GENDER DISPARITIES: EXPLORING THE ROLE OF GENDER INEQUALITY

DURING PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC

An Undergraduate Thesis
Submitted to
The College of Teacher Education
LAGUNA STATE POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY
San Pablo City Campus

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
BACHELOR OF SECONDARY EDUCATION
Major in Social Studies

AUGUSTO JUSTIN P. ENDRES

SHERYN M. MENDOZA
ARABELA L. REYNOSO

January 2024
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE…………………………………………………….……………………………i

TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………….……………….ii

CHAPTER 1

Introduction.…………………………………………………….………………………………3
Background of the Study.………………………………….……………………………………3
Theoretical Framework…………………………………………………….…………………...5
Statement of the Problem.…………………………………………………….………………...7
Significance of the Study…………………………………………………….…………………7
Scope and Limitation of the Study…………………………………………………….………..8
Definition of Terms.………………………………………….…………………………………9

CHAPTER 2

Review of Related Literature

Economy…………………………………………………….………………………………....11
Education…………………………………………………….………………………………...13
Political Representation…………………………………………………….………………….14
Social Norms …………………………………………………….…………………………....16

CHAPTER 3

Research Methodology
Research Design..…………………………………………………….……………….……….18
Sampling Techniques..………………………………………….…….…………………...…..18
Research Instrument………………………………………..………….….……..…………….19
Data Collection and Analysis…………………………………………………..….……….….19

APPENDICES…………………………………………………….………………..…………21

LITERATURE CITED…………………………………………………….………..………..23
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction

The problem and its background are covered in this chapter. This study's foundation

was laid by literature and research. It also touches on the gaps that the researchers found.

Background of the Study

The concept: gender inequality has been widely known in human history but not until the

beginning of the 20th century has the transformation of gender relations become "one of the most

rapid, profound social changes" (Wright & Rogers 2009 as cited in Wani, Z., 2018). Gender

inequality between men and women is evident in various sectors of society, such as education,

economy, politics. (Choy F. B., 2009)

A research study conducted by Rory (2025): By the time the Americans occupied the

Philippines in 1898, The Philippines had some of the best-educated residents in Asia. in his

research, she pointed out that even though there was no official gender requirement to enter

secondary education programs, they're triggering the gender imbalance and sexual stereotyping

because girls were often enrolled in pedagogy and household arts, while boys specialized in

agriculture, industrial arts, and business. Since there were fewer women than men entering

college, it was easy to see why only a handful of women became professionals in different fields,

according to Sobritchea,1989: 84 as cited in Nguyen, 2021). While in economic participation of

women during the american colonization is observable because according to the study of Maranan

A. F., Parreño N. E., Fabros A. (2007) women continue to be active campaigners and poll

watchers, even as they remain marginalized in terms of actual decision-making positions. In many

cases, women serve as the backbone of organizations as members or volunteers, especially at the

neighborhood level. There are numerous examples of this, including barangay health workers,
churchwomen, community mobilizers, members of peoples and civic organizations, in addition to

their traditional roles as housekeepers and productive laborers outside the home.

During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines in World War II, the economy suffered

significantly, although the country maintained a beneficial trade relationship with the United

States. Japanese policies aimed to control the local economy, and Lt. Gen. Masaharu Honma

criticized Filipino women for prioritizing personal interests over traditional domestic roles (Lem,

2023; Riddle, 2021). Despite access to education under institutions established during Spanish

colonization, Filipino women faced severe victimization, including abduction and forced sexual

slavery in "comfort houses," where they endured repeated abuse by Japanese soldiers, with

victims as young as nine years old (Yap, 2016).

As the country recovered its independence from the United States and the end of the

Second World War, the country faced the enormous problems of rebuilding the nation, its society,

politics, and, more especially, the economy. (Albela, E.J 2018). In Post-World War II the

restoration demanded labor-intensive employment, preferring male laborers for responsibilities in

building development and agriculture. Improved national production should occur across the

whole national economy, including manufacturing, agriculture, and service sectors. The

government had to raise the gross national product so that men engaged in agriculture more than

women, thereby explaining why the males were the foundation of the Philippine economy.

( Epetia, M.A 2019).

Religious leaders were proactive from the very beginning of martial law, when most

Filipinos, fearful of arrest, torture, and murder, kept quiet; when even student radicals, who were
so ardent in their demonstrations against President Marcos in the early 1970s, either went

underground or kept silent( Roces, 2004).The Marcos regime would have sparked political

participation among Filipino women, including students, young professionals, and housewives,

but the most outspoken among them were religious leaders, such as nuns, who frequently risked

their lives to express their displeasure with the dictatorial regime. Women were active in

nationalist organizations and even went so far as to join the Communist Party, but it was these

militant nuns who successfully mediated the conflict by integrating feminism, modernism,

traditional kinship relationships, and engendering power. ( Mina. R,. 1998, as cited in Sanchez,

R.,2018)

Women often have unique motivations and needs when starting a business compared to

men. Research suggests that gender dynamics in social events are more effective than

straightforward meetings, as women tend to have higher educational qualifications than men and

collaborate in ways that foster innovation and productive relationships. However, a large-scale

meta-analysis on the impact of diversity on group performance revealed that a balanced gender

focus did not significantly affect objective outcomes and negatively influenced performance

evaluated subjectively. (Roxas et al., 2017)

Theoretical Framework

The concept of patriarchy is defined by different thinkers in different ways. Mitchell, a

feminist psychologist, uses the word patriarchy “to refer to kinship systems in which men

exchange women” (Mitchell 1971:24). Walby defines “patriarchy as a system of social structures

and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women” (Walby 1990:20). Patriarchy,
in its wider definition, means the manifestation and institutionalization of male dominance over

women and children in the family and the extension of male dominance over women in society in

general. It implies that “men hold power in all the important institutions of society” and that

“women are deprived of access to such power”. However, it does not imply that “women are

either totally powerless or totally deprived of rights, influence, and resources” (Lerner

1989:239).

Marxist feminist theory believes that the current capitalist mode of production is a major

source of women's second-class status in society. In the male dominated corporate sector, women

face unequal treatment and discrimination (Ramsay & Parker 1992; Hakim 1996; Cooper &

Bosco 1999; Solovic 2001; Huffman & Cohen 2004; Domenico & Jones 2006; Giscombe 2007;

Hussain 2008). This unequal treatment and discrimination can be treated as a violation of human

rights. According to the Marxist Feminists, one of the main reasons for this discrimination is the

capitalist mode of production (Vogel 1983; Donavan 2000; Hurst 2010). Corporations around the

world are the representatives of today’s capitalistic society. Firstly, this capitalist mode of

production almost forced women to remain inside their homes (the private sphere) to take care of

the families so that men can work (Vogel 1983; Donavan 2000). Secondly, when women came

into the public sphere, the male dominated workplaces treated them with discrimination and

inequality (Ramsay & Parker 1992; Hakim 1996; Cooper & Bosco 1999; Solovic 2001; Huffman

& Cohen 2004; Domenico & Jones 2006; Giscombe 2007; Hussain 2008). Thus, women’s human

rights are violated.

The patriarchal system, in which men possess the majority of authority, is associated with

the issue of whether men are more powerful than women. Also the theory of Marxist Feminism is
related to the problems addressed. The capitalist system, which forces women into unpaid

household jobs and increases their reliance on males for financial support, exploits them.

Statement of the Problem

The research aims to explain or identify the historical roots of gender disparity, focusing

on how previous policies, societal institutions, and cultural beliefs have impacted current

discrepancies.

1. How the role of gender disparities evolved through time?

2. What are the problems or challenges encountered by men and women in historical

aspects?

3. What are the aspirations of key informants on gender disparities from current to future

role?

Significance of the Study

This research will help in identifying the historical origins of gender roles and stereotypes,

allowed to figure out how they have evolved and persisted. In different aspects of society the role

of gender inequality in historical periods is important. By understanding the Philippine historical

context of gender disparities, it will be able to better address its current traits and work toward a

fairer future. It enriches our understanding about the past and acknowledges the contributions of

men and women.

Teachers. Teachers can use the history of gender inequality to better understand the roots of

contemporary issues, helping students recognize how past social, cultural, and economic systems

shaped current gender norms and disparities.

Students. By studying how gender inequality has changed over time, students gain insights into

the ways societies can evolve. They learn about the struggles, successes, and challenges involved

in advancing gender equality, which can inspire action for future improvements.

Future researchers. This study serves as a valuable source of data while conducting their studies.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

This study examines the role of gender disparities and the problems encountered by

genders during the Philippine Republic. Data collection will be conducted by collecting a

statistical method by combining the result of multiple studies and gathering systematic evaluation

and assessment in Explore the Role of Gender Inequality during the Philippine Republic.

This study focuses completely on the challenges faced by the gender in different historical

periods in the Philippines. The researchers just want to elaborate the contribution of gender

inequality as time goes by, that leads to gender equality. On the other hand this idea should

consider the unequal treatment of women in terms of different societal aspects.

Definition of Terms

Gender. Gender refers to the characteristics of women, men, girls and boys that are socially

constructed.This includes norms, behaviors and roles associated with being a woman, man, girl or

boy, as well as relationships with each other.

Gender Inequality. Gender inequality is the disparities between women and men in a society in

terms of their access and opportunities in the social, economic, and political spheres and their

share in decision-making power at all social levels.

History. Discipline that studies the chronological record of events, usually attempting, on the

basis of a critical examination of source materials, to explain events. History, as a discipline, is

traditionally centered on peoples, cultures, countries, and regions, but everything has a history

that can be described and studied.

Patriarchy. Ideology that upholds men's systemic dominance over women, justifying male

superiority and rejecting equal structures in both public and private spheres of life.

Feminist. Someone who supports equal rights for women. It is about all genders having equal

rights and opportunities. It's about respecting diverse women's experiences, identities, knowledge

and strengths, and striving to empower all women to realize their full rights.

Slavery. It is a situation in which one human being is owned by another. A slave was legally

regarded as property or chattel, and he or she was denied the majority of the rights that free
people enjoyed. There is no agreement on what a slave was or how the institution of slavery

should be described.

Philippine Republic. It mainly refers to the Philippines' sovereign state, which includes its

government, territory, and people. It stresses the country's status as a republic, which means that it

is controlled by representatives and leaders elected by its population in accordance with a

constitutional framework.

Religious Leader. An individual who works for or a legal representative of religious

organizations

Abduction. Abduction refers to unlawful action by a person holding freedom by their will. It's

commonly associated with kidnapping, human trafficking, or other illegal purposes

Forced Sexuality. Forced sexuality encompasses any circumstance in which a person is

compelled, manipulated, or forced to engage in sexual behaviors against their will or without their

agreement.

Stereotyping. Making quick assumptions about people based on their social groups, without

taking them as individuals.

Housekeeper. Someone who is in charge of cleaning, arranging, and keeping a household or

establishment so that it remains orderly and functional.

 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter reviews the conceptual and research study related literature to the topic of the

research. The related reviews about Gender Disparities, the role of Gender Inequality during the

Philippine Republic. These literature and studies were carefully selected; it is only related to the

main topic of the research.

ECONOMY

Women’s participation in the communities and national scene was not only through public

leadership. Beginning with the initial efforts during colonial times and up to the post-

independence period in the mid- to late 1940s, women played a key role in many aspects in the

public realm. To date, in the electoral arena, women continue to be active campaigners and poll

watchers, even as they remain marginalized in terms of actual decision-making positions. In many

cases, women form the backbone of formations as members or volunteers, particularly at the

community level. Salvador C. G., (2017)

During the Japanese occupation, Filipino women took on significant economic roles as

men joined the military or guerrilla forces. They managed farms, worked in plantations operated

by Japanese companies, and produced essential goods like cotton for the Co-Prosperity Sphere.

Neighborhood associations encouraged cooperative production, often relying on women to lead

these efforts. However, the Japanese occupation disrupted the Philippine economy, which had

previously thrived through robust trade with the United States. Japan implemented strict policies
to control the local economy, with Lt. Gen Masaharu Honma criticizing Filipino women for

prioritizing personal interests over traditional roles as wives and mothers. (Cura 2019; Lem 2023;

Riddle 2021)

According to the World Bank (2021) childcare, social conventions, and gender stereotypes

concerning family tasks all contribute to women's underemployment. Biases in gender social

norms against increased forms of women's economic participation are common in the Philippines.

The information from the International Social Survey Programme's World Value and

Gender Role examines indicate that about 70 percent of male and female respondents favor men

over women for obtaining employment; throughout 80 percent agree that a man's job is meant to

make money while the woman's role is providing care for the home; and about half contend that a

preschool child suffers with a mother who works.World Bank (2021)

Prejudices in this perception became more powerful and the amount of the response was

higher among women. Gender views and assumptions about women's labor support one other,

serving as a barrier to women's involvement in economic life. (International Bank for

Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.2021. Overcoming Barriers to Women’s

Economic Empowerment in the Philippines.

They are related to a 14-22 percent decline in women's labor-force participation. The

number of young children also seems to reduce women's career opportunities.(International Bank

for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.2021. Overcoming Barriers to Women’s

Economic Empowerment in the Philippines.

Men and women in the job market have different employment patterns. According to the

2020 Labor Force Survey, 75 percent of men aged 15 and older were in the labor force, compared

to 48 percent of women, with job opportunities for both groups reaching almost 95 percent.
(International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.2021. Overcoming

Barriers to Women’s Economic Empowerment in the Philippines.

Women dominate in low-skill professions (due to economic constraints) and high-skill

occupations (due to a high degree of education). (International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development / The World Bank.2021. Overcoming Barriers to Women’s Economic

Empowerment in the Philippines.

EDUCATION

For Filipino women, the public education system that American colonialism brought to the

nation had both advantages and disadvantages. On the positive side, it significantly raised their

literacy rate and allowed girls from many low-income families to deviate from gender-related

norms. Additionally, American colonial education gave Filipino women—especially those from

middle-class backgrounds—the skills and abilities they needed.The self-assurance to take on

significant responsibilities in public life and battle for legal and political adulthood. But these

advancements must be viewed in light of the overarching goals and thrust.of colonization by the

United States. (Sobritchea. C. I., 2012)

By the time the Americans occupied the Philippines in 1898, Philipinass were one of the

best educated residents in Asia, according to Rory Sta. Catalina Dacumus (Rory, 2015 as cited in

Nguyen, 2021). Even though there was no formal gender requirement to enroll in secondary

education programs, the enrollment trends showed a definite sex difference. As a result, boys

were more likely to concentrate in business, industrial arts, and agriculture, while girls were more

likely to study pedagogy and home arts. In the years that followed, this pattern persisted, leading

to sexual stereotyping of many professions and a gender disparity in these fields of labor
(Sobritchea, 1989, 78; Torres, 1989: 105-118 as cited in Nguyen, 2021). During the first two

decades of the American era in the Philippines, a very small percentage of people graduated from

college. It was simple to understand why so few women went on to become professionals in

various disciplines, as there were fewer women than men enrolling in college ( according to

Sobritchea, 1989: 84 as cited in Nguyen, 2021).

During the period of American rule, public education that followed the American model

made it possible for women in the Philippines to participate widely in education. Women were

allowed to pursue a wide range of jobs and pursue higher education. Because of this, women in

the Philippines were able to engage in more extensive socio-economic activities and were no

longer confined to their small homes. Alongside this evolution, however, the custom of sex-based

labor division had not only been eliminated but was strengthened by family and societal career

orientation and education. Nguyen (2021)

Before the Japanese occupation, Filipino women enjoyed access to education, thanks to

institutions established during Spanish colonization. These educational opportunities provided

Filipino women with privileges not often seen in other colonized nations, laying the groundwork

for their participation in broader societal roles during the war. (Riddle 2021)

The American influence is visible in the current educational system; females are now

given equal, if not better, educational opportunities than males. The evident education of

disparities for schooling among the sexes is reflected in literacy rates, school enrollment,

academic performance, and educational attainment. On the contrary, Filipino women significantly

exceed males in all of these domains.

POLITICAL REPRESENTATION

Women’s participation in the communities and national scene was not only through public

leadership. Beginning with the initial efforts during colonial times and up to the post-

independence period in the mid- to late 1940s, women played a key role in many aspects in the

public realm. To date, in the electoral arena, women continue to be active campaigners and poll

watchers, even as they remain marginalized in terms of actual decision-making positions. In many

cases, women form the backbone of formations as members or volunteers, particularly at the

community level. In addition to their traditional roles as caregivers, housekeepers, and domestic

managers, barangay health workers, churchwomen, community mobilizers, and members of civic

and people's organizations are just a few examples of this point. They also engage in productive

work outside of the home. (Fabros A., Parreño N. E., and Marianan A. F. (2007)

Many Filipino women had obtained an education by the 1940s, when the United States

took over. These ladies encouraged and organized other women to campaign for the right to vote

in an effort to further shed their status as second-class citizens. Up until that point, only men who

could read and write were eligible to vote and run for office. Women were able to enter politics

because of the Suffragist Movement. Women were finally given the ability to vote in 1937.

According to the 1935 constitution, women would only be granted the right to vote if 300,000 of

them cast ballots in a nationwide plebescite. The plebescite campaign was then led by a General

Council of Women, which was founded in Manila and was modeled after the National Federation

of Women's Clubs in the Philippines. Its goal was to mobilize as many women as possible and

start a variety of campaigns using the media and personal relationships. In the 1937 plebescite,

447,725 women really cast yes votes. (F. E. Stiftung, 2001)

 The National Federation of Women's Clubs of the Philippines, founded in 1921 by

the Women's Club of Manila, became a platform for inspiring women to participate in national

development through charity and social work. During the war, these organizations continued to

play a vital role, contributing to the country’s struggle for independence and the welfare of

communities. Their efforts showcased the political engagement of Filipino women in nation-

building, even during wartime. (Cura 2019)

According to Roces (2004) women are typically defined by their biological relationships

with men: sisters, wives, mothers, and daughters, for instance. Politics in the Philippines is

gendered rather than male-dominated: males controlled official authority, and women held

unofficial influence through their relationships with male politicians—as wives, mothers, sisters,

daughters, and even mistresses. Although Filipino views with regard to power as maintained by

the kinship group, women—though marginalized in official political positions—can exert power

as members of the closeness community.

The academic literature on women's organizations in the Philippines focuses on the

dispute between feminism and nationalism, arguments on the woman question, political activism,

feminist ideas, and historical descriptions from multiple women's groups. (Roces.2004)

SOCIAL NORMS

The Japanese occupation was marked by severe atrocities against Filipino women,

including rape, torture, and murder. Many women were abducted or deceived into becoming

"comfort women," subjected to repeated sexual violence, with some as young as nine years old.

Beyond these horrors, the war also blurred social distinctions, forcing both rich and poor women

to take on roles such as managing households, caring for families, and contributing to the war
effort. Wartime propaganda celebrated women’s domestic roles, emphasizing their responsibility

in food production, preservation, and culinary skills to support their families, boost morale, and

aid national prosperity. Despite their victimization, women demonstrated resilience and strength

in these challenging times. (Yap 2016; Cura 2019)

The scholarly literature on women’s organisations in the Philippines concentrates on the

tension between feminism and nationalism, the discourse on the woman question, political

activism, feminist perspectives, and descriptive accounts of the various women’s groups.

(Roces.2004)

CHAPTER III
 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research Design

The goal of the study was to investigate the evolution of gender inequality during the

Philippine Republic. The researchers conducted this Meta analysis study using a qualitative

research paradigm. According to Merriam Webster, it defines meta analysis as a quantitative

statistical analysis of numerous distinct but similar experiments or research to examine the pooled

results for statistical significance. Meta-analysis is a systematic strategy that employs statistical

tools to combine results from various studies to produce a quantitative estimate of the overall

influence of a specific intervention or variable on a defined outcome. (Endocrinology and

Metabolism Clinics of North America, 2006).

Meta-analysis has several advantages to a standard literature review (see e.g. Stanley

2001). It allows a researcher to standardize the researched effects according to their studies, the

technique of analysis used, the control variables used, and the sample chosen, among other

factors. It not only helps explain the wide range in study outcomes across various studies, but it

also allows for the evaluation of the benefits of different research methodologies, designs, data,

and country-specific settings. (Matysiak, A., & Vignoli D., 2007)

Sampling Techniques

In this study, the researcher employed a purposive sampling strategy to collect data on the

role of gender disparity in various historical elements. The following research or materials are

used to acquire information and look deeper into the history of gender disparity across time. The

researcher selects several reviews of related literature that can easily be accessed to determine the
gender problems that have existed throughout history. The selected sample can be used in

sampling to select specific data sets, studies or cases in any particular problems or issues.

Research Instrument

The researchers will do a semi-instructure interview with the history professors in

different universities. In this type of interview, the researchers may prepare a list of questions

but won't necessarily ask them all, or touch on them in any particular order. Instead, researchers

will use these questions to guide the conversation. During a semi-structured interview, the history

teachers will not strictly follow a formalized list of questions. Instead, they will ask more open-

ended questions. (Doyle, A., 2024) to know their own perspectives and insights to the said study,

and the Internet, journals, and articles are used as secondary sources.

Data collection and analysis

Meta Analysis. A technique for assessing qualitative data called meta synthesis is combining

qualitative data from several selected studies to develop a single conclusion. In qualitative

research meta analysis is commonly used in synthesizing findings from multiple qualitative

studies.

Literature Review. In literature review it tends to analyze and synthesize existing publications

that are related to exploring the roles of gender inequality over the past decades. It provides a

comprehensive view of theories, concepts, and methodologies that have been studied and serves

as a guide towards gathering information.

Historical Records. In the form of secondary data collection, using historical records in

collecting data it refers to the use of documents, archives and other recorded files from the past.

All the data is for the research purposes, so that the researcher gathered reliable and valid

information.

Databases. In using databases, the researcher gathered data from existing studies, reviews, or

research papers. This helps the researcher to identify existing knowledge in terms of their study.

Interviewing. In addition to the idea and other information, the researcher interviewed the

selected professional history teachers in Laguna State Polytechnic University - SPCC.

Structured Interview Questionnaires

I. Evolution of Gender Disparities in the Philippines

Historical Context

1. Can you describe the roles of men and women in the Philippines during the first

republic, 2nd… etc. periods?(Probe for specific examples and changes over time).

2. How have societal expectations and norms regarding gender changed throughout

Philippine history?

3. What were some significant events or policies that influenced the evolution of

gender roles?

Legal and Policy Frameworks

4. How have laws and policies related to gender equality impacted the lives of men

and women in the Philippines?(Discuss specific laws and their effects).

5. What are the strengths and weaknesses of current legal frameworks addressing

gender inequality?

II. Challenges Faced by Men and Women

Historical Challenges:

1. What were some of the major challenges faced by men and women in the past

concerning education, employment, and political participation?

2. How did these challenges differ based on social class, ethnicity, or geographic

location?

Contemporary Challenges:

3. What are the most pressing challenges faced by men and women in the Philippines

today? (Explore issues like gender-based violence, economic inequality,

discrimination).
 4. How do these challenges intersect with other forms of inequality (e.g., class, race,

religion)?

5. What are the unique challenges faced by men versus women?

III. Aspirations for the Future

Personal Aspirations:

1. What are your personal aspirations regarding gender equality in the Philippines?

2. What changes would you like to see in the roles and opportunities available to men

and women?

Societal Aspirations:

3. What is your vision for gender equality in the Philippines in the next 10-20 years?

4. What policies or initiatives do you think are necessary to achieve this vision?

5. What role do you see for men and women in shaping a more gender-equal society?
 Literature Cited

Albela, E.J. (2018). The Economic Programs of Philippine Third Republic (1946-1972).

https://talakasaysayan.org/index.php/talakasaysayan/article/view/6/2

Albert, J.R. (2017). Do men and women in the Philippines have equal economic opportunities .

https://pids.gov.ph/publication/policy-notes/do-men-and-women-in-the-philippines-have-equal-

economic-opportunities

Ali Ulvi Özbey * - Ayşe Bardakçı**(1986). ‘Women’ in Public and Private Spheres in the

Context of Modern Feminist Theories From Ancient Civilizations to the Present

https://www.aroundrobin.com/importance-of-gender-equality/#:~:text=This%20observation

%20resulted%20from%20an,by%20the%20second%20century%20BCE

Anonuevo, C. A. (2000). An Overview of the Gender Situation in the Philippines. Friedrich-Ebert-

Stiftung Philippine Office. https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/philippinen/50069.pdf

bytesco. (2012, March 8). Early Feminism in the Philippines - The Asia Foundation. The Asia

Foundation. https://asiafoundation.org/early-feminism-in-the-philippines/

Capati, M. et al. ( 2017) Comparative Analysis of WW II Japanese Comfort Women and Its

Derivative Contempor e Contemporary Filipina T y Filipina Transnational Pr ansnational

Prostituted ostituted Women System . https://animorepository.dlsu.edu.ph/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?

article=1111&context=apssr
Cura, F. (2019, March 10). Women and War. Google Arts & Culture.

https://artsandculture.google.com/story/women-and-war-filipinas-heritage-library/

KAWxk5CtcXJIJw?hl=e

Dilli, S., Carmichael, S. G., & Rijpma, A. (2018). Introducing the Historical Gender Equality

Index. Feminist Economics, 25(1), 31–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/13545701.2018.1442582

Epetetia, M.C. (2019). Explaining the Gender Gap in Labor Force Participation in the Philippines

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/

357241121_Explaining_the_Gender_Gap_in_Labor_Force_Participation_in_the_Philippines

Gender Inequality - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics.

(n.d.).https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/social-sciences/gender-inequality

Giuliano, P., Thank, I., Averett, S., & Hoffman, S. (2017). NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES

GENDER: AN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE.

https://www.nber.org/system/files/working_papers/w23635/w23635.pdf

Hamilton, R. (2020, October 20). The Origin, History and Importance of Gender

(In)Equality.https://www.aroundrobin.com/importance-of-gender-equality/

Hellie,R.(2000)Slavery.https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology#:~:text=slavery%2C

%20condition%20in%20which%20one,of%20slavery%20should%20be%20defined.
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. (2021). Overcoming

Barriers to Women Economic Empowerment in the Philippines .

https://documents.worldbank.org/en/publication/documents-reports/documentdetail/

099830103012227161/p173002056f08e0a909afd0d7c9f381c4d3

Jasmin, P.R. (2015). The Influence of the Colonized Past in the Present State of Women’s

Education in the Philippines

https://www.academia.edu/18644716/

The_Influence_of_the_Colonized_Past_in_the_Present_State_of_Women_s_Education_in_the_P

hilippines

Lem, J. (2023). The Philippine Economy During the Japanese Occupation The Philippine

Economy During the Japanese Occupation. https://digital.sandiego.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?

article=1000&context=asia-student

Li, J. (2022). A History of Feminism and Gender Equality in the Modern Philippines.

EDUCATUM Journal of Social Sciences, 8(1), 31–42.

https://doi.org/10.37134/ejoss.vol8.1.4.2022

Maca M. (2017) American colonial education policy and filipino labour migration to the US

https://scholar.google.com/citations?
view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=902U59QAAAAJ&citation_for_view=902U59QAAAAJ:u

5HHmVD_uO8C

Maranan A. F., Parreño N. E., (2007), Reflection and Insights on the Status and Directions of

Women's Political Participation: Re-imagining Women’s Movements and Struggles in

conversation with women https://www.academia.edu/download/34716296/45440324-Women-in-

Politics-with-Case-Studies-final-Report.pdf

Nguyen T. B., (2021) Women education in the colonial context : The case of the philippines

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Nguyen-Binh-35/publication/349644957_Women_Educatio

n_in_the_Colonial_Context_The_Case_of_the_Philippines/links/603a6a284585158939d3f31e/

Women-Education-in-the-Colonial-Context-The-Case-of-the-Philippines.pdf

Ogena, N.P. (1994). Female Status, Development, and Women’s Work in the Philippines

https://www.proquest.com/openview/40f00fe3393bc9595f6b73bf24e196ba/1?pq-

origsite=gscholar&cbl=18750&diss=y

Riddle, J. (2021). Bringing the Filipino Woman Back Home: Idealized femininity as idealized

Orientality under the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, 1942-44.; Graduate School of

Asia-Pacific Studies, Waseda University Journal of the Graduate School of Asia-Pacific Studies

No.41 (2021.3) pp.79-93. https://waseda.repo.nii.ac.jp/?

action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=64985&item_no=1&attribute_id=162&fi

le_no=1
Roces, M. (2004). The Militant Nun as Political Activist and Feminist in Martial Law

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/

286692868_The_Militant_Nun_as_Political_Activist_and_Feminist_in_Martial_Law_Philippines

Sanchez, R. (2018). Insights on Mina Roces’ Women, Power and Kinship Politics:Female Power

in Post-War Philippines (1998)”

https://www.academia.edu/37358410/

Insights_on_Mina_Roces_Women_Power_and_Kinship_Politics_Female_Power_in_Post_War_P

hilippines_1998_

Sultana, A. (1974). Patriarchy and Women’s Subordination: A Theoretical Analysis

https://sites.udel.edu/britlitwiki/social-and-family-life-in-the-late17th-early-18th-centuries/

#:~:text=Though%20women%20could%20work%2C%20they,serious%20cases%20of

%20domestic%20abuse.

Sobritchea, C. I., (2012). AMERICAN COLONIAL EDUCATION AND ITS IMPACT ON THE

STATUS OF FILIPINO WOMEN

https://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-28-1990/sobritchea.pdf

Siapco A. (2024). Gender Equality: An analysis of three organization in the Philippines

https://www.bing.com/ck/a?!

&&p=002afb95aeead36820f4ec97c52f26cc6049d660b908120193f94a684004d526JmltdHM9MT
czNTk0ODgwMA&ptn=3&ver=2&hsh=4&fclid=20d31a73-ff2a-64d4-1c25-

0f19fe3e657c&psq=arman+siapco&u=a1aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cudGhlc2V1cy5maS9iaXRzdHJlY

W0vaGFuZGxlLzEwMDI0Lzg3MzczNi9Bcm1hcl9TaWFwY28ucGRmP3NlcXVlbmNlPTI&ntb

=1