REVIEWER IN GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical engineering is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the engineering
behavior of earth materials.

Soil Formation

Soil is the thin layer of material covering the earth's surface and is formed from the weathering
of rocks, It is made up mainly of mineral particles, organic materials, air, water and living organisms-
all of which types interact slowly yet constantly.

Soil Profile

As soils develop over time, layers (or horizons) form a soil profile.

Most soil profiles cover the earth as 2 main layers. Soil horizons are the layers in the soil as you
move down the soil profile. A soil profile may have soil horizons that are easy or difficult to distinguish.
Most soils exhibit three main horizons: A horizon, B horizon and C horizon.

 A horizon-humus-rich topsoil where nutrient, organic matter and biological activity are
highest (i.e. most plant roots, earthworms, insects and micro-organisms are active). The
darker than other horizons because of the organic materials.
 B horizon-clay-rich subsoil. This horizon is often less fertile than the topsoil but holds more
moisture. It generally has a lighter color and less biological activity than the A horizon.
Texture may be heavier than the A horizon too.
 C Horizon-underlying weathered rock (from which the A and B horizons form).

Factors affecting soil formation

 Physical weathering-breakdown of rocks from the result of a mechanical action. Temperature

changes, abrasion (when rocks collide with each other) or frost can all cause rocks to break
down.
 Chemical weathering-breakdown of rocks through a change in their chemical makeup. This can
happen when the minerals within rocks react with water, air or other chemicals.
 Biological weathering-the breakdown of rocks by living things. Burrowing animals help water and
air get into rock and plant roots can grow into cracks in the rock, making it split.

Five main interacting factors affect the formation of soil:

 Parent material - minerals forming the basis of soil. Soil minerals form the basis of soil. They
are produced from rocks (parent material) through the processes of weathering and natural
erosion.
The types of parent materials and the conditions under which they break down will influence
the properties of the soil formed. For example, soils formed from granite are often sandy and
infertile whereas basalt under moist conditions breaks down to form fertile, clay soils.

 Living organisms - influencing soil formation. Soil formation is Influenced by organisms (such
as plants), micro-organisms (such as bacteria or fungi), burrowing insects, animals and
humans.
 Climate - affecting the rate of weathering and organic decomposition. Temperature affects the
rate of weathering and organic decomposition. With a colder and drier climate, these
processes can be slow but, with heat and moisture, they are relatively rapid.
  Topography - grade of slope affecting drainage, erosion and deposition. The shape, length
and grade of a slope affects drainage. The aspect of a slope determines the type of vegetation
and indicates the amount of rainfall received.
These factors change the way soils form:
Soil materials are progressively moved within the natural landscape by the action of water,
gravity and wind (for example, heavy rains erode soils from the hills to lower areas, forming
deep soils). The soil left on steep hills are usually shallower. Transported soils include (a)
alluvial (water transported), (b) colluvial (gravity transported), and (c) Aeolian (wind
transported) soils.
 Time - Influencing soil properties. Soil properties may vary depending on how long the soil has
been weathered. Minerals from rocks are further weathered to form materials such as clays
and oxides of iron and aluminum. Queensland (and Australia) is a very old weathered
landscape with many ancient soils.

Types of Soils

"Soil" is a very broad term and refers to the loose layer of earth that covers the surface of the
planet. The soil is the part of the earth's surface, which includes disintegrated rock, humus, Inorganic
and organic materials.
There are three stages of soil:

1. Solid soil
2. Soil with air in the pores
3. Soil with water in the pores

Soil is classified into four types:

 Sandy soil
The first type of soil is sand. It consists of small particles of weathered rock. Sandy soils
are one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants because it has very low nutrients and
poor water holding capacity, which makes it hard for the plant's roots to absorb water. This type
of soil is very good for the drainage system. Sandy soil is usually formed by the breakdown or
fragmentation of rocks like granite, limestone and quartz.
 Silt Soil
Silt, which is known to have much smaller particles compared to sandy soil and
is made up of rock and other mineral particles, which are smaller than sand and larger
than clay. It is smooth and fine quality of the soil that holds water better than sand. Silt is
easily transported by moving currents and it Is mainly found near the river, lake and other
water bodies. The silt soil is more fertile compared to the other three types of soil. Therefore, it
is also used to improve soil fertility.
 Clay Soil
Clay is the smallest particle amongst the other two types of soil. The particles in
this soil are tightly packed together with each other with very little or no airspace. This
soil has very good water storage qualities and makes it hard for moisture and air to penetrate
into it. It is very sticky to the touch when wet, but smooth when dried. Clay is the densest and
heaviest type of soil which does not drain well or provide space for plant roots to flourish.
 Loamy Soil
Loam is the fourth type of soil it is a combination of sand, sit and clay such that the
beneficial property from each is included. For instance, it has the ability to retain moisture
and nutrients, hence, it is more suitable for farming. This soil is also referred to as it includes
an equilibrium of all three types of soil materials being sandy, clay, and silt and it also happens
to have humus. Apart from these, it also has higher calcium and pH levels because of its
Inorganic origins.
SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION

 Description of soil is a statement describing the physical nature and state of the soil. It can
be a description of a sample, or a soil in situ. It is arrived at using visual examination, simple
tests, observation of site conditions, geological history, etc.
 Soil classification is the separation of soil into classes or groups each having similar
characteristics and potentially similar behavior. A classification for engineering purposes should
be based mainly on mechanical properties, e.g. permeability, stiffness. strength. The class to
which soil belongs can be used in its description.

Basic characteristics of soils

Soils consist of grains (mineral grains, rock fragments, ete.) with water and air in the voids
between grains. The water and air contents are readily changed by changes in conditions and
location: soils can be perfectly dry (have no water content) or be fully saturated (have no air content)
or be partly saturated (with both air and water present). Although the size and shape of the solid
(granular) content rarely changes at a given point, they can vary considerably from point to point.

Soil as an engineering material

The term "soil" means different things to different people: To a geologist it represents the products of
past surface processes, to a pedologist it represents currently occurring physical and chemical
processes. To an engineer it is a material that can be: (a) built on: foundations to buildings, bridges.
(b) built in: tunnels, culverts, basements. (c) built with: roads, runways, embankments, dams, and (d)
supported retaining walls, quays.

Soils are classified into named Basic Soil Type groups according to size, and the groups
further divided into coarse, medium and fine sub-groups:

Aids to size identification

 Soils possess a number of physical characteristics which can be used as aids to size
identification in the field. A handful of soil rubbed through the fingers can yield the following

 SAND (and coarser) particles are visible to the naked eye.

 SILT particles become dusty when dry and are easily brushed off hands and boots,
 CLAY particles are greasy and sticky when wet and hard when dry, and have
to be scraped or washed off hands and boots.

Shape of grains

The majority of soils may be regarded as either SANDS or CLAYS:

SANDS include gravelly sands and gravel-sands, Sand grains are generally broken rock particles
that have been formed by physical weathering, or they are the resistant components of rocks broken
down by chemical weathering. Sand grains generally have a rotund shape.
SAND and Jarger-sized grains are rotund. Coarse soil grains (silt-sized, sand-sized and larger)
have different shape characteristics and surface roughness depending on the amount of wear during
transportation (by water, wind or ice), or after crushing in manufactured aggregates. They have a
relatively low specific surface (surface area).
Rounded: Water- or air-worn, transported sediments

Irregular: Irregular shape with round edges, glacial sediments (sometimes sub- divided into 'sub-
rounded' and
Angular: Flat faces and sharp edges, residual soils, grits:

Visual - Manual Soil Classification and Description

When you are examining a soil sample, one thing that is important is the color of the sample. Soil
color can tell us about the pigmentation and oxidation states of the minerals it is composed of,
whether or not the soil might have organic content, and the amount of moisture present in the soil
(wet sol will look darker). Another thing that is crucial to soil classification is Identifying and quantifying
the grain sizes that are in the soil Look at how much gravel-sized particles there are compared to
sand-sized particles, and sand compared to sit and clay, and so on. For classifying fine-grained
portions of soil, there are a couple of special techniques that you can use.

Distinguishing Fine Sand from Clay or Silt

Take some soil and rub it in the palms of your hands. Then tum your hands over, palms down,
and shake them. The sand grains will fall off but the silt and clay will stick to the lines in your palm.
You can also look closely at the soil. The sand grains are visible to the naked eye but the individual
silt and clay particles are not.

How to distinguish clay from silt

Put some soil in your hand with your palm facing upwards. Mix in some water until the soil is
moldable like putty. With your other hand, firmly pat the edge of the hand holding the soil for 5 to 10
seconds. If the surface of the soil starts shining and the water rises to the surface, it's silt. If the water
does not rise, then it's clay. This is because water penetrates silt more easily than clay. Also, clay
feels stickier Phan sit when it's wet.
Mineralogy of Soil Solids

Soils are originally from rocks, and their chemical and physical properties mimic these rocks.
Because these minerals are small, they dominate the clay portion of soil.
Soil minerals are formed from two basic structural units: tetrahedral and octahedral.

Structure of Clay Minerals

 A tetrahedral unit consists of a central silicon atom that is surrounded by four oxygen
atoms located at the corners of a tetrahedron. A combination of tetrahedrons forms a silica
sheet.
 An octahedral unit consists of a central ion, either aluminum or magnesium, that is
surrounded by six hydroxyl ions located at the corners of an octahedron. A combination of
aluminum-hydroxyl octahedrons forms a gibbsite sheet, whereas a combination of
magnesium-hydroxyl octahedrons forms a brucite sheet.

Two layer Sheet Minerals

 Kaolinite Mineral
The basic kaolinite unit is a two-layer unit that is formed by stacking a gibbsite sheet on a silica
sheet. These basic units are then stacked one on top of the other to form a lattice of the
mineral. The units are held together by hydrogen bonds. The strong bonding does not permit
water to enter the lattice. Thus, kaolinite minerals are stable and do not expand under
saturation, Kaolinite is the most abundant constituent of residual clay deposits
 Halloysite Mineral
The basic unit is also a two-layer sheet similar to that of kaolinite except for the presence of
water between the sheets. Montmorillonite and illite clay minerals are the most common. A
basic three-layer sheet unit is formed by keeping one silica sheet each on the top and at the
bottom of a gibbsite sheet. These units are stacked to form a lattice as shown.

 Montmorillonite Mineral
The bonding between the three-layer units is by van der Waals forces. This bonding is very
weak and water can enter easily. Thus, this mineral can imbibe a large quantity of water
causing swelling. During dry weather, there will be shrinkage.
 Illite Mineral
Illite consists of the basic montmorilionite units but are bonded by secondary valence forces
and potassium ions, as shown. There is about 20% replacement of aluminum with silicon in the
gibbsite sheet due to isomorphous substitution. This mineral is very stable and does not swell
or shrink
 Fine Soil Fabric
Natural soils are rarely the same from one point in the ground to another. The content and
nature of grains varies, but more importantly, so does the arrangement of these, The
arrangement and organization of particles and other features within a soil mass is termed its
fabric