing the probe in contact with the sample surface. For non magnetic materials, the change in impedance of the coil can be correlated directly to the conductivity of the material. The technique can be used to easily sort magnetic materials from non-magnetic materials but it is difficult to separate the conductivity effects from the magnetic permeability effects, so conductivity measurements are limited to non-magnetic materials,x When the ee is brought near a conductive but non-magnetic material, the coil’s inductive reactance goes down since the magnetic field from the eddy current opposes the magnetic field of the coil. x The resistance in the coil increases since it takes some of the coil’s energy to generate the eddy currents and this appears as additional resistance in the circuit. x As the conductivity of the materials being tested increases, the resistance losses will be less and the inductive reactance changes will be greater. x With some materials like aluminium alloys, conductivity measurements are often made verifying that parts and materials have received the proper heat treatment. % High purity aluminium is soft and ductile and gains strength and hardness with the addition of alloying elements. 6.13.3. Inspection on tube: * Eddy current inspection is often used to detect corrosion, erosion, cracking and other changes in tubing. %* Heat exchanger and steam generators, which are used in power plants, have many tubes which must be prevented from leaking. %* For the nuclear power plants where reused contaminated water must be prevented from mixing with fresh water that will be returned to the environment. %& The contaminated water flows on one side of the tube and the fresh water flows on the other side. * The heat is transferred from the contaminated water to the fresh water and the fresh water is then returned back to its source, usually a lake Or river.* A technique that is often used involves feeding a differential bobbi, probe into the individual tube of the heat exchanger. % = With the differential probe, no signal will be seen on the eddy curren, instrument as long as no metal thinning is present. * When metal thinning is present, a loop will be seen on the impedance plane as one coil of the differential probe passes over the flaweq (damaged) area and a second loop will be produced when the seconq coil passes over the damage. * When the corrosion is on the outside surface of the tube, the depth of corrosion is indicated by a shift in the phase lag. * The size of the indication provides an indication of the total extent of the corrosion damage. 6.13.4. Thickness Measurement: Thin Metal Strip Thin Film (/ Substrate Fig. 6.20: Thickness Measurementee * Biddy eure techniques are used to Measure the thickness of hot sheet, strip and foil in rolling mills and to measure the amount of metal thinning that has occurred over time due to corrosion on skins of aircraft. For thin material: + =When making this measurement, it is important to keep in mind that the depth of penetration of the eddy current must cover the entire range of thicknesses being measured. x A frequency is selected that produces about one standard depth of penetration at the maximum thickness. % At lower frequencies, which are often needed to get the necessary penetration, the probe impedance is more sensitive to changes in electrical conductivity. + The effect of electrical conductivity cannot be phased out and it is important to verify that any variations of conductivity over the region of interest are at a sufficiently low level. Thickness measurements of Non-conducting Coating: . : % The thickness of non-metallic coatings on metal substrates can be determined simply from the effect of lift off on impedance. * The coating serves as a spacer between the probe and the conductive Surface,a. UD. ON > , Wow i Non Conductive " Coating Conductive Base Metal Eddy Currents Fig. 6.21: Thickness Measurement for Non-Conductive Coatings %* As the distance between the probe and the conductive base metal increases, the eddy current field strength decreases because less of the probe’s magnetic field can interact with the base metal. Thickness between 0.5 and 25 fm can be measured to an accuracy between 10% for lower values and 4% for higher values. Contribution to impedance changes due to conductivity variations should be phased out, unless it is known that conductivity variations are negligible, as normally found at higher frequency. 6.14. ADVANTAGES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING: I. High speed testing. 2. Accurate measuring of conductivity, 3. Discontinuities at or near surface can be reliably detected. 4. This technique can be automated.5, It can detect flaws through Surface coatings 6. No physical contact required, 7, It provides immediate results of inspection. 8. Low costs. 9. Portable. 0. Complex shape can be inspected. 6.15. DISADVANTAGES OF EDDY CURRENT TESTING: 1. Limited penetration into test piece. 2. Only suitable for testing conductive materials. 3. Discontinuities are qualitative not quantitative indications. Not suitable for large areas Highly skilled persons are required to perform inspection. False indications can result from edge effects and parts geometry.7. Maintaining distance between the probe and test specimen is essentiaj, 8. No permanent record is possible. 9. Interpretation of signal is required. ses RI