Topographical maps

Essential parts of the map

1.​ Contour lines
2.​ Title
3.​ Legend
4.​ Scale
5.​ Trigonometric point
6.​ Grid lines

Essential skills

1. How to find the 4 fig grid reference

Steps
1.​ Draw a small L in the corner of the box in which the thing is in
2.​ Rmb e before n which means the vertical lines before the horizontal lines
3.​ Then write them all together

2. How to take a 6 figure grid reference

Steps
1.​ Divide the box into 100 equal parts
2.​ Draw 9 lines horizontally and 9 line vertically
 3.​ Draw and L
4.​ Write down the 4 fig reference number E
5.​ Then write down the miniature smaller number of the grid E
6.​ Then write down the 4 figure reference number N
7.​ Then write down the minutature number of N
8.​ Write them all out together

3. Measuring straight line distance

Steps
1.​ Measure with a rule or string
2.​ Rmb to convert using the scale if stated ( 1km = 100000 cm)
3.​ Rmb to round to 2d.p

4. Compass direction

Example of question;
Find the compass direction of the mall from the reservoir

Steps
1.​ Imagine ur standing in the reservoir and then use compass to see which direction

5. Finding compass bearing

Steps
1.​ Draw a north line on the reservoir
2.​ Then connect the mall and the reservoir together
3.​ Calculate the angle

6. Asking what type of settlement it is

Ans; Choose between, nucleated, linear or dispersed

Relief and height

 Relief is the shape of the land and can be :
-​ Steep
-​ Flat
-​ Undulating
-​ Shallow
Height is how high an object is from ground level and can be represented by :
-​ Spot height
-​ Couture lines
-​ A blue triangle

7. Asking what are the main economic activities of the city

Choose between:
-​ Accommodation
-​ farming / agriculture
-​ Education
-​ Industry
-​ Tourism
-​ Fishing
-​ Transportation function

*Make sure to add the type of the building ( for example farms) and then they can harvest corps which
can be sold and used by others

7. How to measure contour intervals

Difference divided by the number of line in between
 Answering techniques
Conclude questions
1.​ Write down the general trends that u see
2.​ Highest and the lowest
3.​ Out of the blue things?

Compare questions
1.​ Write down the general trends
2.​ Then list out the percentage increase and decrease
3.​ Then look out for trends and patterns

1.​ Sustainable cities

-​ When comparing a rual and urban area, make sure that u explain clearly
about the feature tha you are comparing
-​

Chapter 7

-​ A city is defined as an urban area within a country

-​ For a space to be classified as a city, it needs to have certain characteristics
-​ The criterias are, High population density, high population size, built up area and range of
functions
High population size
-​ Minimum population size is one of the criterias that make a part of the country a city
-​ Many countries have different guidelines to what counts as a city
-​

High population density

-​ Population density refers to the number of people living in one square meter of land
-​ The formula is basically number of people divided by the land space
-​ For example, a city in CHina, has a population density of about 2100 people per square
kilometer.

Built up area
-​ Most of the city is made up of built up areas. ( this means that most of the land area is covered
by buildings)
-​ Built up area refers to high rise and tall buildings that are there to provide services such as
telecommunications, sanitation and transportation and water
-​

Range of functions
-​ Cities also serve a range of functions.
-​ For instance the administrative city of java is where the prime minister and the highest court of
law are located in
-​ Moreover, Java has an industrial role as well, it produces iron, paper and cars

Urban rural connections

-​ Rural areas are less densely populated and serve a lesser range of functions and are less built
up
-​ As compared to urban areas, rural areas are very different.
-​ Despite these differences, urban and rural areas are connected by the movement of people and
goods
Rural urban migration
-​ Many people living in cities today may have originally come from rural areas.
-​ This is known as rural-urban migration
-​ People may migrate for a variety of reasons which can be classified as push and pull factors
-​ Push factors are factors that are bad in rural parts and pull factors are attractive factors in
cities
Push factors
-​ Npt enough food
-​ Poor technology and electricity
-​ Poor sewerage
-​ Not enough jobs are available
-​ Poor education
-​ Land degradation
-​ Limited or no healthcare

Pull factors
-​ More work
-​ Access to shops
-​ Better education
-​ More jobs
-​ Sanitation is better
-​ More healthcare access
-​ Safer
-​ Better family links
-​ Better housing

Provision of goods and services

Aside from rural urban migration,people engage in the transportation of goods also
-​ As cities have limited land resources, they greatly rely on rural areas for food and vegetables.
-​ The farmer will harvest the food and sell it at a farmers market and gain profits themselves.
-​ At the same time, people who live in rural areas benefit from cities as they might be able to go
to a hospital nearby in a city to receive treatment or can purchase goods that are only available
from cities from a mall
What are some opportunities that are provided to inhabitants of cities

Education and employment.

-​ Both education and employment are closely related.

-​ Cities are home to many vocational universities and schools
-​ They are filled with youngsters of school going age that attend school
-​ They are adults as well who wish to pursue lifelong learning
-​ WIth better education, more skills are gained and with more skills, it is easier to get a job that
pays more and with a higher paying job, their overall well being is greatly improved
-​ Cities may offer work study opportunities where the employee is working in the company while
receiving training.
-​ They have vocational universities that cater to various interests.
-​ Businesses can also directly hire from a group of professionals that have undergone training
and ave receive proper education
-​ Businesses thrive in cities because of the developed infrastructure, availability of services and
opportunities such as education

Innovation to improve way of life

-​ Technological innovations refer to the usage of scientific knowledge to improve way of life
-​ Many professional people who are keen to ompor the way of life are living in cities like scientists,
innovators and artists and entrepreneurs
-​ Together with these people and funds, people in cities are constantly innovating and improving
the lives of the people living in cities.
-​ For instance, in Singapore, there is a project for the Cooler Greener Singapore where buildings
have a lighter facade, more plants are planted and there are water bodies all around to make the
atmosphere more cool.
-​ Cooler calmer Singapore
What challenges do people in cities face?

Environmental pollution
-​ Cities are one of the largest emitter of carbon into the atmosphere
-​ Fossil fuel for energy are being burnt and waste is not being properly disposed
-​ High amounts of fossil fuels are being consumed everyday

Water pollution
-​ Water is a human need and everyone should have basic access to it
-​ However, water sources in cities are extremely polluted because of household and industrial
waste that accumulate because of broken or absent sewage systems that are unable to
properly filter the water

Air pollution
-​ According to a 2016 study by WHO, it is evident that most of the cities do not have clean air
-​ This is largely due carbon dioxide emitted by burning fossil fuels for energy and industrial work

Limited resources
-​ As cities expand with more people making their homes there, the competition for natural
resources such as land and water is higher than ever

Land resource limitation

-​ If there was a land resource crunch, the cities will expand towards rural areas
-​ There will also be a lot of re- construction that will take place in order to make the land more
conducive to live in such as making more high rise buildings.
 -​ WIth these changes in place, the people will be forced to move to other locations and they
might express their unhappiness.

Water resource limitation

-​ Clean water is an absolute necessity for human life to thrive
-​ However,this is compromised for because f=of the competition of land that limits the
construction of reservoirs and water catchment areas
-​ In july 2018, the water supply amounts of the city of cape town in Africa dropped to
dangerously low levels
-​ Many campaigns had to be held to increase water storage supplies again.

Management of environmental problems

Managing air pollution

-​ Air pollution can be effectively managed with rules and laws
-​ Three states in CHina, hebei, BEiling and one more which i forgot have The protection action air
control law which has certain guidelines that are compulsory to follow
-​ China also limits the number of cars that are permitted to be on the road with the use of a car
lottery policy
-​ This system works with the license plate of the car
-​ THE AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION AND CONTROL ACTION PLAN

Managing water pollution

-​ Kranji reservoir is one of the 17 reservoirs in SIngapore

-​ The reservoir is closer to agricultural areas
-​ When it rains, the rain water might wash pesticides into the water that might contaminate the
water.
-​ However, the farmers have small drains next to their farms
-​ Filter plants like the fragrant pandan and the cattail are being grown next to them
What are the hazards ?
-​ hAzards are things that have an negative impact on the physical and built environment, the
people and the economy
-​ Man induced hazards occur when men refuse to follow the safety protocol and th4
eregulations.
-​ Some examples of manmade hazards would be fires, oil spill and industrial accidents and leaks
-​ On the other hand, hazards that occur in the physical environment would be earthquakes,
tsunamis .

How to manage?

Using good quality materials

-​ Durable materials need to be used for a strong building that is able to withstand wear and tear
and a bunch of weather conditions
-​ Japan is the world's leader in building strong buildings that are able to withstand heavy
conditions.

Land use planning

-​ Land use planning is when we plan beforehand how we want to utilize the space provided

How do we improve quality of life ?

Improving housing
-​ hBD has improved the housing conditions
 -​ Necessary for people to live safely.

Better transportation
-​ Transportation is more environmentally friendly
-​ Reduces traffic congestion

Looking at the needs of different groups

-​ Such as elderly and person with disabilities

Chapter 8

What is housing ?

-​ Housing refers to structures of buildings that shield humans from extreme weather conditions
-​ Everyone should have access to housing
-​ Housing is either unplanned or planned
-​ Housing can be temporary or permanent
-​ Housing in cities can be classified according to density,
-​ Example of an High rise and high density housing would be a six storey building that must be
operated using lifts
-​ Low density housing and low rise housing are usually found at the fringes of the city
-​ High rise and high density buildings typically have many facilities like shared playgrounds, shared
swimming pools
-​ Low density and Low rise buildings have the same features too, like semi detached housing
might be shophouses.
What are the commonly available housing tdy?

-​ We can classify housing according to various concepts like spatial distribution and building
materials used
-​ There are also 2 types of housing which are known as formal and informal housing
-​ Proper housing plans are important for a city to advance sustainably
-​ Legally built housing is termed formal housing and is often provided by government housing
plans and private owners
-​ Illegally or unlawfully built housing is termed informal housing and is usually built by individuals
who are unable to access formal housing.

formal housing

Built by the government or Private business owners

-​ As formal housing is a part of urban planning processes, they usually undertaken by the
government
-​ In SIngapore most of the residents reside in HDB built by the government
-​ The HDB flats have hawker centers and many more facilities for their residents
-​ Over 80% of singaporeans live in HDB flats
-​ Apart from housing built by the government, some land is sold to private business owners as
well who then use the land to build housing that the public can purchase

Legal rights to occupy land

-​ Legal rights refer to the ability of the individual to freely obtain , use and possess land as long
as they do not impede on other’s individual rights
-​ This gives the residents a form of security and increases human capability
Access to basic services
-​ As urban planners determine the sites of the formal housing, basic services are also planned
for.
-​ These include access to water, electricity and the provision of basic sanitation services
-​ Infrastructure to support these services is often built and planners as well
-​ The provision of these services improve quality of life for the residents

Better building materia;s

-​ As formal housing is planned, they need to follow the standards and the guidelines of the good
quality materials
-​ This differs from country to country depending on economic, environmental and social
circumstances
-​ A house needs to be built so that it can withstand heavy weather elements such as shine or rain
-​ It can also protect the occupants from threats
-​ In Singapore, all building materials must approve under the BCA such that the people living in sg
are well catered for

What are the features of informal housing

-​ Self built squatter settlements
-​ In contrast to the houses built by private owner and the government , all squatter settlements
are built by individual
-​ Informal housing is often constructed out of scavenged materials like cardboard and zinc
sheets that can topple over easily or catch fire easily

No legal right to occupy land

-​ Informal settlements are built out of necessity and are built on any accessible available plot of
land by residents that are desperate for shelter
-​ Many residents live in illegal parts of the land that are not suitable for living in
-​ Thus , if the original land owners ask them to move, then they must be evicted immediately
-​ Thus, informal house residents don't only face the constant risk of environmental problems,
they also face the insecurinyu and the constant risk of losing their homes
Unhygienic and unsanitary conditions
-​ Informal housing often lack access to basic services such as sanitation, water, electricity and
transport
-​ tHus, they resort to illegal ways like tapping into a electrical pole
-​ They also source for water illegally and dispose their sanitary waste irresponsibly on the ground
or in the river which provokes more illnesses to be spread more rampantly

Why do people end up in slums ?

Demand > supply = homeless people
High cost of living
The land is hilly or mountainous so it's hard to build housing