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Sustainable construction practices with recycled and waste materials for a

circular economy

Article in Asian Journal of Civil Engineering · July 2024

DOI: 10.1007/s42107-024-01111-y

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Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
https://doi.org/10.1007/s42107-024-01111-y

REVIEW

Sustainable construction practices with recycled and waste materials

for a circular economy
Bishnu Kant Shukla1,2 · Gaurav Bharti2 · Pushpendra Kumar Sharma1 · Manshi Sharma2 · Sumit Rawat2 ·
Neha Maurya2 · Risha Srivastava2 · Yuvraj Srivastav2

Received: 29 January 2024 / Accepted: 27 June 2024

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2024

Abstract
The need to promote sustainability and reduce environmental effects has fueled a substantial increase in the use of recycled
and waste materials in construction applications in recent years. Concerns about harmful environmental threats are height-
ened when output increases and waste generation rises. An economically viable solution to this problem could be found by
using waste materials to create new products, which would reduce the burden on landfills. This analysis clarifies the wide
range of waste products that can be used in buildings, including recycled concrete aggregates, fly ash, slag, waste glass,
plastics, rubber, construction and demolition (C&D) wastes, and reclaimed wood. These materials can partially or completely
replace natural resources like sand, cement, and gravel. As a result, there will be advantages like improved resource effi-
ciency, decreased greenhouse gas emissions, decreased solid waste, and reduced air and water pollution. These advantages
will ultimately translate to energy and cost savings. The consistency and quality of recycled and waste materials for use in
construction remain a top priority. Additionally, the circular economy concept, which is closely related to the use of waste or
recycled resources in construction, emphasizes the significance of waste reduction and material reuse as opposed to adher-
ing to the linear "take, make, and dispose" model. By switching out traditional materials for recycled or discarded ones,
the construction industry may take advantage of the circular economy by reducing the need for new resources and cutting
down on waste production. Using recycled or waste materials in buildings is an effective way to create a more sustainable
and circular economy.

Keywords Waste Materials · Sustainability · Circular Economy · Construction and Demolition Wastes (C&D Wastes) ·
Environmental Impacts

Introduction beneficial and reusable (Arena, 2012). The Federal Highway

Administration (FHWA) estimates that building destruction
The amount of waste (solid or liquid) produced worldwide alone produces 123 million tonnes of construction waste
is rising daily (Olukanni et al., 2014). By 2050, the volume per year in the United States. According to several stud-
of solid debris generated annually is expected to increase to ies, (da Conceição Leite et al., 2011; Kartam et al., 2002;
3.40 billion tonnes from the estimated 2.01 billion tonnes Marzouk et al., 2007), construction and demolition (C&D)
in 2016 (Kaza et al., 2018). Solid wastes are divided into waste poses a major environmental threat after effects, such
several categories, including residential, agricultural and as growing pollution, resource exhaustion and degradation
industrial wastes. The majority of industrial wastes, includ- of the environment. Environmental strain from trash genera-
ing steel slag, alum aluminum and used tires both highly tion and poor disposal methods is inescapable (Hadjieva-
Zaharieva et al., 2003). The impact of garbage dumping on
* Bishnu Kant Shukla construction costs and environmental quality is growing.
[email protected] Therefore, managing garbage is one of the difficult problems
in the rapidly developing world because of the insufficient
1
School of Civil Engineering, Lovely Professional University, financial resources, tools and machinery that lead to envi-
Phagwara, Punjab 144411, India
ronmental contamination (Brown & Milke, 2016; Korinjoh,
2
Department of Civil Engineering, JSS Academy of Technical 2017). Municipal solid waste (MSW) management issues
Education, Noida, Uttar Pradesh 201301, India

Vol.:(0123456789)
 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

are among the biggest ecological issues and health risks for insulation, and aggregate for roadbeds. One of the potential
locals (Troschinetz & Mihelcic, 2009). solutions to this issue has been suggested as the usage of
Rapid infrastructure development is essential condition local garbage and optimization. The utilization of materials
for meeting both human demands and a nation’s economic that require a lot of construction energy (Sharma & Reddy,
prosperity in modern era. Due to the increasing natu- 2004). Materials that have undergone numerous processes
ral resource shortage and escalating expenses for landfill to turn discarded materials into new ones are referred to as
disposal in many countries, construction and demolition recycled materials. For instance, there are currently poten-
waste management is an essential requirement that affects tial resources accessible for building highways all over the
the entire world and is primarily motivated by ecological world. The majority of these materials are easily accessible
aspects (Aatheesan et al., 2010; Disfani et al., 2011; Pup- in the form of garbage that was previously underutilized
pala et al., 2011). The Construction Industry Development and only 0% to 70% of them are recyclable. Some plastic
Board of Malaysia (CIDB) has redesigned its strategies and waste materials have been used to make modified bitu-
formulated a roadmap known as the “Industrialized Build- men for paving purposes and it has been discovered that
ing Systems (IBS) Roadmap 2003–2010”. According to the this method is quite effective (Choudhary et al., 2014; Paje
IBS Roadmap 2003–2010, IBS is a construction process et al., 2013; Poweth et al., 2013; Safi et al., 2013). It was dis-
that utilizes techniques, products, components, or build- covered that conventional pavement was less water-resistant
ing systems that involve prefabricated components and on- than pavement created using plastic products (Kaza et al.,
site installation. IBS along with prefabrication needs to be 2018). In this study, recyclable solid wastes, such as plastic,
implemented, as suggested by Begum et al. (2010), to reduce glass, scrap metal from destruction, geopolymers, industrial
the production and handling of waste problems. Research- waste, shingles, slag and old tyres are taken into account for
ers from NC A&T State University (USA), other govern- pavement construction. They are taken into consideration
ment and academic institutions examined several green because of some noteworthy engineering qualities that they
materials technologies that reduce environmental impact have the traditional "take-make-dispose" company strategy
and incorporate recyclable materials into applications for has been challenged by the circular economy (CE). The
infrastructure (Abu-Lebdeh et al., 2010, 2011; Fini et al., greater objective is to concurrently improve social fairness,
2011; Hamoush et al., 2011; James et al., 2011). Materials economic prosperity and environmental quality; yet, some
that have undergone numerous processes to turn discarded definitions of CE make the mistake of limiting it to only
materials into new ones are referred to as recycled materials recycling (Kirchherr et al., 2017). The major goal of the
(Brown & Milke, 2016). The majority of these materials are CE is to close the material loop by recycling high-value
easily accessible in the form of garbage that was previously materials, hence minimizing waste generation, restoring and
underutilized and 0 to 70% of them are recyclable (Perera renewing material cycles and maintaining the value of mate-
et al., 2019). Utilizing recycled materials becomes an alter- rials throughout a product’s life (Salmenperä et al., 2021).
native (Manso et al., 2013) because the excessive cost and Keeping raw materials in the loop is the ultimate goal of the
widespread use of these materials have detrimental environ- ecological economy which is aimed to maximize resource
mental consequences (Faleschini et al., 2016). A sustainable utilization, lessen the need for new ones, prevent waste and
practice is to build roadway pavements out of recycled and lengthen the life cycle of the products. The market for solid
environmentally friendly materials (Brunner & Rechberger, waste is predicted to reach $2.01 billion by 2021 and $3.40
2015). Utilizing waste in the building sector not only serves billion by 2050, representing an increase of roughly 59%
to fulfill residential requirements for individuals in economi- (Kaza et al., 2018). Furthermore, between 50 and 80 percent
cally deprived areas, additionally, it also saves the environ- of garbage from building and destruction projects is recy-
ment (Hadjieva-Zaharieva et al., 2003). Consequently, the clable or utilized again, showing that improper management
need for environmental protection has become increasingly of Building debris can lead to the depletion of significant
important in our society. As a result, environmental conser- financial resources (Kofoworola & Gheewala, 2009). So,
vation issues have grown significantly in relevance in our by successfully enacting a waste handling strategy, manag-
culture over the past few years. ers of projects may usually restrict the quantity of garbage
In the present study, several solid waste classifications, produced within the project and the quantity that is sent to
including industrial, agricultural and household waste have garbage dumps. (Liu et al., 2020).
been covered in detail. The majority of industrial wastes, The study enlightens the area of plastic recycling which
including steel slag, aluminum dross, and used tyres, are has been developed to improve the efficacy as well as the
both highly beneficial also reusable (Arena, 2012). Plastic effectiveness of the recycling process. For example, chemi-
waste is recycled by being ground into tiny bits. Glass is cal recycling technologies can break down plastics into their
helpful as a geopolymer, in 3-D printing, the creation of constituent molecules, allowing for the production of new
attractive tiles, reflective beads for road safety, fiberglass high-quality plastics with construction applications. In the
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

case of C&D wastes, new techniques are being created to Bank (Emery, 1981), the cost of garbage handling is lower
enhance the quality and consistency of these materials, like in countries with low incomes (Sub-Saharan Africa), at
sorting and processing technologies can help to separate dif- roughly $35 per tonne, even though it is far more difficult to
ferent types of waste, allowing for the efficient Utilisation recoup these expenses there. Waste management requires a
of specific materials in construction applications. Finally, lot of manpower and transportation expenses range from $20
in the area of construction waste application, new materials to $50 per tonne. Depending on the quantity of revenue, the
and products are being developed that incorporate recycled cost-effectiveness of removal services varies substantially.
or waste materials, including new types of concrete are being Users’ costs in low-income nations range from $35 on aver-
developed that incorporate recycled aggregates and waste age per year to $170 per year, with high-income nations
materials, leading to improved performance and reduced typically being the only ones to fully or nearly fully recover
environmental impacts. their costs (Kaza et al., 2018). Depending on the type of
user invoicing, user payment models might be either fixed
or variable. The national private sector provides the majority
Literature review of the remaining funding for waste disposal systems, with
communities typically covering about 50% of the investment
Solid waste management is typically a municipal duty in expenses. Around the world, different nations produce waste
many nations, with approximately 70% of nations establish- in different amounts. Table 1 provides information on how
ing agencies in charge of regulatory control of trash policy different types of waste materials can be used in the produc-
creation (Reddy, 2004). The implementation of nearly two- tion of building materials. It lists different waste materi-
thirds of the nation’s unique solid waste management laws als and their applications in various building products. By
and regulations vary greatly. Despite governing oversight repurposing these waste materials, waste can be reduced and
and payment transfers, local officials personally control more sustainable building materials can be created.
about 70% of waste disposal offerings. Direct involvement
of the federal government is also not rare (Kaza et al., 2018). Types of wastes
Government organizations provide a minimum of 50% of the
offerings, including gathering and processing, along with Glass
discharge of basic garbage, and around one-third using pub-
lic–private partnerships. However, operational partnerships In the Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) stream, 11.5 mil-
and profitable funding Using the private sector typically only lion tonnes of glass were produced year 2010 in the United
work under specific circumstances with the right incentives States. Small quantities of soda ash and limestone are also
and implementation systems, so they are not always the best used to lend uniformity to the purity and appearance of
option. glass, which is primarily formed of silica or sand. Glass
It is extremely difficult to finance solid waste manage- deposited in a landfill is going to require more than a million
ment systems since they require continual operational years to degrade. The addition of a glass cullet decreases the
expenditures rather than capital investments, which must be working ability of the mixture for concrete and increases
anticipated (Cheng & Hu, 2010). In advanced economies, the likelihood of an alkali-silica reaction. Further purposes
the daily expenses for comprehensive waste handling, which including the creation of fiberglass insulation, aggregate for
include gathering, transporting, treatment and destruction, roadbeds, shining beads for safer driving, and attractive tiles
typically exceed $100 per tonne. According to The World may all bring positive benefits (Olukanni et al., 2014).

Table 1  Applications of significant bulk trash in the production of building stuff. (Aubert et al., 2006; Cyr et al., 2004; Diamond, 2000; Pappu
et al., 2007; Xue et al., 2009; Yoshizawa et al., 2004,)
Waste materials Waste types Applications

Bottom ash, husk ash, fly ash from rice, Agro-industrial Concrete, reinforced polymer composites, supplemental cementing ingredients,
fuel ash from organic fibres and palm particle boards, blended cement, tiles, bricks, cement boards, blocks, insulation
oil boards, roof sheets, and wall panels
Phospho-gypsum, waste glass, waste Industrial sector Coarse and fine aggregates, bricks, blended cement, blocks, concrete, ceramic
steel slag, granulated blast-furnace slag products and tiles
and rubber tire
Dust of quarry Mining/mineral Bricks, coarse and fine aggregates, blocks, concrete, surface finishing materials and
tiles
Debris from construction and destruction Industrial Sub-base pavement materials, Coarse and fine aggregates, bricks, concrete, blocks
 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

Plastic that shingles waste increased the rheological characteristics

of bitumen and pavement fatigue life (Cascione et al., 2015;
In 2010, approximately thirty-one million metric tonnes of Townsend et al., 2007).
trash made of plastic were generated; because these plastics
take so long to degrade, disposing of them is dangerous (Li Cement kiln dust
et al., 2020). Recycled plastic is used in the construction sec-
tor for a variety of purposes, including the addition of plastic The cement kiln combustion gases are cleaned by air man-
strips to soil embankments, which improves the measured agement systems, which utilize the finely ground, extremely
strength of soil reinforcement (Seghiri et al., 2017) and can alkaline debris known as Cement Kiln Dust (CKD), a
even be used in concrete (Safi et al., 2013; Shihada, 2020). byproduct of producing Portland cement. Soil stabilization,
The Hot mix asphalt (HMA) mixture offers greater stability, waste treatment, cement substitution and asphalt paving
lessened walkway buckling, increased endurance to fatigue, are a few applications for CKD. CKD is ideal as a soil sta-
as well as better asphalt-aggregate adherence (Choudhary bilizer since it increases soil strength while requiring less
et al., 2014; Paje et al., 2013; Poweth et al., 2013; Rapo- labor and money. It was determined that concrete blends
seiras et al., 2016). As the polymer’s surface area grows, including low amounts of CKD (5%), could achieve nearly
ground polyethylene can be used to give a better coating or the same durability, bending strength, cooling and heating
can be quickly bonded to the aggregate (Awwad & Shbeeb, resistance and compressive properties as a regulating com-
2007; Rokade, 2012; Sakale et al., 2015; Sangita & Ver- bination. CKD is an efficient waste treatment because it is a
inder, 2011). high-quality adsorbent and naturally alkaline. According to
research, CKD (combined with asphalt as a mineral filler)
Slag can drastically reduce the volume of asphalt cement needed
by anywhere from 15 to 25% (Emery, 1981). The addition of
Slag is a by-product of the production of iron and steel. CKD to asphalt binder results in asphalt with poor ductility
It was once derided as useless, but today it is valued as a and gives the pavement resilience to peeling.
material with several utilisation in farming and ecologi-
cal concerns, the building industry and highway construc- Silica fume
tion constructions (Munnoli et al., 2013; Oluwasola et al.,
2014). Across concrete and asphalt mixtures, fill material for The need to collect and dispose of silica fumes in landfills
canals, as the foundation for highways and as soil-improving was driven by environmental concerns. As a mineral additive
procedures, air-cooled coarse aggregate is employed since in concrete, this substance may be used for the most signifi-
it is durable across a range of temperatures (Sk & Prasad, cant purposes. To enhance the compressive property, bond
2012). Strength in both flexure and compression of concrete endurance and resilience to abrasion of portland cement
is improved by using ground, pulverized slag from blast fur- concrete, silica fume is added. These benefits occur from
naces (GGBFS). By substituting 40% copper slag for the fine pozzolanic interactions between silica fume and free calcium
bituminous concrete component, the copper slag impact on hydroxide in the paste, as well as mechanical enhancements
the propensity for sidewalk rutting was investigated. Results brought on by the combination of paste cement receiving the
indicated that it met the criteria for rutting (Fini & Abu- inclusion of an immensely fine powder (Bolden et al., 2013).
Lebde, 2011; Abdelfattah et al., 2018; Yi et al., 2012).
Geopolymers
Roofing shingles
Polymer serves as the basis for the term Geopolymer. Cova-
Asphalt is used as a waterproof barrier in shingles, a particu- lent bonds hold numerous smaller structural components,
lar type of roof covering. It is created using the suspension or monomers, together in a big molecule known as a poly-
process, and using it is quite affordable. In the meantime, mer (Wietzke et al., 2011). The word "geopolymer" is used
it becomes garbage once it has outlived its usefulness as a to describe a group of artificial aluminosilicate materials.
roofing material. As a way to have a cleaner environment It is a completely new class of building materials, which
and sustainable construction materials, this trash generated also includes waste packaging, modern adhesives for fiber
is being used in road construction as opposed to produc- composites, modern coatings and modern cement for con-
ing environmental damage (Nam et al., 2014). It has been crete (Kua et al., 2017). They also refer to substances that
found that adding tear-off asphalt roofing shingles causes the produce a non-crystalline, crosslinked, semi-permanent
mixture’s binder to become stiffer, boosting the material’s system. Obsidian serves as a representative example of nat-
rigidity, stability and resistance to rutting. When 14% of the urally occurring geopolymers (Kozhukhova et al., 2016).
material was substituted with shingles, it was discovered When reclaimed asphalt’s strength and leaching effect were
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

examined using fly ash geopolymers, it was discovered that account when adopting more sustainable practices to pro-
there was less heavy metal leaking (Arulrajah et al., 2016). vide greater proportions of the C&D waste produced. India
Early strength, a crucial component for quick road repair, produces over 17 million tonnes of C&D waste per year.
was accomplished by adding geopolymer (Naik & Kumar, Most of the world’s C&D trash may be recovered, reusing
2013; Ahmari et al., 2012; Neupane et al., 2018). and recycling materials can benefit the environment and
the economy. In 2011, Germany’s recovery of resources
C & D waste performance stood at 91%, while in France, 50% of the
total C&D garbage created in 2014 was recycled. While
Massive amounts of C&D trash are produced as a result the resource recovery rate in the United States was 48%
of population increase, ongoing industrial development, in 2011, about 62% of C&D waste was recycled annu-
infrastructure construction and housing construction activ- ally in the United Kingdom in 2011 (Randell et al., 2014).
ities, necessitating the urgent need for waste recycling. According to Pickin and Randell (2017), around 64% of
Natural resources are heavily consumed by the construc- C&D garbage in Australia was reused in 2014, and Tam
tion sector. Beginning with 21 billion tonnes in 2007 and and Tam (2008) found that the construction industry in
rising to 40 billion tonnes in 2014, the world’s aggregate Hong Kong is responsible for 38% of the city’s solid trash.
output has increased significantly. Some of the nations The average C&D waste generation around the globe is
with the largest growth in demand for garbage recycling presented in Fig. 1 (constructed based on discussions pre-
are the Gulf States, Turkey, Russia, Brazil, Mexico, sented by da Rocha & Sattler, 2009; Pickin & Randell,
China, India, Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia. Con- 2017; Randell et al., 2014; Tam & Tam, 2008).
struction, refurbishment, and demolition are the three pri- Table 2 includes information on a variety of recycled
mary stages of the building life cycle that generate C&D building materials. Among the products mentioned are glass,
waste (da Rocha & Sattler, 2009). Therefore, it appears concrete aggregate, plastic, slag, roof shingles, cement kiln
that the demolition phase should be specifically taken into dust, silica fume, and fly ash.

Fig. 1  Average C & D waste

generation

Table 2  Recycled materials that Recycled material Hot mix Concrete Embankments Mineral filler Waste water Base course
have been specifically chosen asphalt mixes treatment
for use in building (Bolden
et al., 2013) Glass ✔ ✔ ✖ ✔ ✔ ✔
Concrete Aggregate ✔ ✖ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✖
Plastic ✖ ✔ ✖ ✔ ✔ ✔
Slag ✔ ✖ ✖ ✔ ✔ ✖
Roof Shingles ✖ ✔ ✔ ✖ ✔ ✖
Cement kiln dust ✖ ✖ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Silica fume ✖ ✖ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Fly ash ✔ ✖ ✖ ✖ ✖ ✔
 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

• Glass: Recycled glass can be employed as an aggregate the developer, he energy service provider and the site control
to provide colour and texture to concrete. organization to address the energy challenge.
• Crushed Concrete: Using crushed concrete as a substi- Around the world, waste management has become
tute for traditional aggregate concrete can decrease both increasingly difficult due to population growth, unforeseen
waste and expenses. urban development, shortage of information and increasing
• Plastic: Recycled plastic can be used to create a range of living expenses. Solid waste management (MSW) issues in
building materials, including decking, fences and roofing cities are one of the biggest environmental problems and
tiles. health risks for locals. Due to environmental protection laws
• Slag: Slag is a useful byproduct of the steel manufactur- and the high cost of land, disposing of the growing volume
ing industry. It can be used in construction as a substitute of waste has proven difficult. According to studies, the dis-
for ordinary aggregates, which helps to reduce waste and posal of 90% of MSW is improperly disposed of in open
energy consumption. landfills, which negatively affects environmental and public
• Roof Shingles: Recycled roof shingles can be used in health (Kumar et al., 2009). Even though the problem of
both asphalt pavement and roofing materials. building waste is becoming more severe, most nations lack
• Cement Kiln Dust: Cement kiln dust, a byproduct of accurate figures because of unlawful dumping (Pacheco-Tor-
cement manufacture, can serve as a soil stabilising agent gal & Jalali, 2012). A typical American creates six tonnes of
in construction. solid garbage annually, and because of environmental protec-
• Silica Fume: Silica fume is a residue produced during the tion laws, landfilling these wastes has become prohibitively
manufacturing of silicon and ferrosilicon alloy. It can be expensive and difficult (Sharma & Reddy, 2004). Reusing
utilised as a filler in concrete to enhance its durability and garbage can assist communities in maintaining their local
lifespan. landfills, however, creating an effective trash recycling sys-
tem program in the USA is challenging (Peng et al., 1997).
During industrial, mining, municipal, and agricultural opera-
tions, India produces roughly 960 million tonnes of solid
Fly ash waste each year (Pappu et al., 2007; Sharholy et al., 2008).
Building waste management requires multidisciplinary plan-
Fly Ash is a byproduct of coal-fired power plants that can be ning, engineering and material management knowledge. A
substituted for cement in concrete, lowering greenhouse gas couple of major challenges facing the construction business
emissions and saving natural resources. By using selected include the building sector’s inertia and the difficulty of
recycled materials in construction projects, waste can be updating building codes. Significant hurdles are also pre-
reduced, natural resources can be protected and the envi- sented by uncertainty, fear of liability, and litigation related
ronmental impact of the building industry can be drastically to the effectiveness of substitutes for construction materials
reduced (Bolden et al., 2013). The various recycled materi- and methods. Despite the obvious economic or environmen-
als and their applications are discussed in Table 2. tal advantages of green building practices, the majority of
them have not been rigorously measured (Torgal & Jalali,
Concerns and challenges of waste management 2011). The current rapid advancement in this subject could
be hampered by the absence of a consensus on the goals
Anything that is tossed or otherwise treated as if it were trash and rules for potential environmentally friendly structures
will be assumed to be trash until the agreement is proven and that cover design, parts, systems and supplies. Post-disaster
waste is described as "any material or substance about a construction waste management poses a variety of problems
class of waste which the owner eliminates, plans to eliminate because of the generation of an unexpectedly substantial
or is required to discard." (Torgal & Jalali, 2011). Environ- amount of building materials and inadequate management
mental strain from trash generation and poor disposal meth- capabilities in developing nations (Pappu et al., 2007). Using
ods is inescapable (Hadjieva-Zaharieva et al., 2003). Water recycling technologies and reuse strategies, large amounts of
management and trash management have been cited by garbage generated by disasters and other natural calamities
Korinjoh (2017) as two environmental protection objectives. (such as hurricanes and floods) should serve as a basis for
To minimising calamities and reducing the impact on house- rebuilding efforts (Xiao et al., 2012). Reducing trash and
holds, livelihoods, and the environmental issues in disaster managing it properly can be seen as a useful way to assess
management have become a significant priority (Tiwari, an initiative’s evolution towards a more environmentally
2001). Construction material demand is growing faster than friendly path (Kartam et al., 2002).
demolition trash production and recycling. Another difficulty Figure 2 displays the responses from the surveyed busi-
is the energy requirement required in recycling demolition nesses regarding the most popular recycling. According
debris. Zhang et al. (2015) offered a solution that involved to the companies questioned, costs accounted for 22% of
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 2  Factors against utilizing

recycled materials

materials (obtained from analysis carried out by Bolden Plastic

et al., 2013). In this sample of businesses, recycled
concrete was most frequently used (15%), followed by Around One hundred million tonnes of plastic garbage are
reclaimed asphalt (12%) and recycled wood (8%). Only 7% generated globally every year, but only 9% of that waste is
of the businesses used no recycled materials at all. Only recycled and only 14% of that rubbish is collected for recy-
a few businesses were represented in the graph. Includ- cling, based on information from the UN for the Environ-
ing tyre cement kiln dust, rubber, sewage sludge, silica ment (2019). Around 90% of the plastics produced on the
fume, foundry sand, glass, citrus peels, carpet, oil, date earth are dumped in the oceans. A quarter of the plastics
tree, animal fat, swine dung and soybeans are examples produced are utilized for long-term uses, such as pipelines,
of contaminants, fewer than 2% of each recycled item was whereas the majority are suited for short-term applications.
utilized by these businesses (Bolden et al., 2013). Brief usage has led to an annual rise in used plastic trash
and, as a result, to improper environmental disposal (Awoy-
era & Adesina, 2020) as well as cullet waste (Al-Fakih et al.,
2020).
Waste recycling and reusability The utilization of PET waste supplement to other con-
struction materials has been shown in several studies (Alfah-
Since the nineteenth century, when rules were introduced dawi et al., 2019; Mohammed & Rahim, 2020; Perera et al.,
to encourage the recycling of growing amounts of waste, 2019; Polesello, 2012), primarily for programs that don’t
waste has been recycled and reused. Utilization and recy- call for significant loads that have been placed and struc-
cling are acknowledged in the handling of solid waste tured. The effects of adding plastic material to freshly laid
practices that are more environmentally friendly and supe- and hardened concrete have been the subject of research
rior to landfilling or incineration (Etxeberria et al., 2006; (Alqahtani et al., 2017; Mustafa et al., 2019). The major-
Fischer et al., 2009). Plastic, glass and metallic waste ity of research has found that increasing the replacement
products produced by metropolitan communities can be level tends to reduce workability (Akinyele & Ajede, 2018;
used in different methods for building construction, land- Batayneh et al., 2007; Mustafa et al., 2019; Rai et al.,
scape design, utility design, paving and attractive fixtures. 2012), but increasing the replacement ratio has been shown
The collection, recycling and grinding of PET (polyethyl- to increase the slump of fresh concrete (Choi et al., 2009;
ene terephthalate) have been highlighted in Fig. 3 (drawn Ghernouti et al., 2011). The unit weight decreases as the
based on discussions presented by Bacarji et al., 2013; replacement level rises, according to all investigations
Pereira et al., 2020; Perera et al., 2019). (Ghernouti et al., 2011; Ismail & Al-Hashmi, 2008; Juki
 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 3  PET waste is being A

collected; B recycled; C ground
up, and used as building materi-
als

et al., 2013; Mustafa et al., 2019; Shubbar & Al-Shadeedi, PET replacement ratios increase. This information combines
2017). Additionally, the majority of research (Liu et al., insights from studies conducted by Remadnia et al. (2009),
2015a, Saxena et al., 2018, and Ohemeng & Ekolu, 2019) Kou et al. (2009), Frigione (2010), Juki et al. (2013), Ishaiba
demonstrate a decrease in three different types of strength: (2015), Jassim (2017) and Djamaluddin et al. (2021).
flexural, splitting, and compressive.
Tensile strength
Compressive strength
At PET concentration levels of 10%, 30%, and 50%, the ref-
The compressive strength of mixes falls as the PET ratio erence blend’s tensile strength was found to be 3.11 Mpa.
rises with each age of curing. The standard control con- 3.0 Mpa, 2.01 Mpa, and 2.78 Mpa of breaking strength is
crete mixture’s compressive strength values were evalu- reached, as shown in Fig. 5 (constructed based on research
ated to be 30.6, 35.6, and 35.9 MPa at 7, 28, and 56 days, finds by Albano et al., 2009; Al-Buhaisi, 2013; Saikia & De
respectively. At replacement ratios of 10% and 20%, com- Brito, 2014). Results for the tensile strength of splitting were
pression strength fell marginally, whereas, at 40% and 50%, assessed after 28 days of curing. As the PET replacement
compression strength considerably decreased by 31% and ratio raises, after 28 days, the inclusion of PET reduces the
60% at 28 days, respectively. The stresses were 18.5, 24.6, concrete’s splitting tensile strength. The smooth, level and
and 24.7 MPa at 7, 28, and 56 days, respectively, at a 30% angular qualities of the PET sample contrast with the round,
replacement ratio. The main cause of this loss in strength hard sand’s characteristics.
is the composites’ declining bulk density. In Fig. 4, a pat- The effects of incorporating plastic materials into freshly
tern of reduced strength can be observed, in mixes as the laid, hardened concrete have been the subject of recent

Fig. 4  Impact of recycled PET PET50 PET40 PET30 PET20 PET10 PET0
on the compressive strength of 40
concrete
35
Compressive Strength (MPa)

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Age of Concrete in Days
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 5  Impact of recycled

PET on the tensile strength of PET50
concrete
PET40

PET30

PET20

PET10

PET0

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Tensle Strength (MPa)

research (Liu et al., 2015b; Shubbar & Al-Shadeedi, 2017). 20% pulverized waste glass in place of sand. The find-
Workability results from studies have varied, with most not- ings showed that after 28 days, waste glass provided a
ing a tendency for workability to decrease as the replacement pozzolanic strength activity of 80%. The mix with 20%
ratio increases (Akçaözoğlu et al., 2010; Batayneh et al., crushed glass had compressive and flexural strengths that
2007; Mustafa et al., 2019; Rai et al., 2012). However, slump were, respectively, 10.99% and 4.23% greater compared
in newly laid concrete increases as the substitute ratio rises to the control specimen. The mortar bar test confirmed
(Frigione, 2010; Marzouk et al., 2007). All studies agree that that finely crushed glass waste had 66% less expansion
unit weight drops as the substitute level increases (Ghern- than the control specimen (Ismail & Al-Hashmi, 2009).
outi et al., 2011; Ismail & Al-Hashmi, 2008). Additionally, The slump flow rose as the volume of recovered materi-
the majority of studies (Ohemeng & Ekolu, 2019; Saxena als glass increased. Additionally, as the amount of recy-
et al., 2018) demonstrate a loss of flexural and compressive cled glass particles increased, the concrete’s compressive
strength. strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength and
static elasticity modulus all decreased. This study suggests
Glass that recycled glass particles can be used to create self com-
pacting concrete (Ali & Al-Tersawy, 2012). Ganiron Jr.
Recent studies have demonstrated that recycled glass (RG) (2014) conducted exploratory research to determine how
can substitute as much as 20 percent of the natural aggre- the physical and mechanical properties of the concrete mix
gates in concrete while maintaining the correct mechanical would change if broken glass containers were used instead
qualities (Taha & Nounu, 2008). Glass debris is beneficial of coarse aggregate. Based on the findings, it is possible to
for the cement and concrete industry due to its chemi- substitute as much as 10% of the mass of coarse aggregate
cal makeup and pozzolanic qualities (Jani & Hogland, with reused glass aggregate in concrete mixes and a mix
2014). Regardless of the color of the waste glasses, the design with a 5% weight insertion produces acceptable
primary grain shape of crushed glass is angular, which compressive strength. Similar research was conducted by
has a detrimental effect on the concrete’s usability (Lee, Keryou and Ibrahim (2014) on the mechanical features
2007; Polley et al., 1998) and lowers its slump and com- of newly poured and seasoned concrete incorporating
pacting factor (de Castro & de Brito, 2013; Park et al., window waste glass. The results show that using window
2004). In contrast, a year-long trial duration conducted glass particles in place of coarse aggregate decreased
by Ali and Al-Tersawy (2012) revealed no noteworthy slump and fresh density due to the angular grain structure
difference in the compressive strength of concrete with while enhancing parameters like compressive, splitting,
RG compared to the control. However, concrete’s flexural, and bending strength. Additionally, findings showed that
tensile, and compressive strengths all declined as glass the strength increased upto a specific limit, beyond which
content rose (Ali & Al-Tersawy, 2012; Park et al., 2004). it dropped, as the ratio of waste glass increased.
Ismail and Al-Hashmi (2009) examined the characteristics According to Fig. 6, all strength values (compressive,
of concrete using glass waste as a fine aggregate. This splitting and flexural) for up to a 20% substitution of glass
research assessed the strength characteristics and ASR aggregate are greater than those of a typical concrete mix-
expansion of concrete mixtures containing 10%, 15% and ture. According to Batayneh et al. (2007), the increase in
 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 6  Substitution of crushed 50

glass aggregate for improved
mechanical strengths of con-
crete 40

30 Compressive Strength
Splitting Strength

Strength
20
Flexural Strength

10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
% of incorporated glass

strength is due to the strength and surface roughness of the base course for foundations and sub-base for new pavements
glass grains compared to sand. (Punthutaecha et al., 2006; Sutradhar et al., 2015). Figure 7,
based on recommendations made by Saltelli, 2007, Morris,
C & D waste 1979, Albulescu, 2010, Freudenberg, 2003, Nardo et al.,
2005) presents, comprehensively, the different stages of C
The construction sector, though smaller than other indus- & D waste management.
tries, consumes 12% of the world’s resources by volume,
primarily water, and as much as 40% of the world’s energy.
Construction uses 25% of all virgin timber and almost 40% Applications
of all raw resources extracted from the Earth (Yeheyis et al.,
2013). Additionally, achieving zero waste is difficult due to The application of solid waste-based building materials in
nature of the industry and the ongoing rate of trash genera- real development is gaining popularity due to its potential
tion (Ulubeyli et al., 2017). Opportunities to build circular to lessen the construction industry’s environmental impacts.
supply chains or a sustainable economy should not be dis- This includes the utilization of waste-derived materials such
regarded as resources become more scarce (Balador et al., as fly ash, slag and recovered aggregates. These materials
2020). This indicates that increased efforts should be made are used in a variety of construction applications, includ-
to reuse, repair, and recycle resources so they can be used ing building foundations, roads and pavements. The use of
for longer (Bocken et al., 2016; Caldera et al., 2019). While these materials can help reduce the demand for traditional
cleaner methods of selective demolition are employed to construction supplies like natural stone and sand, which can
lessen trash creation at the source (Sánchez & Lauritzen, be scarce in some places. Building materials made from
2004), waste management should receive more attention dur- solid waste offer various advantages, including lower build-
ing the planning phase. The reduction of waste at the design ing costs, increased durability and a lower carbon footprint.
stage critically depends on "modular design," "waste reduc- However, issues concerning quality control and the longev-
tion investment," and "economic incentives" (Wang et al., ity of these materials must still be addressed. Overall, the
2014). Regeneration has been emphasized as a key approach use of solid waste-based materials in construction for actual
to deal with environmental degradation and related contami- development can make the building construction sector more
nation by reducing its effect on ecosystems, even though the environmental friendly and sustainable (Table 3).
reuse of waste is a reliable way to deal with construction and
demolition debris (BIO, 2011; Shooshtarian et al., 2020). Plastic
Multiple reports have found that the use of recovered demo-
lition trash increases the holding power, resilience, elasticity Since typical plastics have a lengthy carbon linkage and
modulus, and capacity to resist enduring deformation (Chick cannot biodegrade, there are several properties that provide
& Micklethwaite, 2004; da Conceição Leite et al., 2011). benefits when used as a reusable material in construction.
Xue et al. (2009) found that employing recovered demolition Although we often discard its use because of lack of knowl-
waste could prevent the leaching of the pavement underlays. edge, its sustainability in nature will provides durability in
C&D Wastes can be utilized as a component in cement, as a whatever work it is used. The use of PET in different build-
filler in concrete, and as a raw material in cement clinker. It ing materials to increase the overall strength and durability
can also be used as a backfill for utility trenches, shoulders, has been discussed in Table 4.
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 7  A Structural determina-

tion of the CWLSI: A methodi-
cal examination

Table 3  Applications of solid waste-derived construction materials

S.no Solid wastes Materials used in construction Application References

1 Fly ash Concrete with high performance Water Tower, USA Aitcin & Laplante, 2018
2 Bottom ash Aggregates Road sub base section, France Bruder-Hubscher et al., 2001
3 Blast-furnace Concrete with high performance Scotia Plaza, Canada Aitcin & Laplante, 2018
granulated slag
4 Rice husk ash Interlocking building blocks Malaysian housing that is environmen- Nasly & Yassin, 2010
tally friendly
5 Palm oil fuel ash Interlocking building blocks Malaysian housing that is environmen- Nasly & Yassin, 2010
tally friendly
6 Bamboo fiber Bamboo fiber-based material for com- Low cost homes, India Jain & Kumar, 1994
posites
7 Waste of quarry Aggregates Flexible pavement’s base layer, Brazil de Rezende & de Carvalho, 2003
8 C & D wastes Aggregates made from recycled concrete Pearson International Air Port, Canada Yeheyis et al., 2013

3‑D printing This is mainly because automation drastically reduces the

amount of time needed to create a structure by eliminat-
The approach of integrating cementitious building materi- ing the requirement for formwork and human involvement.
als (CBM) in the 3D printing process involves extruding The 3D printing of CBMs primarily utilizes fine aggregates
CBMs in layers under robotic motion control, which is also (Gosselin et al., 2016). The way materials are distributed,
known as additive manufacturing in the construction indus- affects the amount that can be used. Among all substances,
try (Tay et al., 2019). Over the past couple of decades, both natural sand is commonly used in printing (Tay et al., 2017,
academia and business have shown a considerable surge in 2019). By substituting sand with recycled waste glass (WG),
interest in 3D printing technology (Gularte et al., 2017). a new market opportunity for WG can be created while
Table 4  Recent studies on PET-incorporated building materials
Title Material types Results References

Aggregate from recovered concrete, Portland cement-based Cement mortar PET flakes derived from recyclable packaging (Gorak et al., 2021)
materials made of lighter PET composite aggregates:
physiochemical and microstructure productivity, 2015
Strength of compression and water retention of soil–cement Block of soil–cement Crushed PET from water bottle packaging (Paschoalin Filho et al. 2016)
bricks made with pet waste inclusion, 2016
Tensile properties of environmentally friendly Strain-Hard- Mortar Surface treated (NaOH solution; silane coupling agent) PET (Yu et al., 2018)
ening Cementitious Composites made of hybrid PVA and fibers
recycled PET fibres, 2018
Optimal amounts of recovered PET (polyethylene terephtha- Concrete PET bottle fibres (length = 50 mm, width = 5 mm) (Shahidan, 2018)
late) bottle fibre were used in concrete in 2018
In a 2018 experiment, waste from PET bottles and woven Concrete PET bottle fibres (length = 50–60 mm, width = 2–3.5 mm) (Bui et al., 2018)
plastic sacks was used to create fibre for recycled aggregate
concrete
Study on the behaviour of concrete when fine aggregate is Concrete Water bottles, polythene bags and milk pouches (Al-Fakih et al., 2020)
partially replaced with waste plastics, 2019
Analysis of the mechanical and physical attributes of recy- Concrete PET that has been recycled and shredded by a recycler (Barreto et al., 2019)
cled PET-added pressed concrete blocks with no structural
purposes, 2019
The environmental impact of PET trash and the properties of Concrete PET shredded bottles of water for consumption with fly ash (Alfahdawi et al., 2019)
concrete with a high strength exposed to extreme tempera-
tures, 2019
Using demolition trash and recovered PET mixes as building Paving C & D trash, broken PET bottles, and packaging for food (Perera et al., 2019)
materials, 2019
The endurance performance of a new super-high-perfor- Concrete PET fibres (length = 40 mm, width = 3.5 mm) were produced (Alani et al., 2019)
mance PET green concrete, 2019 using a basic shredding machine
High strength concrete beams reinforced with PET waste Concrete PET shattered from water-for-drinking bottles (Mohammed & Rahim, 2020)
fibre: experimental behaviour and analysis, 2020
Optimisation and prediction of recycled PET aggregate Concrete PET chips (Nematzadeh et al., 2020)
concrete reinforced with steel fibres’ post-fire compressive
strength 2020, via RSM and GEP
PET blends containing demolition debris were tested for Paving PET that has been recycled and shredded by a recycler (Arulrajah et al., 2020)
rigidity and flexural strength,2020
Fracture and mechanical characteristics of polyethylene tere- Paving PET granules (Esfandabad et al., 2020)
phthalate (PET) granule-containing asphalt mixtures, 2020
2020 study on the acceptability of polymeric HDPE and PET Clay brick that has not been burned PET flakes crushed into three sizes: (Limami et al., 2020)
wastes used to unfired clay bricks as a building material < 1 mm
< 3 mm
< 6 mm
The 2020 mechanical characteristics of epoxy mortar that Mortar PET waste glycolisates generated by two industrial facilities (Dębska & Lichołai, 2015)
contains PET waste
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering
 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

reducing the demand for sand, which is a limited resource.

(da Luz Garcia et al., 2021)

An assessment, in a study conducted by Ting et al. (2019),

(Djamaluddin et al., 2021)

(Skibicki et al., 2021) evaluated the 3D printing capabilities of recycled WG mor-
tar in combination with sand. To assess the effects of aggre-
gates, rheological and functional analyses of the mixtures
were conducted. The rheological results demonstrated the
References

benefits of using recycled CBMs with WG for printing.

The reused WG mixture exhibited flow properties due to its
plastic viscosity and variable yield stress compared to the
original sand blend. This difference was likely caused by
an amount of water in the WG mixture, leading to reduced
absorption capacity of the naturally occurring sand particles.
as indicated in another study (Tan & Du, 2013). Another
explanations could be that recycled WG particles have a
smooth surface similar to that of natural sand particles (Jiao
et al., 2017).
PET wastes that have been grounded

Geopolymerisation
PET granule (dia = 2–5 mm)

In modern times, WG powders are being investigated as a

Shredded PET bottles

possible alumina source for the manufacture of geopolymers

(Cyr et al., 2012; Olawale, 2013). The study of geopolymers
made from WG is a relatively recent subject of research.
One study found that the mechanical characteristics of WG-
Results

based geopolymers were substantially impacted by WG

particle size, curing conditions, and alkali solution content
(Cyr et al., 2012). These geopolymers also attained compres-
sive strengths equivalent to fly ash-based geopolymers. In a
study investigating the effects of partially substituting WG
Asphalt-Concrete mixtures

powder for metakaolin in the manufacture of geopolymers,

Novais et al. (2016) found that adding 12.5% WG improved
compressive strength by over 46%. However, in a geopoly-
Material types

mer made entirely of metakaolin, adding more WG had the

reverse effect.
Mortar

Mortar

C&D waste
Assessment of PET Material Improvement for 3D Concrete

The European Union produces over 850 million tonnes of

strength and toughness properties under static compres-
PET and PP plastic waste-containing AC-WC mixture’s

C&D waste each year (Novais et al., 2016), with France hav-
ing the highest average at 349 million tonnes in 2014 (Ge
& Hokao, 2006) and the United Kingdom having the lowest
estimate at 90 million tonnes (Tam et al., 2018). In the US,
the yearly generation of building and demolition waste is
534 million tonnes (Williams & Turner, 2011), 77 million
Mortar efficiency with PET, 2021

tonnes are produced annually in Japan (USEPA, 2016), 20

million tonnes in Australia (Pickin & Randell, 2017), 200
million tonnes in China, 17 M tonnes in India, and roughly
7 M tonnes annually in Dubai and Abu Dhabi (USEPA,
Table 4  (continued)

2016). In 2011, Germany’s recovered resource percent-

Printing, 2021

age was 91%, while in France, 50% of the entire amount of

sion, 2021

C&D trash created in 2014 was recycled. This is because the

majority of material from C&D is recovered and repurposed
Title

for both environmental benefit and economic gain (Randell

 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

et al., 2014). While the rate of recovering resources in the middle-income countries, waste generation will increase by
United States was 48% in 2011, over 62% of C&D waste has 40% compared to the present levels.
been recycled annually in the United Kingdom. Around 64%
of C&D waste in Australia was recycled in 2014 (Table 5). Impact of construction waste on the economy

The prices of mining and basic commodities are increas-

Circular economy ing even as the circular economy is receiving an increas-
ing amount of focus. According to the circular economy, in
Due to the limited availability of resources on Earth, the 2019, 9% of the initial supplies were fully repurposed. The
authors strongly support the promotion of the circular econ- percentage increased slightly to 9.1% in 2018 (Musarat et al.,
omy as a viable and forward-thinking paradigm that is envi- 2022). In the circular economy, all raw materials are recy-
ronmentally sustainable. The circular economy’s objective is cled, eliminating the need for fresh raw materials. However,
to maintain closed loops for raw materials. Resources should achieving this scenario will take a very long time because
be used as efficiently as possible, reducing the need for techniques for fully recycling the components currently used
fresh ones, preventing waste and lengthening the life cycle in goods must be developed. Sustainability and the circular
of products. The waste of today should ideally become the economy go hand in hand (Wilcox et al., 2007). Figure 9
raw of tomorrow. It aims to optimize assets so they operate provides an excellent illustration of this, showing the con-
more quickly, safely, sustainably and for longer. Projected tributions of the circular economy in terms of Research and
waste generation by 2030 and 2050 has been depicted in development (R&D), service management (SM), logistics
Fig. 8 (prepared based on discussion presented by Kaza and reverse logistics (L&RL), quality management (QM),
et al., 2018). Overall, a positive correlation between income cost management (CM), circular supply chain management
level and waste generation can be observed. It has been esti- (CSCM), environment management (EM), process manage-
mated that daily waste generation per capita in high-income ment (PM) and strategic planning (SP) are all examples of
countries will increase by 19% by 2050, while in low- and cost management.

Table 5  Global construction and demolition waste recovery rates by country

Countries Total C&D waste Total C&D waste recov- C&D waste References
(mil. tons) ery (mil. tons) recove-ry (%)

Oceania
Australia 19.30 12.00 62.20 (Pickin & Randell, 2017)
Asia
China 300 120.00 40.00 (Yang et al., 2017a)
Japan 77.00 62.00 80.50 (Pickin & Randell, 2017; Wilson et al., 2015)
Taiwan 63.00 58.00 91.00 (Barritt, 2016; Yang et al., 2017b)
Thailand 10.00 3.20 32.00 (Cherdsatirkul, 2012)
Europe
Denmark 21.70 20.40 94.00 (Bürgin, 2021)
Finland 20.80 5.40 26.00 (Bürgin, 2021)
France 342.60 212.40 62.00 (Bürgin, 2021; Cazorla, 2017)
Germany 192.30 165.40 86.00 (Bürgin, 2021)
Ireland 16.60 13.30 80.00 (Bürgin, 2021)
Netherlands 25.80 25.28 98.00 (Bürgin, 2021)
Norway 1.30 0.87 67.30 (Bürgin, 2021)
Spain 38.50 5.39 14.00 (Bürgin, 2021; Vázquez-Bustelo & Avella, 2006)
Switzerland 7.00 2.00 28.00 (Bürgin, 2021)
United Kingdom 114.20 74.23 65.00 (Bürgin, 2021)
Americas
Canada 0.66 0.20 30.00 (Pederneiras et al., 2020)
USA 534.00 256.30 48.00 (Korinjoh, 2017)
Africa
South Africa 4.70 0.76 16.00 (Baloy et al., 2012)
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 8  Projected waste gen-

eration trends in various global
regions

Fig. 9  Contributions of the circular economy to sustainable development

Figure 10 further emphasizes the circular economy pros- According to the United Nations Environment Pro-
pects by 2030, which was previously underlined as an eco- gramme (UNEP) (Musarat et al., 2022), increased resource
nomic opportunity from the circular economy. efficiency could result in roughly $2 trillion in economic
 Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

Fig. 10  Anticipated economic

shifts within the circular
economy of 2030

benefits annually by 2050. This can be achieved by develop- construction investments in infrastructure and technol-
ing more functions using the same amount of resources and ogy that facilitate plastic recycling are vital.
production capability while also raising revenue from new 3. Construction and demolition (C&D) projects generate an
circular activities. These circular items require a specialized amount of waste for the building sector. Utilizing C&D
staff for their creation, manufacture, and maintenance, which waste in construction can benefit the environment by
expands job opportunities. On the other hand, as raw mate- reducing reliance on virgin resources and minimizing
rial extraction and processing become less necessary, less waste generation.
specialized labor becomes available (Sulich & Sołoducho- 4. To meet the standards for performance, it is necessary
Pelc, 2022). to implement quality control methods and standardized
testing techniques when dealing with construction and
demolition (C&D) wastes due to their varying quality
Conclusion and consistency.
5. The use of building wastes, such as fly ash and slag, as
Utilizing recycled or abandoned materials in construction substitutes for materials like cement and sand can lead
projects is becoming a more popular strategy to promote to reduced impact improved resource efficiency and cost
sustainability and lessen negative environmental effects. To savings. Further research is needed to optimize the utili-
ensure the caliber and consistency of these materials, how- zation of these materials in construction practices while
ever, several concerns must be resolved: ensuring their consistency and quality.
6. Adopting a circular economy approach offers a method
1. One key challenge is the lack of standardization in waste for waste management by promoting resource redistribu-
management practices. The absence of norms and pro- tion and waste reduction. By designing products with a
cedures for disposing and recycling construction waste circular economy mindset, it becomes feasible to redis-
can lead to dumping and inadequate waste management tribute resources times while minimizing waste genera-
practices, which can harm the environment and pub- tion and the reliance on resources.
lic health. Establishing rules and regulations for waste
management in the construction industry is essential to Incorporating recycled or discarded materials in con-
ensure disposal of waste and effective utilization of recy- struction projects has the potential to enhance sustainabil-
cled materials. ity reduce harm and improve resource efficiency. For these
2. Recycling plastics into pellets for construction materi- materials to be used effectively, issues with waste manage-
als such as pipelines, insulation and roofing tiles has ment, recycling, and quality control procedures must be
been successful in reducing waste and its environmental addressed. The sustainable recycling and reuse of waste
impacts. However, specialized facilities and technolo- materials in construction will be supported by advanc-
gies are necessary due to the complexity of plastic recy- ing clear waste management legislation and guidelines,
cling. Encauragement and motivation in using plastic in
Asian Journal of Civil Engineering

making investments in recycling infrastructure and tech- Abu-Lebdeh, T., Hamoush, S., Heard, W., & Zornig, B. (2011).
nology, and creating quality control processes. Effect of matrix strength on pullout behavior of steel fiber rein-
forced very-high strength concrete composites. Construction
and Building Materials, 25(1), 39–46.
Ahmari S., Chen R., Zhang L. (2012) Utilization of mine tailings as
Author contributions Bishnu Kant Shukla: As the main author and road base material. In GeoCongress 2012: State of the Art and
supervisor, Bishnu Kant Shukla played a pivotal role in conceptual- Practice in Geotechnical Engineering 3654–3661.
izing the study, leading the research design, and overseeing the entire Aitcin, P. C., & Laplante, P. (2018). The development of high-per-
project. He was also instrumental in the analysis and interpretation formance concrete in North America. In High Performance
of data and contributed significantly to the writing and editing of the Concrete. https://​doi.​org/​10.​1201/​97802​03752​005-​26
manuscript. Additionally, Bishnu Kant Shukla is the corresponding Akçaözoğlu, S., Atiş, C. D., & Akçaözoğlu, K. (2010). An investi-
author, responsible for communicating with the journal and address- gation on the use of shredded waste PET bottles as aggregate
ing reviewers’ comments. Gaurav Bharti: Contributed to the revision in lightweight concrete. Waste Management, 30(2), 285–290.
stage of the manuscript by creating high-quality figures and assisting Akinyele, J. O., & Ajede, A. (2018). The use of granulated plastic
in content creation. He played a significant role in enhancing the visual waste in structural concrete. African Journal of Science, Tech-
representation of data and concepts, ensuring clarity and effective- nology, Innovation and Development, 10(2), 169–175.
ness in conveying key findings. Additionally, Gaurav Bharti provided Alani, A. H., Bunnori, N. M., Noaman, A. T., & Majid, T. A. (2019).
valuable input during the revision process, contributing to the overall Durability performance of a novel ultra-high-performance PET
improvement of the manuscript’s quality and presentation. Pushpendra green concrete (UHPPGC). Construction and Building Materi-
Kumar Sharma: Contributed to the data collection and analysis, par- als, 209, 395–405.
ticularly focusing on the aspects of sustainable materials and circular Albano, C., Camacho, N., Hernández, M., Matheus, A., & Gutierrez,
economy. He also assisted in drafting parts of the manuscript related to A. J. W. M. (2009). Influence of content and particle size of
these areas. Manshi Sharma: Played a key role in the literature review, waste pet bottles on concrete behavior at different w/c ratios.
particularly in gathering and synthesizing information on recycled and Waste Management, 29(10), 2707–2716.
waste materials in construction. She also contributed to writing the Al-Buhaisi, K. U. (2013). Investigating the use of recycled plastics
introduction and background sections of the manuscript. Sumit Rawat: as shrinkage reinforcement in non-structural concrete slabs.
Focused on the methodological framework of the study, contributing MEJ-Mansoura Engineering Journal, 35(3), 1–9.
to the development of research methods and data analysis. He also Albulescu, C. T. (2010). Forecasting the Romanian financial system
assisted in the interpretation of results and drafting relevant sections stability using a stochastic simulation model. Romanian Jour-
of the manuscript. Neha Maurya: Actively involved in compiling case nal of Economic Forecasting, 13(1), 81–98.
studies and practical applications of recycled materials in construction. Alfahdawi, I. H., Osman, S. A., Hamid, R., & AL-Hadithi, A. I.
She contributed to writing and revising the sections that discuss these (2019). Influence of PET wastes on the environment and high
applications. Risha Srivastava: Assisted in the environmental impact strength concrete properties exposed to high temperatures.
assessment part of the research, analyzing the data on greenhouse gas Construction and Building Materials, 225, 358–370.
emissions and pollution reduction. She contributed to writing and revis- Al-Fakih, A., Azan, R. M., Borisenko, Y. G., Shvachev, D. P., Voro-
ing the sections detailing these impacts. Yuvraj Srivastav: Provided byev, D. A., Amran, Y. M., Alabduljabbar, H., & Alabdul-
support in graphical representation and visualization of data. He also jabbar, H. (2020). Bituminous mineral compositions for pav-
contributed to the final editing and formatting of the manuscript to ing with cullet. Case Studies in Construction Materials, 12,
ensure compliance with journal guidelines. e00317.
Ali, E. E., & Al-Tersawy, S. H. (2012). Recycled glass as a partial
Funding The authors have not disclosed any funding. replacement for fine aggregate in self-compacting concrete. Con-
struction and Building Materials, 35, 785–791.
Data availability No datasets were generated or analysed during the Alqahtani, F. K., Khan, M. I., Ghataora, G., & Dirar, S. (2017). Produc-
current study. tion of recycled plastic aggregates and its utilization in concrete.
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 29(4), 04016248.
Declarations Arena, U. (2012). Process and technological aspects of municipal
solid waste gasification. A Review. Waste Management, 32(4),
Conflict of interest The authors have not disclosed any competing in- 625–639.
terests. Arulrajah, A., Mohammadinia, A., Horpibulsuk, S., & Samingthong,
W. (2016). Influence of class F fly ash and curing temperature
on strength development of fly ash-recycled concrete aggregate
blends. Construction and Building Materials, 127, 743–750.
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F. (2020). Stiffness and flexural strength evaluation of cement
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& Wilson, J. (2010). Crushed brick blends with crushed rock Building Materials, 239, 117819.
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