118 Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu.

15 (1), January, 2015

REVIEW PAPER

Refocusing the Concept and Application of

Knowledge Management

Jitendra Chauhan1, Raksha2 and K.Pradhan3

1. Head (Agril. Ext.), R.B.S. College, Bichpuri, Agra, 2. SRF, CATAT, IARI, New Delhi,
3. Asst. Prof. (Agril. Ext.), UBKV, Coochbehar, West Bengal
Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
In the present knowledge vibrant society, there is a need of new knowledge creation and knowledge sharing, storage
as well as refinement. Knowledge is vital to any organization and its power. Knowledge management (KM) is a
process consisting of the stages; storing, gathering, structuring, sharing, controlling, generating, distributing, codifying,
using and exploiting. Knowledge management is not about managing knowledge for knowledge’s sake; the overall
objective is to create value and to leverage, improve, and refine the competences and knowledge assets to meet
organizational goals and targets. Knowledge management is essentially about getting the right knowledge to the
right person at the right time. It places a focus on knowledge as an actual asset, rather than as something intangible.
In so doing, it enables the firm to better protect and exploit what it knows, and to improve and focus its knowledge
development efforts to match its needs. Knowledge management therefore implies a strong tie to organizational goals
and strategy, and it involves the management of knowledge that is useful for some purpose and which creates value for
the organization. Knowledge and information are used interchangeably by so many people. Consequently, Knowledge
Management solutions even today which are essentially nothing more than information or document management
systems, that is which handle data, information, or perhaps even explicit knowledge, but which do not touch the most
essential part of knowledge management - tacit knowledge. In addition, Knowledge management basically focuses on
the knowledge, understanding, and wisdom and deals with the both codified and uncodified knowledge. Uncodified
knowledge may be viewed as the most valuable type of knowledge which is found in the minds of practitioners and is
unarticulated, context-based, and experience-based. Management of knowledge in agriculture is much needed in
present scenario as there are various players in agriculture and allied sectors, serving the diverse needs of their
clienteles on their level. The present paper reviews the knowledge management process and knowledge management
cycle with its benefits and importance in organisation, agriculture and allied.
Key word: Knowledge; KM Process; KM Concept; KM Stages; KM tools;

Knowledge is vital power and success or failure management. Before discussing about the knowledge
of any organization depends on how the knowledge is management process, it is good to know about the basic
processed and utilized in its day to day and future difference between Knowledge, Information and Data.
operations. In the present e-era, knowledge is very Data: Facts and figures which relay something specific,
important concept not only to utilize the available but which are not organized in any way and which
expertise but also to retrieve it as per the needs and provide no further information regarding patterns,
situations. Knowledge is a familiarity, awareness or context, etc. The definition for data presented by
understanding of someone or something, such as facts, Thierauf (1999) is: “unstructured facts and figures that
information, descriptions or skills, which is acquired have the least impact on the typical manager.”
through experience or education by perceiving, Information: For data to become information, it must
discovering or learning. It is generated and processed be contextualized, categorized, calculated and
through a cyclic process which may be called as condensed (Davenport and Prusak, 2000).
knowledge management process or simply knowledge Information thus paints a bigger picture; it is data with
Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 15 (1), January, 2015 119

relevance and purpose (Bali et al., 2009). Essentially experience (Augier, Shari and Vendelo, 2001). Tacit
information is found “in answers to questions that begin knowledge can be competitive edge because it’s tougher
with such words as who, what, where, when, and how to specify, duplicate, and share (Meyer, 1997). There
many” (Ackoff, 1999). is another type of knowledge which is called as
Knowledge: Knowledge is closely linked to doing and embedded knowledge. Embedded knowledge refers to
implies know-how and understanding. The knowledge the knowledge that is locked in processes, products,
possessed by each individual is a product of his culture, routines, artifacts, or structures (Horvath 2000;
experience, and encompasses the norms by which he Gamble and Blackwell, 2001). Knowledge is embedded
evaluates new inputs from his surroundings (Davenport either formally, such as through a management initiative
and Prusak, 2000). The definition presented by to formalize a certain beneficial routine, or informally
Gamble and Blackwell (2001) is closely based on a as the organization uses and applies the other two
previous definition by Davenport & Prusak: knowledge types. The challenges in managing embedded
“Knowledge is a fluid mix of framed experience, values, knowledge vary considerably and will often differ from
contextual information, expert insight, and grounded embodied tacit knowledge.
intuition that provides an environment and framework Embedded knowledge is found in rules, processes,
for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and manuals, organizational culture, codes of conduct, ethics,
information. It originates and is applied in the mind of products, etc. It is important to note, that while embedded
the knower ’s. In organizations it often becomes knowledge can exist in explicit sources (i.e. a rule can
embedded not only in documents or repositories, but be written in a manual), the knowledge itself is not
also in organizational routines, practices and norms.” explicit, i.e. it is not immediately apparent why doing
Types of Knowledge something this way is beneficial to the organization.
Understanding the different forms that knowledge Knowledge Management
can exist in, and thereby being able to distinguish between Knowledge Management (KM) is a big
various types of knowledge, is an essential step for motivation for organization (Carrillo, 2000) and is the
knowledge management (KM). There are two types of one of the modern areas of research in the last decade
knowledge: Tacit Knowledge (informal knowledge) and (Kalpic and Bernus, 2006). It has extensive
explicit (formal knowledge) knowledge. Tacit knowledge significance because its explain administrators/
represents internalized knowledge that an individual may managers’ concerns and builds attentiveness of
not be consciously aware of, such as how he or she knowledge as a cost- effective plus point (Spender,
accomplishes particular tasks whereas explicit 2002). Knowledge management process consists of
knowledge represents knowledge that the individual four processes including capturing, arranging, refining
holds consciously in mental focus, in a form that can
and shifting (Awad and Ghaziri, 2004). According
easily be communicated to others. (Alavi and Leidner
to Alavi and Leidner (2001), KM process contains
2001). According to Boateng (2006), Knowledge is
phases: make/create, store/retrieve, shift and use. KM
conceptualizes through ideas, assumptions,
said to be explicit (formal) when it is based on scientific
perceptions and models (Earl, 2001; Kakabadse et
evidence, whose validity and reliability can be tested
al., 2003).
over a reasonable period of time. Tacit (informal)
The term ‘Knowledge management’ consists of
knowledge is experiential in nature and is acquired after
two term, knowledge and management. According to
an exemplary practice has been put to use over a period
Webster ’s Dictionary, knowledge is “the fact or
of time. Explicit knowledge encloses the words/
condition of knowing something with familiarity gained
terminologies, diagrams like tables and graphs, or
through experience or association”. Management
photographs/snaps (Collins, 2001) is scientific or
means, the function that coordinates the efforts of people
intellectual facts or information that is expressed in
to accomplish goals and objectives using available
proper language, like instruction manuals, arithmetical/
resources efficiently and effectively. In other terms,
statistical expressions/terminologies, copyright and
Management is the process of reaching organizational
patents (Smith, 2001). Tacit knowledge is an individual
goals by working with and through people and other
type of knowledge, which acquire from through
organizational resources.
120 Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 15 (1), January, 2015

Thus, Knowledge management (KM) is the process management strategy must be dependent on
of capturing, developing, sharing, and effectively using corporate strategy. The objective is to manage,
organisational knowledge (Davenport, 1994). Based share, and create relevant knowledge assets that
on available literature consultation, different author’s will help meet tactical and strategic requirements.
views on defining KM is presented in following text.  Organizational Culture: The organizational
According to Metaxiotis et al., (2005) KM can culture influences the way people interact, the
be understood as the exploitation and development of context within which knowledge is created, the
the knowledge assets within an organization, aimed at resistance they will have towards certain changes,
furthering the goals and objectives of the organization. and ultimately the way they share (or the way they
Kinney (1998) also defined KM as ‘the process, by do not share) knowledge.
which an organization creates, captures, acquires and  Organizational Processes: The right processes,
uses knowledge to support and improve its environments, and systems that enable KM to be
performance’. Knowledge management is essentially implemented in the organization.
about getting the right knowledge to the right person at  Management and Leadership: KM requires
the right time. Previously, KM was considered as the competent and experienced leadership at all levels.
process of applying a systematic approach for capturing, There are a wide variety of KM-related roles that
restructuring, managing and disseminating knowledge an organization may or may not need to implement,
within an organization to reduce cost, work faster. So, including a CKO, knowledge managers, knowledge
Knowledge management issues include developing, brokers and so on.
implementing and maintaining the appropriate technical  Technology: The systems, tools, and technologies
and organisational infrastructure to enable knowledge that fit the organization’s requirements - properly
sharing whereas Knowledge Management System designed and implemented.
(KMS) refers to a (generally IT based) system for  Politics: The long-term support to implement and
managing knowledge in organizations for supporting sustain initiatives that involve virtually all
creation, capture, storage and dissemination of organizational functions, which may be costly to
information. Implementing knowledge management thus implement (both from the perspective of time and
has several dimensions including: money), and which often do not have a directly
 Knowledge Management Strategy: Knowledge visible return on investment.

Difference between Information Management and KM

Information Management Knowledge Management
Focus on data and information Focus on knowledge, understanding, and wisdom
Deal with unstructured and structured facts and figures. Deal with both codified and uncodified knowledge which
is the most valuable type of knowledge - is found in the
minds of practitioners and is unarticulated, context-based,
and experience-based.
Benefit greatly from technology, since the information  Technology is useful, but KM’s focus is on people and
being conveyed is already codified and in an easily processes. The most valuable knowledge cannot effectively
transferrable form. be (directly) transferred with technology; it must be passed
on directly from person to person.
Focus on organizing, analyzing, and retrieving - again  Focus on locating, understanding, enabling, and
due to the codified nature of the information. encouraging - by creating environments, cultures, processes,
etc. where knowledge is shared and created.
Is largely about know-what, i.e. it offers a fact that you can  Is largely about know-how, know-why, and know-who.
then use to help create useful knowledge.
Is easy to copy - due to its codified and easily transferrable Is hard to copy - at least regarding the tacit elements. The
nature. connection to experience and context makes tacit knowledge
extremely difficult to copy.
Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 15 (1), January, 2015 121

Usefulness of Knowledge Management : KM is useful debates have increased regarding both the theory and
because it places a focus on knowledge as an actual practice of KM, to include the following perspectives:
asset, rather than as something intangible. In so doing, · Techno-centric with a focus on technology, ideally
it enables the firm to better protect and exploit what it those that enhance knowledge sharing and creation
knows, and to improve and focus its knowledge (Alavi et al., 1999; Rosner et al., 1998)
development efforts to match its needs. In other words: · Organisational with a focus on how an organisation
 It helps firms learn from past mistakes and can be designed to facilitate knowledge processes
successes. best (Addicot et al., 2006).
 It better exploits existing knowledge assets by re- · Ecological with a focus on the interaction of people,
deploying them in areas where the firm stands to identity, knowledge, and environmental factors as
gain something, e.g. using knowledge from one a complex adaptive system akin to a natural
department to improve or create a product in ecosystem (Bray; Carlson, 2013).
another department, modifying knowledge from a Regardless of the school of thought, core
past process to create a new solution, etc. components of KM include people, processes,
 It promotes a long term focus on developing the technology (or) culture, structure, technology, depending
right competencies and skills and removing obsolete on the specific perspective (Spender and Scherer,
knowledge. 2007). Ruggles and Holtshouse (1999) identified the
 It enhances the firm’s ability to innovate. following key attributes of knowledge management:
 It enhances the firm’s ability to protect its key • Generating new knowledge
knowledge and competencies from being lost or • Accessing valuable knowledge from outside sources
copied. • Using accessible knowledge in decision making
To sum up, it can be concluded that Knowledge • Embedding knowledge in processes, products and/
Management (KM) is a term applied to techniques used or services
for the systematic collection, transfer, security and • Representing knowledge in documents, databases,
management of information within organizations and software
[Gerhard, 2006].
• Facilitating knowledge growth through culture and
Implication of Knowledge Management in incentives
Organisation : In order to enhance organisational
• Transferring existing knowledge into other parts
knowledge, KM must therefore be involved across the
of the organization
entire knowledge spectrum. It must help knowledge
• Measuring the value of knowledge assets and/or
development at all levels and facilitate and promote its
impact of knowledge management
diffusion to individuals, groups, and/or across the entire
firm, in accordance with the organization’s requirements. Knowledge Management Technologies: Knowledge
KM must manage organizational knowledge storage and Management (KM) technology can be divided into the
retrieval capabilities, and create an environment following general categories (Gupta et al., 2004;
conducive to learning and knowledge sharing. Similarly Andriessen, 2004; Rao, 2005; Calvin, 2005);
it must be involved in tapping external sources of · Groupware
knowledge whenever these are necessary for the · Workflow
development of the organizational knowledge resources. · Content/Document Management
To a large degree, KM is therefore dependent on the · Enterprise Portals
understanding and management of organizational · e-Learning
learning, organizational memory, knowledge sharing, · Scheduling and planning
knowledge creation, and organizational culture.
· Tele-presence
Perspectives on Knowledge Management : A broad
Groupware refers to technologies that facilitate
range of thoughts on the KM discipline exist; approaches
collaboration and sharing of organizational information.
vary by author and school (Bray, David, 2013;
Workflow tools allow the representation of processes
Langton, 2006). As the discipline matures, academic
122 Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 15 (1), January, 2015

associated with the creation, use, and maintenance of enhance knowledge assets. It is a model that emphasizes
organizational knowledge. Content/Document the “why” and “when” aspects. The strengths of this
Management systems are systems designed to automate model rest on its strategic focus, which essentially puts
the process of creating web content and/or documents knowledge management action into context. The model
within an organization. Enterprise Portals are web sites provides a great overview of the strategy behind KM
that aggregate information across the entire organization but it does not include any deeper insight into what
or for groups within the organization such as project initiatives are suitable in a given instance.
teams. E-Learning technology enables organizations to The KM Matrix by Gamble and Blackwell (2001)
create customized training and education software and
include lesson plans, monitoring progress against learning
goals, online classes, etc. e-Learning technology enables
organizations to significantly reduce the cost of training
and educating their members. Scheduling and planning
tools automate the creation and maintenance of an
organization’s schedule: scheduling meetings, notifying
people of a meeting, etc. Tele-presence technology
enables individuals to have virtual meetings rather than
having to be in the same place. Videoconferencing is
the most obvious example.
Knowledge Management Models: There are three
basic models available in KM. These are KM process
framework, KM matrix and KM process model.
This KM model depicts the process that defines
the strategy for management to build, divest, and

The Knowledge Management Process Framework by Bukowitz and Williams (1999)

Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 15 (1), January, 2015 123

This KM model presents a general theoretical opposed to the “what”) is omitted. It is noteworthy that
framework, as well as specific guidelines for this model does include the creation of new knowledge
implementation. The KM process is split into four stages. as a specific KM initiative.
First management must locate the sources of knowledge. The model further shows which of the three
Then they must organize this knowledge so as to assess categories are more people oriented and which are more
the firm’s strengths and weaknesses and determine its technology focused.
relevance and reusability. This is followed by Integrated Knowledge Management Model: The
socialization, where various techniques are used to help integrated knowledge management model attempts to
share and disseminate it to whomever needs it in the link both process and strategy, while offering specific
organization. Finally, the knowledge is internalized initiatives at different stages. The model also outlines
through use. the relationship of information and information
However, one limitation of this model is its focus. management systems to knowledge management (KM).
First of all, the overall strategic role outline by Bukowitz The integrated knowledge management model draws
and Williams is not included. Secondly, KM’s role here upon elements presented by Bukowitz and Williams,
is limited to knowledge sharing, omitting the processes Gamble and Blackwell, Botha et al., and Nonaka and
of knowledge acquisition/creation and divestment. This Takeuchi. The process is initiated from the tactical and
is a perfectly legitimate approach to KM where the strategic considerations, illustrating the way KM strategy
focus is on the sharing and retrieval of existing goes hand in hand with corporate strategy. The non-
knowledge. bolded elements in the gray oval indicate the knowledge
This model attempts to offer a more realistic related processes that go on within the organization as it
overview of the KM process. The three broad categories operates, and which management affects/enhances
overlap and interact with one another. Like Gamble & through its initiatives. The integrated knowledge
Blackwell, the focus is on managerial initiatives. Here management model is sequential, offering a simplified view
too the strategic focus (the “when” and the “why” as for ease of understanding. The steps are as follows:

The Knowledge Management Process Model by Botha et al (2008)

124 Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 15 (1), January, 2015

Integrated Knowledge Management Model

Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 15 (1), January, 2015 125

 Detect and Discover: Search for existing they need to be removed. KM is responsible for
knowledge as well as hidden knowledge within maintaining relevant knowledge assets.
information and data. The differentiation between tactical and strategic
 Organize and Assess: Organization and initiatives should not be seen as categorical, and in reality
assessment of knowledge assets. Knowledge is projects and initiatives will often have mixed goals. The
categorized, evaluated, and made easier to access integrated knowledge management model itself should
(by providing maps etc.). be seen as continuously looping, with new or modified
 Knowledge Management Tactical initiatives: knowledge and information being fed into organizational
memory and information repositories each time.
 Act - Reuse: If the firm can use existing knowledge
to meet a tactical opportunity or threat, the role of All processes are thus supported by information
KM is to identify this knowledge and enable it to be systems. They play an important role in tracking progress
used. This means that if it is required by a different and feeding that information back into the system. This
person/group, then KM is responsible for making it way, each time the integrated knowledge management
available to all relevant parties. Knowledge reuse model is run, it is based on different information,
understanding, knowledge, and circumstances than the
thus combines the previous points on detection and
last time. Although this is called an “integrated”
organization with a new aspect: knowledge sharing.
knowledge management model, it is not intended to be
 Act - Create/acquire: If the right knowledge
all-encompassing.
resources do not exist, the firm may create or
Knowledge Management in Agriculture : Knowledge
acquire them, assuming the right processes and
sharing, exchanging and dissemination are elements of
systems are in place to support this. For example,
knowledge management. The central purpose of
the knowledge may be acquired from partners if
knowledge management is to transform information and
the right relationships are in place. Knowledge
intellectual assets into enduring value (Metcalfe, 2005).
creation depends on the right internal environments
The basic idea is to strengthen, improve and propel the
that allow for combination and conversion of
organization by using the wealth of information and
knowledge assets.
knowledge that the organization and its members
 Failure to act: This is not really a KM initiative in collectively possess (Milton, 2003). It has been pointed
itself, but it does have some implications. In the event out that a large part of knowledge is not explicit but
that a firm fails to act there is still a lesson to be tacit (Schreiber et al., 1999). This is true for knowledge
learned. Management must evaluate if this is in agriculture where a lot of good practices are
something that needs to be addressed in the future. transferred without being well documented in books,
This decision is fed back into the loop, affecting papers or extension documents. In effect, there are
future strategic choices. many information technologies that can be used for
 Knowledge Management Strategic Initiatives: knowledge management.
 Invest: Support or implement. It refer to the Management of knowledge in agriculture is much
organizational structures, culture, knowledge needed in present scenario as there are various players
retention, competencies, external network, and in agriculture and allied sectors, serving the diverse
systems that direct, affect, and/or enable the KM needs of their clienteles on their level. So, it becomes
initiatives in the long term. Strategic initiatives may, necessary that the knowledge of various players, involved
for example, involve creating a knowledge sharing in agricultural extension, should be processed and
culture, restructuring the firm, establishing a distribute among its stakeholders so that duplication of
beneficial partnership, or implementing a new IT the information/knowledge can be avoided and
system. If the right environment, system, etc. is knowledge of different field experts can be utilized better
already in place, management must make sure to for the future use.
continuously support it. Need of Knowledge Management in agriculture:
 Divest: When knowledge assets become obsolete  Demand driven agriculture
126 Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 15 (1), January, 2015

 Diverse and majorly small land holding farmers Besides, Directorate provides public relation and publicity
 Introduction of recent approaches like ICTs in support to the council and its constituents across the
agriculture development country.
 Expert availability in public and private sectors CONCLUSION
 Avoidance of duplication of knowledge
In the changing scenario, knowledge is the power
 Availability of right knowledge at right time at right
to reconstruct the society as a whole. The availability
place to right clientele of knowledge in the society for all around development
Role of Indian Council of Agricultural Research of the organisation is not an issue but proper utilisation
(ICAR) in Knowledge Management: The Directorate and management of the knowledge for the ultimate
of Knowledge Management in Agriculture is committed stakeholders is the prime mover of development. In this
to promote Information Communication Technology perspective, knowledge management is playing a pivotal
(ICT) driven technology and information dissemination role to make the organisation and society much more
system for quick, effectual and cost-effective delivery knowledge intensive and knowledge vibrant. Not only
of messages to all the stakeholders in agriculture. knowledge management considers the creation and
Keeping pace with the current knowledge diffusion conceptualisation of knowledge but it also considers
trends, Directorate is delivering and showcasing ICAR other perspectives of social and organisation
technologies, policies and other activities through print, development like internal knowledge management,
electronic and web mode. Directorate is the nodal centre knowledge dissemination, knowledge brokering and
for design, maintenance and updating of ICAR website building knowledge capacity.
along with facilitation of network connectivity across Paper received on : November 03, 2014
ICAR institutes and Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs). Accepted on : December 21, 2014

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