Unit 1*Definition Carbohydrates: are defined as Polyhydroxy aldehydes or Polyhydroxy

ketones or the compounds that on hydrolysis yield Polyhydroxy aldehydes/ ketones.Most

common carbohydrates are glucose, fructose, sucrose, starch, cellulose, etc.

*Classification of Carbohydrates:1) Monosaccharides:These are simplest carbohydrates /

sugars containing 3 to 8 number of carbon atoms Therefore they cannot be further
hydrolysed into smaller molecules. For example, Glucose and Fructose are most common
monosaccharides.2) Oligosaccharides:These carbohydrates contain 2 to 10
monosaccharide units joined by glycosidic linkages. Oligosaccharides are further divided
on the basis of number of monosaccharide molecules produced on hydrolysis as follows
.•Disaccharides :A disaccharide molecule contains 2 molecules of monosaccharides.
Hence, disaccharides on hydrolysis give 2 molecules of monosaccharides. For example,
sucrose, maltose, lactose, etc. are most common disaccharides. •Trisaccharides
:trisaccharide molecule contains 3 molecules of monosaccharides. Hence, trisaccharides
on hydrolysis give 3 molecules of monosaccharides. For example, Raffinose is a most
common trisaccharide present in sugar beets.•Tetrasaccharides :LAA tetrasaccharide
molecule contains 4 molecules of monosaccharides. Hence, these on hydrolysis give 4
molecules of monosaccharides. For example, Stachyose is a common tetrasaccharide
present in legumes.3)Polysaccharides:polysaccharide molecule contains large number of
monosaccharide units joined together by glycosidic linkages. Hence, polysaccharides on
hydrolysis give large number of monosaccharides. For example, starch, cellulose,
glycogen, etc. are most common polysaccharides.

.*Monosaccharides:Monosaccharides are also called as sugars. They are sweet in taste.

Different monosacch may have different number of carbon atoms. A monosaccharide
containing 3 carbons is triose. A monosaccharide containing 4 carbons is called tetrose.

*Structure of Glucose:Glucose molecule exists in two structural forms:A) Open chain

structure.B) Rifng structure

.A) Open Chain Structure of Glucose 1)Molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6.2) On

acetylation with acetyl chloride, glucose gives penta O-acetyl derivative. It indicates the
presence of five -OH groups in glucose.3) Glucose forms cyanohydrin on reaction with
HCN. It also forms oxime on reaction with hydroxyl amine. .4) Glucose on mild oxidation
with Bromine water gives gluconic acid, a carboxylic acid with six carbon atoms. 5)Five OH
groups in glucose must be present on five different carbon atoms. 6) On the basis of above
evidences and observations, glucose is assigned the followin open chain structure. This
structure is called Bayer’s open chain structure of glucose.

CHO-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH(OH)-CH₂OH.
*B)Ring Structure of Glucose:Along with open chain structure, glucose exists in the form of
ring structure or cyclic structure. i) The open chain structure is represented perpendicular
to plane of paper. The H and OH on the carbon number 2, 3, 4 and 5 are shown above and
below the plane.ii) In this open chain structure of D(+) Glucose, rotation of C-C, bond takes
place in anticlockwise manner. It brings the C3-OH close to CHO group.iii) There is
nucleophilic attack of Cs -OH on C O group of CHO to produce ring structure of glucose.iv)
As attack of Cs -OH on C=O is possible from both sides (due to planar structure of CHO)
we get two ring structures of glucose, a-D Glucose and B-D Glucose. These two ring
structures of glucose have different position of H and OH on C, of their molecule. Hence
they are called as anomers.

*Disaccharides:Disaccharides are the carbohydrates that on hydrolysis produce two

molecules of monosaccharides. The two monosaccharides present in a disaccharide may
be of same or different type. The disaccharides contain different types of glycosidic
linkages between two monosaccharide units.Most common disaccharides are sucrose,
maltose and lactose. Let us study the structure of these disaccharides.1) Structure of
Sucrose:Sucrose is one of the most important disaccharide. It is mainly present in sugar
cane and sugar beet.Sucrose on hydrolysis gives one molecule of D-glucose and one
molecule of D-fructose..2) Structure of Maltose:Maltose is a disaccharide obtained by the
partial hydrolysis of starch by an enzyme amylase.Maltose on hydrolysis gives two
molecules of D-Glucose In maltose two glucose units are joined by a 1-4 linkage..3)
Structure of Lactose:Lactose is a very important disaccharide present in milk.Lactose on
hydrolysis gives one molecule of D-Glucose and one molecule of D-Galactose.Thus
Lactose is a disaccharide made from one D-Glucose unit and one D-Galactose unit.

*Polysaccharides:Polysaccharides are the carbohydrates that on hydrolysis give large

number of monosaccharides.Most common example of polysaccharides are Starch,
cellulose, glycogen, etc.Some polysaccharides on hydrolysis give only one type of
monosaccharides. They are called as Homopolysaccharides. While some other
polysaccharides on hydrolysis give more than one type of monosaccharides. They are
called as Heteropolysaccharides.

*Types of Polysaccharides:polysaccharides are divided into two types on the basis of their
biological functions•Storage Polysaccharides:They play important role as stored form of
energy in living organisms. They act as reserve food that undergoes hydrolysis and produce
energy. For example, starch, inulin and glycogen are most common storage
polysaccharides.•Structural Polysaccharides:They play important role as structural
elements in living organisms. They give structural strength to the living organisms and are
involved in formation of cell wall in plants. For example, cellulose and chitin are the most
common structural polysaccharides.
*Structure of Starch:Starch consists of two components 1) amylose 2) amylopectin.
1)Amylose is a straight chain polysaccharide. It consists of large number of D-Gluc units.
These D-Glucose units are joined to each other by a 1, 4 linkages. Its molecular weight vary
from few thousands to 150,000. Amylose chain contains more than 100 D-Glucose units in
a straight chain.

2)Amylopectin is a branched polysaccharide. It consists of shorter chains of D-Glucose

units joined to each other by a 1, 4 linkages. These small chains are linked to each other by
a 1, 6 linkages. Molecular weight of amylopectin is 500,000 oог even more. Amylopectin
contains more than 1000 D-Glucose units.

*Structure of Cellulose:Cellulose is a straight chain polysaccharide. It is a

homopolysaccharide made up of large number of D-Glucose units. One chain of cellulose
contains thousands of D-Glucose units. Therefore its molecular weight is very high. In
cellulose, the D-Glucose units are linked to each other by ẞ 1, 4 glycosidic linkages.
*Definition Polysaccharides:Polysaccharides are the carbohydrates that on hydrolysis give
large number of monosaccharides.

Unit 2*Amino acids:Amino acids are simple organic compounds containing carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. They essentially contain a basic amino group and
an acidic carboxylic group.

*Structure of Amino Acids:Amino acids contain a carboxylic group (-COOH) and an amino
group (-NH2). The amino group is attached to the carbon atom next to the carboxyl group.
This carbon atom number 2 in the chain is also called as α carbon. Therefore, amino acids
are also called a amino acids.The general structure of amino acids can be represented as
follows.

*Amino acids exist in two structural forms. 1) Molecular form 2) Zwitterion form:
1)Molecular form of an amino acids is nonionic form in which amino acid contains a
carboxyl group (-COOH) and an amino group (-NH2).

2)zwitterion form of amino acid is obtaine by donation of H from proton donor -COOH
group to proton acceptor -NH, group. As result we get an ionic form containing -COO and
NH3 groups. This dipolar form of amino acid is called zwitterion form.

*Proteins:Proteins are large biomolecules or macromolecules consisting of one or more

polypeptide chains made up of amino acid residues.

*Classification of protein : A)Classification of proteins on basis of functions:proteins are

classified into following classes.1) Enzymes:Some proteins catalyse biochemical reactions
occurring at cell level in living Organisms. These proteins are called as enzymes. For
example, hexokinase is an enzyme that catalyses transfer of phosphate group from ATP to
glucose.2) Transport Proteins:Some proteins have function of transportation. These
proteins bind and carry some molecules or ions from one organ to the other. For example,
Hemoglobin transports oxygen present in blood from lungs to the other parts of body and to
the tissues..3) Storage Proteins:These proteins are also called as nutrient proteins.
Because they serve as nutrients for energy and for the growth of plants and animals.For
example, Ovalbumin present in white part of egg is useful for growth of embryo.4)
Structural Proteins:Some proteins serve as structural elements in living organisms. They
play vital role in structure of every cell.For example, Collagen is a structural protein in skin,
muscles, connective tissue and bones. Leather is almost pure collagen. 5)Defense
Proteins:Some proteins have function of protection or defense. They protect organisms
from external attack or from injuries.6) Regulatory Proteins .7) Contractile Proteins.8) Other
Proteins

*B) Classification of proteins based on Shape:On this basis, proteins are classified into two
types,1) Globular Proteins:They have globular or spherical shape. In globular proteins
polypeptide chains are folded and coiled tightly into compact spherical shape known as
globular shape.For example, nearly all enzymes are globular proteins.2) Fibrous
Proteins.They have structural shape like a thread or a fiber. In fibrous proteins, polypeptide
chain is extended along one axis to yield long fibers or sheet like structureexample, a
keratins, fibroin,collagen, etc. are fibrous proteins.

*Structure of Proteins:There are four different levels of study of structure of proteins.1)

Primary Structure:Primary structure of proteins is defined as linear sequence of amino
acids joined together to form a polypeptide chain. In this structure peptide linkages are
also shown.Free -NH2 and -COOH groups present at amino and carboxyl terminals
respectively. 2) Secondary Structure:Secondary structure of proteins refers to the folded
polypeptide chains. It results due to folding and coiling of polypeptide chain in a regular or
specific manner. 3) Tertiary Structure:Tertiary structure of proteins is formed due to
tendency of polypeptide chains to undergo coiling and folding again and again. It results in
to formation of a compact and rigid structure. 4) Quaternary Structure:Quaternary
structure of protein consists of two or more polypeptide chains having tertiary structure.
The tertiary chains associated together may be of identical type or of different types.

*A) α-Keratins:α-Keratins are major fibrous proteins present in vertebrates. These are long
fiber like proteins.α -Keratins are insoluble in water. α -Keratins are present in hair, nails,
horns, feathers, etc. They provide external protection to the organisms.α-Keratins
characteristically contain cysteine amino acids from 10 to 22%.α-Keratins have great
structural stability. Hence they protect and provide structural strength to the part they
surround.
*B)Hemoglobin (Hb):Hemoglobin is a globular protein. It is a transport protein present in
red blood cells of all Vertebrates. It is spherical in shape and is soluble in
water.Hemoglobin contains four polypeptide chains known as globin chains.Hemoglobin is
a transport protein. It transports oxygen from lungs to all parts of body by reacting
reversibly with O2.

*Separation of amino acids and proteins:Several biochemical techniques are used for
separation of biomolecules from each other. These techniques are also used for
purification of the biomolecules.Common techniques used for separation of amino acids
and proteins are 1) Paper electrophoresis 2) Dialysis

1) Paper electrophoresis:Paper electrophoresis technique is used for separation of amino

acids or proteins on the basis of presence of ionic charge on them. There is variation in sign
and magnitude of electrical charges on these biomolecules due to which separation
occurs.

2) Dialysis:This technique is used for separation of biomolecules on the basis of their size.
For example, by using dialysis technique, globular proteins having larger size can be
separated from other biomolecules of smaller size. In this technique a semipermeable
membrane is used.

Unit 3*ENZYMES:Enzymes are the proteins that catalyse the biochemical reactions taking
place at cell level in living organisms. Therefore, enzymes are the biological catalysts that
accelerate the biochemical reactions.Role of the enzyme is to increase rate of biochemical
reactions. Structurally, enzymes are globular proteins.

*Classification of Enzymes:Enzymes are classified into six classes on the basis of the
reaction they catalyse.

1) Oxidoreductases:These enzymes carry out biological oxidation and reduction reactions.

The removal or Addition of hydrogen / oxygen occurs with the help of these enzymes. This
class includes enzymes like oxidase, dehydrogenase, reductase, peroxidase, etc.

2) Transferases:These enzymes catalyse the reactions in which there is transfer of some

groups. For example, transaminase, hexokinase, etc.

3) Isomerases:These enzymes catalyse isomerization reactions. In these reactions one

isomer is converted to the other isomer with the help of these enzymes. For example,
epimerase, racemase, cis-trans isomerase, etc.
4) Lyases:These enzymes catalyse reaction in which groups are removed from substrate to
form double bound.For example, dehydratase, decarboxylase, aspartase, ammonia lyase,
etc.

5) Ligases:These enzymes are also called Synthetase. These enzymes catalyse joining of
two molecules together by condensation reaction.

6) Hydrolases:These enzymes catalyse reactions in which hydrolysis of substrate occurs.

*Role of enzyme in biochemical reactions:A typical biochemical reaction can be

represented as follows:Substrate→ Transition state → Product

Substrate is first converted to the transition state which is then converted to the product. A
fixed amount of energy is required to convert any substrate to transition state. It is called
Energy of Activation (Ea). In absence of an enzyme, energy of activation is very high.Enzyme
lowers down the energy of activation due to which rate of the biochemical reaction
increases.

*Effect of substrate concentration on enzyme catalyzed reaction:The rate of a biochemical

reaction depends on concentration of substrate. At very low Concentration of substrate,
rate of reaction is very slow. Rate of enzyme catalyzed reaction is directly proportional to
concentration of substrate and reaction approaches first order kinetics.

*Enzyme inhibitors:Many compounds have ability to combine with certain enzymes and
thereby block the active site of that enzyme. Because of this, catalytic property of enzyme
is inhibited or even stopped. Such compounds decrease the activity of enzymes and they
are called enzyme inhibitors.

*Types of enzyme inhibitors:it is classified into two types .1) Irreversible inhibitors 2)
Reversible inhibitors.

1) Irreversible inhibitors:Irreversible inhibitors are the compounds containing reactive

functional groups and they Form covalent bonds with enzymes. These inhibitors usually
form bond with an amino acid which is associated with catalytic activity of the enzyme.

2) Reversible inhibitors:Reversible inhibitors attach to enzyme by weak interactions like

hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions or ionic bonds. Reversible inhibitors form
complex with enzyme (EI) or with enzyme – substrate complex (ESI) in reversible manner.

*LIPIDS:Lipids are the biomolecules that are generally insoluble in water containing fatty
acids as a major component. They are esters of fatty acids and alcohol.
*Functions of lipids:Lipids have several biological functions.1)They act as structural
component of cell membranes.2)They are important source of energy for organisms. They
are stored in adipose tissue in the form of triglycerides.3)They act as insulating material
and make protective coating on surface of organs and tissues.They act as essential
nutrients for organisms.

*Classification of lipids: Lipids are broadly classified into two groups.

a) Simple Lipids:Simple lipids are esters of fatty acids and glycerol. They do not contain any
other components or groups. For example, triacyl glycerols are most common simple lipids
that are commonly known as oils and fats.

b) Complex lipids:In addition to esters of fatty acids and alcohol, complex lipids contain
some other groups or components like phosphate group, nitrogenous group, etc. For
example, phospholipids, sphingolipids and waxes are common types of complex lipids.

*Fatty acids:Patty acids are long chain carboxylic acids containing 4 to 30 carbon atoms in
a straight chain along with a carboxyl (-COOH) group. The fatty acids may be saturated or
unsaturated. Saturated fatty acids contain carbon chains with single bonds only.

*Nomenclature of fatty acids:Fatty acids differ from each other in chain length (number of
carbon atoms), number of double bonds and in position of those double bonds. Hence
fatty acids are symbolized by a short hand notation that designates the length of carbon
chain, number and position of double bonds.Its structure is as follows.CH3-(CH2)14-
COOH.

*Triacylglycerols:Triacyl glycerols are esters of glycerol and three fatty acids. They are
obtained by esterification of three molecules of fatty acids with three -OH groups of
glycerol. They are also called triglycerides.For example, olive oil, palm oil, soybean oil, rice
bran oil and cocoa butter are common vegetable sources of lipids.

*difference between oils and fats:When fatty acids present in triacylglycerol are
unsaturated, it is liquid at room temperature and it is called Oil. But, when fatty acids
present in triacylglycerol are saturated, it is solid at room temperature and it is called Fat.

*Saponification value of oil:Saponification value of an oil is defined as the number of

milligrams of potassium hydroxide required for complete hydrolysis (saponification) of one
gram of an oil.Saponification value is an important parameter to determine food value of an
oil in terms of free fatty acids present in oil due to natural hydrolysis of oilAn oil having long
chain fatty Acids have low saponification value.
*Iodine value of oil:Iodine value of an oil is defined as amount of iodine in grams consumed
by 100 grams of an oil. It is also called Iodine number.Iodine number is used to determine
degree of unsaturation due to presence of C=C in the oil.Iodine adds to the carbon –
carbon double bonds present in fatty acids of oil.Therefore, iodine value of oils is greater
than that of fats.

*Hydrogenation of oil:Hydrogenation is the process used to convert a vegetable oil into

solid fat.A result unsaturated fatty acids are converted to saturated fatty acids. Hence
liquid oil is converted to a semisolid or solid fat. Therefore, this process is also called
‘Hardening of oil’

*Waxes:Waxes are complex lipids. But, actually waxes are a complicated mixture
containing hydrocarbons, lipids and many more compounds. They are widely spread in
nature. The name wax originates from the material present in honeycomb known as bee
wax.Waxes are solid esters of long chain fatty acids with long chain monohydroxy fatty
alcohols.Waxes are chemically inert as they do not have double bond in fatty acids.Waxes
have important biological functions due to their hydrophobic nature.

*Phospholipids:Phospholipids are complex lipids containing phosphate group. They are

also called as phosphoglycerides. They are major components of cell
membrane.Phospholipids contain glycerol, two fatty acids and a polar head group.The
polar head group Contains a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base.

Unit 4*Nucleic Acids:Nucleic acids are the essential biomolecules made up of simple
building block units known as nucleotides. Thus, nucleic acids are high molecular weight
biopolymers made up of nucleotide monomer.

*Types of nucleic acids:There are two types of nucleic acids present in all living
organisms.1. Deoxy ribo Nucleic Acids (DNA)2. Ribo Nucleic Acids (RNA) DNA is found
mainly in nucleus of living cells while RNA is mostly found outside the nucleus in the
cytoplasm

*Components of nucleic acids:Thus, nucleic acid is made up of some basic structural

units called as components of nucleic acids. Following are the important components of
nucleic acids.(1) Sugars. 2) Bases. 3) Nucleosides. 4) Nucleotides.

(1) Sugars:Name of the nucleic acid is derived from the sugar present in it. The sugars
present in nucleic acids are pentose sugars. These sugars have furanose ring structure.
There are two types of pentose sugars present in nucleic acids.a) a-D-Ribose. b) 2 Deoxy a-
D-Ribose. In DNA 2-Deoxy a-D-Ribose sugar is present while in RNA a-D-Ribose sugar is
present
.2) Bases:Nucleic acids contain heterocyclic nitrogenous bases. There are total five
nitrogenous bases present in nucleotides that make DNA and RNA. These bases are the
derivatives of purine or pyrimidine bases. Thus, purine and pyrimidine are the parent
organic compounds present in these five nitrogenous bases.

*3. Nucleosides:Nucleosides are the components of nucleic acids in which nitrogenous

base is joined to Pentose sugar. On the basis of sugar present in nucleosides, we can divide
nucleosides into Two types known as Ribonucleosides and Deoxy ribo nucleosides. In
nucleosides, linkages between sugar and base are at specific positions.

*4. Nucleotides:Nucleotides are phosphate esters of nucleosides. Phosphate group is

attached to the sugar present in nucleosides. In general, a nucleotide containing three
subunits sugar, base and phosphate group, can be represented as follows.Base-Sugar-
Phosphate. For example, Adenosine -5-phosphate is a nucleotide in which phosphate
group is attached to adenosine nucleoside at Cs OH of sugar.

*Structures of DNA:DNA is a biopolymer containing deoxy ribonucleotide monomers. The

polymeric chain of nucleotides is called polynucleotide chain.DNA molecules from
different cells vary in the ratio of four type of nucleotide monomers. They also have
different sequence of the nucleotides in the polynucleotide chain.DNA consists of
polynucleotide chains i.e. poly deoxy ribonulceotide chains.

*Watson and Crick model of DNA:Watson and Crick in 1953 proposed a three dimensional
model of DNA structure. This model was based on X-ray studies on DNA and it was called
double stranded a helical structure.

*The salient features of Watson and Crick model of DNA are:1. Watson and Crick model of
DNA proposed that in a DNA molecule two polynucleotide chains or strands are present.2.
These two chains or strands are antiparallel to each other.3. The two polynucleotide chains
are joined to each other through the bases present in the nucleotides. The bases of two
chains are joined to each other by Hydrogen bonding. It is called as Base Pairing.4. The
base pairing between two chains is very specific.. 5)As a result of double helical structure,
DNA molecule has two asymmetric grooves.

*Ribo nucleic acid (RNA):RNA is another type of nucleic acid having polynucleotide chains.
It contains polymeric chains of ribose nucleotides. Its important function is in protein
synthesis in living cells. The main difference between DNA and RNA is that DNA is double
stranded while RNA is a single stranded biomolecule.

Types of RNA:There are three main types of RNA present in all living cells.
1)Messenger RNA(mRNA):It constitutes about 5% of total RNA. It is synthesized in nucleus
during transcription process. It has single stranded helical structure. Sequence of bases in
mRNA is complimentary to that of DNA undergoing transcription.

2. Transfer RNA (tRNA):It is also known as soluble RNA. It constitutes about 15% of total
RNA. It is present in Cytoplasm. It has comparatively low molecular weight. About 60 to 70
percent structure of tRNA is in double helix form. It has four arm cloverleaf structure.

3. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA):It constitutes about 80% of total RNA present in the cell. It
combines with proteins in cytoplasm to form ribosomes. The ribosomes present in
cytoplasm act as site of protein synthesis. It has high molecular weight. It has single
stranded structure.

*Energy Rich Compounds:The biomolecules that undergo hydrolytic reactions to produce

large amount of energy are called energy rich compounds.The most common energy rich
compound is Adenosine Tri Phosphate (ATP) which releases 7.3 Kcal/ mole energy on
hydrolysis and it is required in many biochemical reactions as a source of energy.

*Types of energy rich compounds:Most common types of energy rich biomolecules are -
1)Pyrophosphates. 2) Acyl phosphates 3) Enolic phosphates 4) Thiol esters

*Pyrophosphates:The energy rich compounds having pyrophosphate moiety are called

pyrophosphate compounds. Pyrophosphates are the compounds having two or more
phosphorous atoms with P-O-P linkages. ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) and ADP
(Adenosine diphosphate) are most common energy rich pyrophosphate compounds.

*Acyl Phosphates:Acyl phosphates are the energy rich compounds in which acyl group is
attached to the phosphate group. 1, 3 diphosphoglyceric acid and acetyl phosphate are
examples of acyl phosphates.

*Enolic Phosphates;Enolic phosphates are the phosphate esters of enol forms of organic
compounds. Phospho enol pyruvic acid (PEP) is example of enolic phosphate. It is
phosphate ester of enol form of pyruvic acid. It is an important intermediate formed during
glycolysis process.

*Thiol esters:Thiol esters are the compounds obtained by esterification of carboxylic acid
by a thiol (-SH) Group. They are common intermediates during many biosynthetic
reactions. Acetyl coezyme A and Acyl CoA of fatty acids are the most common example of
thiol esters. They are produced during Different metabolic processes like ẞ oxidation of
fatty acids.
*Energy carriers in biological redox systems: NAD and FAD:There are many compounds
that transport electrons during biochemical processes from Electron donors to electron
acceptors via redox reactions. This transfer of electrons is coupled with Transfer of protons
also. There are two coenzymes NAD and FAD associated with many Biochemical reactions
and they act as electron carriers.

*Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (NAD):It exists in two forms. The oxidized form is
represented as NAD and the reduced form is represented as NADH. During a redox
reaction, NAD+ carries out oxidation of the substrate. As a result NAD+ is converted to its
reduced form NADH.NADH is now reoxidized to NAD by using molecular oxygen.

*Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD):It also exists in two forms. The oxidized form is
represented as FAD and the reduced form is represented as FADH2.FADH is now reoxidized
to FAD by using molecular oxygen. During this reoxidation process large amount of energy
is released which is conserved in the form of 2 ATP molecules. This process is called
oxidative phosphorylation..

Unit 5*Metabolism:Different types of biochemical reactions occurring at cell level in living

organisms are collectively called as Metabolism.Metabolism includes two types of
processes 1) Catabolism.2) Anabolism.1)Catabolism is the breaking down of larger
compounds into smaller units. It is known as a Degradative phase.2)Anabolism is building
up of larger molecules from smaller units by utilization of energy. It is known as
Biosynthetic phase.

Carbohydrate metabolism:It includes all metabolic processes in which carbohydrates are

involved. In living organisms, there is breakdown of all carbohydrates into glucose. Then
glucose undergoes aerobic or anaerobic oxidation to produce energy.

*Glycolysis and Alcoholic Fermentation:Glucose is a major source of energy for living

organisms. Glucose on oxidation produces large amount of energy. In different living
organisms, oxidation of glucose takes place in two ways.1) Glycolysis. 2) Alcoholic
Fermentation.In glycolysis, glucose is oxidized to two molecules of lactic acid.In alcoholic
fermentation, glucose is oxidized to two molecules of ethanol and carbon dioxide.

*Glycolysis :The sequence of enzyme catalyzed reactions by which glucose is degraded

anaerobically into two molecule of lactic acid is called Glycolytic Sequence and the
process is called Glycolysis. It is divided into two phases a) Preparatory phase b) Pay off
phase.
1)Preparatory phase includes first four steps in which there is conversion of glucose to two
molecules of glyceraldehyde 3 – phosphate. In preparative phase, energy rich ATP
molecules are utilized.

2)Pay off phase includes next six steps in which there is conversion of the two
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate molecules to two lactic acid molecules. In this stage energy is
released and stored I the form of ATP.

*Aerobic and Anaerobic Glycolysis:In aerobic organisms, the end product of glycolysis
process is pyruvic acid. Therefore, pyruvic acid is not converted to lactic acid. This is called
aerobic glycolysis.In anaerobic organisms, the end product of glycolysis is lactic acid.
And it is called anaerobic glycolysis or lactic acid fermentation.

*TCA cycle (Tricarboxylic acid cycle):Conversion of acetyl CoA into oxaloacetic acid via
citric acid by a cyclic sequence of biochemical reactions is called as Tricarboxylic Acid
cycle (TCA cycle). It is also called Kreb cycle or Citric acid cycle.

*Important features of TCA Cycle:1) Oxaloacetic acid that reacts with acetyl CoA in first
step of TCA cycle, is regenerated in the last step.2) Acetyl CoA is the only substrate in TCA
cycle. Two carbon atoms of acetyl group from acetyl CoA are oxidized to two molecules of
CO₂ in two successive steps of decarboxylation (Steps 3 and 4).3) During TCA cycle, there
is formation of one FADH2 and three NADH molecules which undergo reoxidation by using
two molecules of O2.

*Amino acid metabolism:These amino acids are converted to a keto acids which are
important source of energy. Ammonia is important for all the living organisms. It is required
for biosynthesis of many compounds like nucleotides and proteins.Amino acids undergo
three important types of reactions during metabolism.Amino acids undergo three
important types of reactions during metabolism. 1)Transamination 2)Deamination 3)
Decarboxylation

*Transamination:Transamination is a reaction from amino acid metabolism that involves

removal of amino group from an amino acid and its transfer to a keto acid. As a result,
amino acid is converted to keto acid and keto acid is converted to amino acid.

*Deamination:Deamination is a reaction from amino acid metabolism that involves

removal of amino group from amino acids in presence of enzymes deaminases to liberate
ammonia.

*Decarboxylation:Decarboxylation is a reaction from amino acid metabolism in which

amino acids lose carbon dioxide molecule to form corresponding amines. This reaction
takes place in presence of decarboxylase enzymes.
*Lipid Metabolism:Lipids are present in very large amount in all living organisms. Lipids
produce much m energy as compared to carbohydrates and proteins. Lipids on hydrolysis
produce fatty acids wh then undergo an important metabolic process, β-oxidation.

*β – Oxidation of fatty acids:β Oxidation is the sequence of reactions by which oxidation of

fatty acid takes place at β carbon and a two carbon unit acetyl CoA is cleaved from acyl
CoA of fatty acid.In β-oxidation process carbon chain of fatty acid breaks up between a and
β carbon. As a result β carbon of the fatty acid is oxidized. Therefore it is named βoxidation
of fatty acid.

*Energetics of the β-oxidation of Palmitic acid:Let us consider β-oxidation of palmitic acid

(C15H31COOH) to understand energetics of β-oxidation.One molecule of ATP and COASH
are required to convert palmitic acid to palmitoyl COA. One turn of β-oxidation requires one
molecule of NAD+, FAD, H₂O and COASH to get one molecule of acetyl CoA. Thus
complete=β-oxidation of 16 carbon palmitic acid will requires 7 turns of β-oxidation.