Exe 121 semester test

• Physical inactivity is a primary risk factor for coronary heart disease (CHD), similar
to smoking, hypertension, and high serum cholesterol.

• Epidemiological studies show that increases in physical activity and fitness reduce
the death rate from all causes, including cancer and CHD.

• Those who increase their physical activity and/or cardiorespiratory fitness have a
lower death rate from all causes of death as compared to those who remain sedentary

Definition of key terms

• Physical activity (PA) is defined as any form of repetitive muscular activity that
involves large muscle groups. Therefore, physical activity results in the expenditure of
energy proportional to muscular work and is related to physical fitness.

• Physical fitness is defined as a set of attributes that people have or develop that
relate to the ability to perform physical activity.

• Exercise represents a subset of physical activity that is planned, with a goal of

improving or maintaining fitness.

Prescription of exercise

• Allied health, fitness, and wellness professionals should understand the proper dose
of exercise needed to bring about a desired health effect (response).
Prescription of exercise (cont.)

• The dose of physical activity and exercise is usually characterized by the FITT
principle, which contains the following factors:

✓ Frequency (F)—how often an activity is performed. Frequency can be expressed in

days per week or the number of times per day.

✓ Intensity (I)—how hard the activity is. Intensity can be described in terms of % max,
% maximal heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and the lactate threshold.

✓ Time (T)—the duration of the activity. This is typically expressed as the number of
minutes someone is engaged in activity.

✓ Type (T)—the mode or kind of activity performed. Mode could simply refer to
whether the exercise is a resistance vs. cardiovascular endurance type, or within the
latter, swimming vs. running vs. rowing

• An exercise dose reflects the interaction of the intensity, frequency, and duration to
yield the volume of exercise one performs.

• The response to an exercise intervention can include both functional changes (e.g.,
an increase in VO2max) and health outcomes (e.g., lower blood pressure). The
benefits of exercise on functional changes and health outcomes can occur
independent of each other.

• FITT-VP.

Physical Activity and Health

• A Metabolic Equivalent of Task (MET) is a unit used to estimate the amount of
energy expenditure for various physical activities. One MET represents the energy
expenditure of sitting quietly, which is approximately 3.5 millilitres of oxygen per
kilogram of body weight per minute, or roughly 1 kcal/kg/hour.

• Physical Activity intensity thresholds

✓ Low-intensity physical activity (LPA) 1.6–2.9 METs.

✓ Moderate-intensity physical activity (MPA) 3–5.9 METs.

✓ Vigorous-intensity physical activity (VPA) ≥6 METs

Exercise prescription for cardiorespiratory fitness

• Cardiorespiratory fitness refers to the capacity of the circulatory and respiratory

systems to supply oxygen to skeletal muscle mitochondria for energy production
needed during physical activity.

• VO2max, or maximal oxygen consumption, is a measure of the maximum rate at

which your body can take in and use oxygen during intense exercise. It reflects your
aerobic fitness and endurance capacity. Essentially, it indicates how efficiently your
cardiovascular and respiratory systems deliver oxygen to your muscles and how well
your muscles use that oxygen.
• Heart rate reserve is the difference between a person’s maximum heart rate
(HRmax) and their resting heart rate (HRrest).

• VO2 reserve is the difference between a person’s maximal oxygen uptake

(VO2max) and their resting oxygen uptake (VO2rest).

• HRR focuses on heart rate and is used primarily for heart rate-based training zones,
VO2 reserve pertains to oxygen consumption and is used for designing aerobic
exercise programs based on oxygen uptake capabilities
Training to improve flexibility

• Flexibility refers to the ability to move a joint through its normal range of motion.
• Several methods of stretching exist and include dynamic, ballistic, proprioceptive
neuromuscular facilitation, and static stretching.

• A static stretch is performed when a person relaxes a muscle and then holds the
muscle in a stretched position.

• The static stretching process maintains the elongated muscle at a point of minimal
discomfort.

Guidelines for static stretching

Conclusion

• The current public health guidelines to improve health recommend performing

aerobic exercise, resistance exercise training and flexibility exercises, which provide
health benefits from childhood to old age

Periodization
Periodization is the logical and systematic process of sequencing and integrating
training interventions in order to achieve peak performance at appropriate time
points.

When to do what with who..........

Key Terms Periodization is a theoretical and practical construct…

that allows for the systematic, sequential, and integrative programming of…

training interventions…

into mutually dependent periods of time…

in order to induce specific physiological adaptations that underpin performance

outcomes…

Central Concepts Related to Periodization

The success of any program centers on its ability to induce specific physiological
adaptations and to translate those into performance.

1. Manage the adaptive response

2. Handle accumulated fatigue

3. Capitalize on after effects established 1+2+3 = 4 performance preparedness/peak

performance

4. Peak performance

Aims of an exercise/conditioning program

Stimulate physiological adaptations……………through implementing

Training stressors…………..in order to

Enhance adaptive responses………………..to

Enhance performance………………………………………..while

Reducing potential for performance plateaus or overtraining

Role of Periodization

1. Provides a schedule of training encompassing:

• general conditioning,
• sport specific activities,
• resistance training,
• competition.
2. Manage training loads to reduce risk of injury or overtraining
3. Ensure VARIATION
4. Differentiate training according to needs and requirements of the
individual/team.

Practical advantages of planning in a sporting environment

• Gives the athlete a clear outline as to what to expect and prepare for

• Helpful to align support staff with coaching team

• Helps keep the bigger picture in mind, non reactive.

• Helpful to look back in retrospect

General adaption syndrome

In 1956, Hans Selye, a pioneering researcher on the biological effects of exposure

to stressful stimuli, presented the basic concepts of the GAS in which a three-stage
response to stress (alarm, resistance, and exhaustion) was defined (54, 55). While
not originally conceptualized in the context of physical training, over time the GAS
has become one of the foundational concepts from which periodization theories
have been developed (21, 59). Any time the body experiences a novel, new, or
more intense stress than previously applied (e.g., lifting a heavier training load or a
greater volume-load; see chapter 17), the initial response, or alarm phase, is an
accumulation of fatigue, soreness, stiffness, or reduction in energetic stores that
results in a reduction in performance capacity (59). Depending on the magnitude of
the stress encountered by the athlete, this response may last several hours, days,
or weeks. After this initial response, the body moves into the resistance phase, in
which it adapts to the stimulus and returns to a normal functional capacity. If the
training stress is appropriately structured and not excessive, these adaptive
responses can result in specific biochemical, structural, and mechanical
adjustments that further elevate the athlete’s performance capacity, resulting in
what is termed supercompensation (58). If, however, the stress persists for an
extended period of time, the athlete can move into the exhaustion phase. If this
occurs, the athlete is demonstrating an inability to adapt to the imposed stressors
and will present some of the same symptoms noted in the alarm phase. Ultimately,
when athletes reach the exhaustion phase they are most likely experiencing
overreaching or overtraining responses (20). From a training perspective, excessive
loading, monotonous training, and overly varied training can all result in the
occurrence of the exhaustion phase. Additionally, the responses to training can be
affected by other non-training-related stress (e.g., occupational issues, insufficient
sleep, relationship, poor diet) that can contribute to the overall stress level
experienced by the athlete. Ultimately, the strength and conditioning professional
should strive to avoid the occurrence of this phase of the GAS through the proper
planning and management (periodization) of training stressors. Although the actual
dimensions (i.e., slope, magnitude, and timing) of the curve shown in figure 21.1
are highly individualized, the figure represents the basic application of the GAS to
training responses

Hans Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) describes a three-stage response

to stress: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion. Initially, the body reacts to new or
intense stress with fatigue and reduced performance (alarm phase). If managed
well, the body adapts and performance improves (resistance phase). Prolonged
stress, however, can lead to an inability to adapt, causing overtraining and similar
symptoms to the alarm phase (exhaustion phase). Proper training management
aims to avoid this exhaustion phase by balancing stress and recovery. Non-training
stressors like poor sleep and diet can also impact this process.

Stimulus Fatigue Recovery Adaption Theory

The stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory is an extension of the GAS and

suggests that training stimuli produce a general response (figure 21.2) that is
influenced by the overall magnitude of the training stressor (59). Specifically, the
greater the overall magnitude of the workload encountered, the more fatigue
accumulates and the longer the delay before complete recovery and adaption can
occur. As the athlete recovers from and adapts to the training stimuli, fatigue will
dissipate, and preparedness and performance increase. If no new training stimulus
is introduced, a state of involution or detraining (i.e., a reduced overall capacity, to
below the current baseline) is observed. In contrast, if a new training stimulus is
introduced, the process is repeated. This basic pattern is present whenever an
athlete is exposed to a training exercise, session, day, or cycle within a periodized
training plan. It should be noted that while recovery is an important part of the
training process, it is not always necessary to reach a state of complete recovery
before engaging in a new bout or session of training (49). The manipulation of
workloads and training intensities through use of light and heavy sessions or days
of training can be used to modulate fatigue and recovery responses (9, 19) while
allowing for fitness to be either increased or maintained. Conceptually, this theory
serves as the foundation for sequential periodization models in that these models
allow for the manipulation of various training factors to modulate the athlete’s
overall fatigue levels, rate of recovery, and adaptive response to the training
stimuli.

The stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory extends the General Adaptation

Syndrome (GAS) by suggesting that the body’s response to training stimuli
depends on the magnitude of the stressor. Greater workloads lead to more fatigue
and longer recovery times. As athletes recover and adapt, their performance
improves. Without new stimuli, detraining occurs. This theory underpins
periodization models, which manipulate training factors to balance fatigue,
recovery, and adaptation, enhancing overall performance. Complete recovery isn’t
always necessary before new training sessions, allowing for continuous fitness
improvement.

Fitness Fatigue paradigm

Generally, there is a summation of the two primary training aftereffects (i.e.,

fitness and fatigue) in response to training interventions that influence the
athlete’s level of preparedness (3, 14, 66). Zatsiorsky (65) presents the classic
explanation of these relationships as the fitness– fatigue paradigm (figure 21.3).
Ultimately, every training bout, session, or cycle creates both fatigue and fitness
aftereffects, which summate to create a state of preparedness (14, 65). When
training loads are the highest fitness becomes elevated; but because of the high
training loads, a concomitant increase in fatigue occurs. When fitness and fatigue
are summed in this case, the level of fatigue results in a reduction in preparedness.
On the other hand, when training workloads are low, little fatigue occurs and
minimal fitness is developed, resulting in a low level of preparedness. Thus the
sequencing of training loads becomes important in that it allows for training
workloads to be varied in a systematic manner. An important thing to remember is
that fatigue dissipates at a faster rate than fitness, thus allowing preparedness to
become elevated if appropriate training strategies are used to retain fitness while
reducing fatigue (25, 28). While the fitness–fatigue paradigm is classically
represented as one fatigue, fitness, and preparedness curve, it is likely that each
training factor stimulates its own individual fitness, fatigue, and preparedness
aftereffect response (14, 59). These aftereffects are often considered to be residual
training effects and serve as a fundamental concept underlying the use of
sequential periodization models (25, 28). Ultimately, the residual training effects of
one training period have the potential to affect the level of preparedness in
subsequent training periods, depending on the overall structure of the periodized
training plan (28).

The fitness-fatigue paradigm explains how training interventions create both

fitness and fatigue, which together determine an athlete’s preparedness. High
training loads increase fitness but also cause significant fatigue, reducing overall
preparedness. Conversely, low training loads result in minimal fatigue and fitness,
leading to low preparedness. Fatigue dissipates faster than fitness, so proper
training strategies can enhance preparedness by retaining fitness while reducing
fatigue. This concept is crucial for periodization models, which vary training loads
systematically to manage fatigue and optimize performance. Residual training
effects from one period can influence preparedness in subsequent periods.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

A three stage response to stress stimuli

1. Alarm

2. Resistance

3. Exhaustion

One of the foundational concepts from which periodization theories have been
developed

Exposure to a novel, new or more intense stimuli elicits a stress response. E.g
fatigue, soreness, stiffness

VARIATION

Volume

Intensity

Frequency

Density

Focus
Exercise selection

Stimulus-fatigue-recovery-adaptation theory

An extension of the GAS: suggesting that training stimuli produce a general

response, that is influenced by the overall magnitude of the stressor.

The greater the overall magnitude of a workload, the more fatigue accumulates
and the longer the delay before complete recovery so that adaptation can occur

Note: it is not always necessary to reach a complete state of recovery before

engaging in a new bout of training.

Manipulation of light or heavy sessions is used to modulate fatigue and recovery

responses while allowing fitness to increase or be maintained.

This theory forms the basis for sequential periodization models.

Fitness–fatigue paradigm

Every training bout creates both fitness and fatigue, which summate to create
preparedness.

High training loads result in both elevated fatigue and fitness levels.

Low training loads result in minimal fitness or fatigue.

Fatigue dissipates faster than fitness and therefore allows for elevated
preparedness with use of appropriate training strategies

Fitness + Fatigue = Preparedness

NB. Fatigue dissipates at a faster rate than fitness

Also applied to sequential periodization models

Multiyear plan: Least detail, Long term progression

Annual Training plan: Individualised, can contain one or more macro cycles.

Macro cycle: Divided into periods called mesocycles. Preparatory, competitive

and transition periods.
Mesocycles: Commonly broken into 2-6 week blocks, further broken down into
microcycles that link together.

Microcycles: Several days to two weeks, broken into multiple workouts.

Periodization Periods

Periodized training plans systematically shift training foci from general nonspecific
activities of high volume and low intensity toward activities of lower volume and
higher intensities over a period of many weeks or months to help reduce the
potential for overtraining while optimizing performance capacities

Matveyev’s model of periodization :

Appropriate for novice athletes

1. PREPARATORY Period

2. FIRST TRANSITION

3. COMPETITION Period

4. SECOND TRANSITION
Preparatory period - examples

Aerobic endurance Long distance, slow running/ swimming, cycling.

Anaerobic endurance Low intensity plyometrics

Hypertrophy/strength endurance Low to moderate intensity (50-75% of the 1-

repetition maximum [1RM]) and high volumes/repetition (3 to 6 sets of 8-20
repetitions)

Basic strength phase High intensity (80-95% of the 1RM) and moderate to high
volume (2 to 6 sets of 2 to 6 repetitions)

Hypertrophy/strength endurance

• Early on in Preparatory period (General Preparatory phase) FOUNDATION GOALS:

• Increase lean body mass

• Endurance Base (muscular and metabolic)

*Sport Dependent

**Variation and recovery considerations

Basic strength phase

• Later on in Preparatory period (Specific Preparatory phase) GOALS:

• Increase strength of prime movers

*Sport Dependent

**Variation and recovery considerations

2. First transition period

• A linkage between the preparatory and competitive periods.

• GOAL:

• Mixed training approach – Plyometrics and Resistance

• Resistance training in this period focuses on the elevation of strength and its
translation to power development.
• Last week of this period is marked by reduced volume, intensity or both to
achieve recovery.

Strength/Power Phase

• Training intensifies to near competition pace/intensity

• Resistance training: Low to very high loads (30-95% of 1RM, depending on the
exercise) and low volumes (2 to 5 sets for 2 to 5 repetitions).

• Mixed training approach

3. Competitive period

• Further increase strength and power via additional increases in intensity.

• Consider Fitness – fatigue Paradigm

• Sport specific skill and tactics become main focus, resistance training reduced.

• 1-2 weeks (peaking program) and Seasonal (maintenance program)

• For peaking, athletes use very high to low intensity (50% to ≥93% of the 1RM)
and very low volume (1 to 3 sets of 1 to 3 repetitions). Individual

• For maintenance, athletes use moderate to high intensity (85-93% of the 1RM)
with moderate volumes (about 2 to 5 sets of 3 to 6 repetitions).

4. Second transition period (active rest)

• Between the competitive season and the next macrocycle’s preparatory period.

• Active rest, or restoration

• 1-4 weeks

• Avoid aggressive training

• Time to rehabilitate injuries and refresh both physically and mentally

• Secondary use: Unloading weeks during long training phases (mesocycles) 3

weeks on, 1 unloading.
• Define physical activity, physical fitness and exercise.
• Differentiate between exercise with physical activity.
• Explain how exercise and physical activity relate to a lower risk of
coronary heart disease and improvement in cardiorespiratory fitness
(CRF)

Here are the answers:

Definitions:

1. Physical Activity: Any bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that

requires energy expenditure, such as daily activities, sports, and exercise.

2. Physical Fitness: A set of attributes that enable individuals to perform physical

activity, including cardiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance,
flexibility, and body composition.

3. Exercise: A planned, structured, and repetitive physical activity aimed at

improving or maintaining physical fitness, such as running, weightlifting, or yoga.

Differentiation:

- Physical activity is a broader term that encompasses all movements, including

daily activities like walking or gardening.
- Exercise is a specific type of physical activity that is intentional and aimed at
improving fitness.

Relationship to Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) and Cardiorespiratory Fitness (CRF):

Regular exercise and physical activity can lower the risk of CHD by:

1. Improving CRF, which enhances the body's ability to transport oxygen and
nutrients to the heart and other muscles.

2. Reducing blood pressure and improving blood lipid profiles.

3. Enhancing vasodilation and reducing inflammation.

4. Improving insulin sensitivity and glucose metabolism.

Improved CRF, in turn, can:

1. Increase aerobic capacity (VO2 max).

2. Enhance myocardial function and reduce cardiac stress.

3. Improve muscle strength and endurance.

Overall, regular exercise and physical activity can reduce the risk of CHD by
improving CRF, reducing cardiovascular risk factors, and enhancing overall physical
fitness.

• Discuss the relationship between dose of physical activity and effect on

health and fitness.

• Explain the FITT (frequency, intensity, time and type) principle pertaining

to the dose of physical activity and exercise.

• Discuss physical activity volume and intensity thresholds to improve

Health

Here are the answers:

Relationship between dose of physical activity and effect on health and fitness:

The dose of physical activity refers to the amount and intensity of activity
performed. Research shows a dose-response relationship between physical activity
and health benefits, including:

1. Improved cardiovascular health

2. Enhanced weight management

3. Increased strength and flexibility

4. Reduced risk of chronic diseases (e.g., diabetes, certain cancers)

5. Improved mental health and mood

FITT Principle:

The FITT principle is a framework for designing and modifying exercise programs:

1. Frequency: How often physical activity is performed (e.g., 3-4 times per week)

2. Intensity: How hard the physical activity is performed (e.g., moderate, vigorous)

3. Time (Duration): How long the physical activity is performed (e.g., 30 minutes
per session)

4. Type (Mode): The specific physical activity or exercise performed (e.g., running,
swimming, strength training)

Physical Activity Volume and Intensity Thresholds:

To improve health, the World Health Organization recommends:

1. At least 150 minutes of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity (MPA) or 75

minutes of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity (VPA) per week.

2. 30 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per day for adults.

3. Incorporating strength training exercises at least two times per week.

Thresholds for improved health benefits:

1. 7,000-8,000 steps per day for adults

2. 10,000 steps per day for children and adolescents

3. 150-200 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per week for older

adults

Remember, individual needs and goals may vary, and it's essential to consult with
a healthcare professional before starting a new exercise program.

• Explain the importance of maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) as a

measure of health and fitness.
• Describe how VO2max is measured, assessed and interpreted.
• Explain what screening and progression mean for a person wanting to
initiate an exercise programme.
• Identify low-, moderate-, and vigorous-intensity activities, and
describe the volume of physical activity (by time, MET-min, and if
appropriate, steps) needed to achieve these thresholds.
• Identify low-, moderate-, and vigorous-intensity activities, and
describe the volume of physical activity (by time, MET-min, and if
appropriate, steps) needed to achieve these thresholds.
• Identify the optimal range of frequency, intensity, time (duration),
and type (FITT) of activity associated with improvements in
cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF).
• Calculate a target heart rate range by either the heart rate reserve or
percent of maximal HR method.
• Discuss guidelines related to progression that facilitate the transition
from easy to more demanding exercise programmes.
• Explain how the target heart rate (THR) helps adjust exercise intensity
in times of high heat, humidity, or while at altitude

Here are the answers:

Importance of VO2max:

VO2max is the maximum amount of oxygen the body can utilize during intense
exercise. It's a gold standard measure of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), reflecting
the body's ability to transport oxygen to the muscles. A higher VO2max indicates
better CRF, which is associated with:
- Improved cardiovascular health

- Enhanced endurance performance

- Reduced risk of chronic diseases

- Better overall health and fitness

Measurement, Assessment, and Interpretation:

VO2max is typically measured during a maximal exercise test on a treadmill or

cycle ergometer. Assessment involves comparing the individual's VO2max value to
age- and sex-based norms. Interpretation considers the individual's fitness level,
health status, and exercise goals.

Screening and Progression:

Screening involves evaluating an individual's readiness for exercise, including

medical history, fitness level, and goals. Progression refers to gradually increasing
exercise intensity, frequency, or duration to continue challenging the body and
promoting adaptations.

Intensity Thresholds:

- Low-intensity: 10-30% of VO2max 1.6-2.9 METs (e.g., light walking, 30-60

minutes, 1,000-2,000 steps)

- Moderate-intensity: 30-60% of VO2max 3-5.9 METs (e.g., brisk walking, 30-60

minutes, 3,000-6,000 steps)

- Vigorous-intensity: 60-90% of VO2max >=6 METs (e.g., running, 20-30 minutes,

4,000-8,000 steps)

FITT Principles for CRF Improvements:Zz ,

- Frequency: 3-5 times per week

- Intensity: Moderate to vigorous

- Time (Duration): 20-60 minutes per session

- Type: Aerobic exercises (e.g., running, cycling, swimming)

Target Heart Rate (THR) Calculation:

- Heart Rate Reserve (HRR) method: THR = (max HR - resting HR) x % intensity +
resting HR

- Percent of Maximal HR method: THR = max HR x % intensity

Age predicted maximum heart rate: 220- age

Heart rate reserve: AMPHR- resting heart rate

Target heart rate:( heart rate reserve * exercise intensity)+ resting heart rate

THR Adjustment for Environmental Factors:

- High heat/humidity: reduce THR by 10-15%

- High altitude: reduce THR by 10-20%

Progression Guidelines:

- Gradually increase intensity, frequency, or duration by 10-20% each week

- Allow for recovery time and adjust based on individual response

- Incorporate variety in exercise programs to avoid plateaus

Note: These are general guidelines, and individual needs may vary. Consult a
healthcare professional before starting a new exercise program.

Health Benefits of Resistance Training:

Resistance training offers numerous health benefits, including:

1. Increased muscle mass and strength

2. Improved bone density

3. Enhanced metabolic function

4. Better insulin sensitivity

5. Improved mental health and mood

6. Reduced risk of chronic diseases (e.g., heart disease, diabetes)

7. Improved functional capacity and mobility

Recommended Resistance Training Programs for Adults:

1. Frequency: 2-3 times per week

2. Intensity: Moderate to high (60-80% of 1RM)

3. Volume: 2-4 sets per exercise, 8-12 reps per set

4. Exercises:

- Squats, lunges, deadlifts (lower body)

- Bench press, rows, shoulder press (upper body)

- Core exercises (e.g., planks, crunches)

5. Progression: Gradually increase weight, reps, or sets over time

Recommended Stretching Programs for Adults:

1. Frequency: 2-3 times per week

2. Duration: 10-15 minutes per session

3. Focus on major muscle groups:

- Hamstrings

- Hip flexors

- Quadriceps

- Chest

- Back

- Shoulders

4. Techniques:

- Static stretches (hold 15-30 seconds)

- Dynamic stretches (move through range of motion)

5. Timing: Stretch after exercise or at the end of the day

Remember to:

- Consult with a healthcare professional before starting a new exercise program

- Warm up before exercise and cool down afterwards

- Listen to your body and adjust the program as needed

- Incorporate variety and progression to avoid plateaus and prevent overuse

injuries

• Discuss the effects of extreme heat and humidity, altitude and cold on
adaptations to exercise

Extreme Heat and Humidity:

1. Cardiovascular strain: Increased heart rate and blood pressure

2. Dehydration: Reduced blood volume and electrolyte imbalance

3. Heat exhaustion: Dizziness, nausea, and fatigue

4. Heat stroke: Life-threatening condition with high body temperature and organ
damage

5. Adaptations:

- Acclimatization: Gradual exposure to heat and humidity to improve tolerance

- Sweating and vasodilation: Enhanced heat loss mechanisms

- Increased blood volume and electrolyte conservation

Altitude:

1. Hypoxia: Reduced oxygen availability

2. Cardiovascular strain: Increased heart rate and blood pressure

3. Dehydration: Reduced blood volume and electrolyte imbalance

4. Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS): Headaches, nausea, and fatigue

5. Adaptations:

- Acclimatization: Gradual exposure to altitude to improve tolerance

- Increased red blood cell production and oxygen delivery

- Enhanced mitochondrial density and efficiency

Cold:

1. Cardiovascular strain: Increased heart rate and blood pressure

2. Hypothermia: Reduced body temperature and organ damage

3. Frostbite: Tissue damage from freezing temperatures

4. Adaptations:

- Acclimatization: Gradual exposure to cold to improve tolerance

- Vasoconstriction: Reduced blood flow to extremities

- Increased brown adipose tissue and thermogenesis

General Principles:

1. Gradual exposure and acclimatization are key to adapting to extreme

environments

2. Individual variability and genetic factors influence adaptations

3. Exercise intensity and duration should be adjusted according to environmental

conditions

4. Proper hydration, nutrition, and protective gear are essential

5. Medical supervision and monitoring are recommended for extreme environments

Remember to consult with a healthcare professional before exercising in extreme

environments.

• Describe the central concepts related to periodization.

• Explain the General adaptation syndrome and Stimulus-Fatigue-
Recovery-Adaptation theory.
• Explain the fitness-fatigue paradigm.

Central Concepts of Periodization:

1. Periodization: A training methodology that involves alternating periods of intense

training with periods of reduced intensity or rest.

2. Macrocycles: Long-term training plans (months or years).

3. Mesocycles: Medium-term training phases (weeks or months).

4. Microcycles: Short-term training phases (days or weeks).

5. Periods: Specific training phases (e.g., hypertrophy, strength, endurance).

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS):

1. Alarm: Initial response to stress (e.g., exercise).

2. Resistance: Adaptation to stress (e.g., increased fitness).

3. Exhaustion: Prolonged stress leads to decreased performance and fatigue.

Stimulus-Fatigue-Recovery-Adaptation (SFRA) Theory:

1. Stimulus: Exercise or training stress.

2. Fatigue: Initial decrease in performance.

3. Recovery: Restoration of energy and function.

4. Adaptation: Long-term improvement in performance.

Fitness-Fatigue Paradigm:

1. Fitness: Improved performance and physiological adaptations.

2. Fatigue: Decreased performance and accumulated stress.

3. Optimal Training: Balance between fitness and fatigue.

4. Overreaching: Temporary fatigue and decreased performance.

5. Overtraining: Prolonged fatigue and decreased performance.

These concepts help coaches and athletes design and manage training programs
to optimize performance, avoid overtraining, and promote long-term adaptations.

• Describe the four periods of the traditional periodization model.

• Describe the two phases of the preparatory period of the traditional
periodization model

Four Periods of the Traditional Periodization Model:

1. Preparatory Period (Off-season): Building a foundation of fitness and developing

overall athleticism.

2. Pre-competitive Period (Pre-season): Focused training to develop specific skills

and prepare for competition.
3. Competitive Period (In-season): Peak performance and competition.

4. Transition Period (Post-season): Active recovery, regeneration, and preparation

for the next cycle.

Two Phases of the Preparatory Period:

Phase 1: General Preparation Phase (GPP)

- Building overall fitness and athleticism

- Developing strength, endurance, and flexibility

- Low-to-moderate intensity training

- High volume and frequency

Phase 2: Specific Preparation Phase (SPP)

- Focused training to develop specific skills and qualities

- Moderate-to-high intensity training

- Lower volume and frequency compared to GPP

- Introduction of competition-specific exercises and drills

The Preparatory Period lays the foundation for the entire training cycle, and its
phases help athletes gradually build fitness and prepare for more intense training
and competition.

Introduction

• The warm-up can be 10 to 20 min in duration depending on the individual,

environmental conditions & the nature of the training activity.

• Assists with transition from rest to exercise state.

• Gradual increase in Intensity is recommended.

• General and specific stretches should be included

• Additional research is needed to definitely demonstrate whether a warmup can

deter exercise-induced injuries

Components of a Warm-up

• A general warm-up period may consist of 5 to 10 minutes of slow activity such as

jogging or skipping.
• A specific warm-up period incorporates movements similar to the movements of
the athlete’s sport.

• The whole warm-up typically lasts between 10 and 20 minutes.

The structure of the warm up influences potential improvements; as such, the

warm up needs to be specific to the activity to be performed.

Targeted and Structured Warm-Ups

• Warm-up for competition may differ from warm-up for training

• When planning a warm-up consider:

✓ How an athlete warms up, contributes to overall development of the individual;

✓ This should include short, medium and long term considerations; and

✓ A well structured plan for the warm up is key.

RAMP Protocol

✓ Raise: Elevate body temperature, heart rate, respiration rate, blood flow, and
joint fluid viscosity via low-intensity activities that simulate the movement patterns
of the upcoming activity.

✓ Activate and Mobilize: Actively move through a range of motion.

✓ Potentiate: Perform sport-specific activities that progress in intensity until the

athlete is performing at the intensity required for the subsequent competition or
training session.

Warm-up vs Flexibility Training

• A warm-up is designed to prepare an athlete for upcoming training or

competition. • It is proposed that a warm-up can improve performance while
potentially lessening the risk of injury.

• Flexibility is a measure of range of motion (ROM) and has static and dynamic
components.

• Static flexibility is the range of possible movement about a joint and its
surrounding muscles during a passive movement.

• Dynamic flexibility is the available ROM during active movements; it requires

voluntary muscular actions.

• Flexibility aims to increase ROM around a joint through the use of different forms
of stretching.

Determining which flexibility is most crucial?

• Understand the nature of the sport.

• A key role of flexibility is its contribution to an athletes movement.

• Flexibility is joint specific.

• Flexibility viewed in isolation can be misleading, as normal ROM does not
guarantee normal movement.

Mobility

• Mobility entails movement and therefore the integration of additional aspects

such as: balance coordination, postural control coordination and perception.

• Mobility frames flexibility as a dynamic quality, with the athlete required to

demonstrate control, coordination and force through ROM

• Enhanced ROM due to static or dynamic flexibility components, without proper

motor control (mobility) can never maximise performance.

Flexibility and Performance

• The most flexible athlete is not always the most successful in performance.

• The main aim of training when it comes to performance should be optimising

flexibility in relation to the specific ROM requirements of the sport.

Factors affecting flexibility

• Anatomical vs training–related factors

• Joint structure (Anatomical)

• Age and sex (Anatomical)

• Muscle and connective tissue (Anatomical)

• Stretch tolerance (Anatomical)

• Neural control (training–related)

• Resistance training (training–related)

• Muscle bulk

• Activity level

Frequency, duration, and intensity of stretching

• Acute effects of stretching on ROM are transient.

• For longer-lasting effects, a stretching program is required.

• Two sessions per week for a minimum of 5 weeks.

• Stretches should be held at a position of mild discomfort for 15 to 30 seconds

When should an athlete stretch?

• Following practice and competition

• Post-practice stretching facilitates ROM improvements because of increased

muscle temperature.

• Stretching should be performed within 5 to 10 minutes after practice.

• Post-practice stretching may also decrease muscle soreness, although the

evidence on this is ambiguous.

• As a separate session

• If increased levels of flexibility are required, additional stretching sessions may be

needed.

• In this case, stretching should be preceded by a thorough warm-up to allow for

the increase in muscle temperature necessary for effective stretching.

• This type of session can be especially useful as a recovery session on the day
after a competition

• Stretch reflex

• A stretch reflex occurs when muscle spindles are stimulated during a rapid
stretching movement.

• This should be avoided during stretching, as it will limit motion.

• Caused by stimulation of muscle spindles.

Proprioceptors and stretching (cont.)

• Autogenic inhibition and reciprocal inhibition

• Autogenic inhibition is accomplished via active contraction before a passive

stretch of the same muscle.

• Reciprocal inhibition is accomplished by contracting the muscle opposing the

muscle that is being passively stretched.

• Both result from stimulation of Golgi tendon organs, which cause reflexive muscle
relaxation.

Types of Stretching Static stretch

• Slow and constant, with the end position held for 15 to 30 seconds. Ballistic
stretch

• Typically involves active muscular effort and uses a bouncing-type movement in

which the end position is not held. Dynamic stretch
• A type of functionally based stretching exercise that uses sport-specific
movements to prepare the body for activity. Proprioceptive Neuromuscular
Facilitation

• It involves both stretching and contracting the targeted muscle group to enhance
the effectiveness of the stretch.

Static stretch

• Get into a position that facilitates relaxation.

• Move to the point in the ROM where you experience a sensation of mild
discomfort. If performing partner-assisted PNF stretching, communicate clearly with
your partner.

• Hold stretches for 15 to 30 seconds.

• Repeat unilateral stretches on both sides.

Dynamic stretch

• Carry out 5 to 10 repetitions for each movement, either in place or over a given
distance.

• Progressively increase the ROM on each repetition.

• Increase the speed of motion on subsequent sets where appropriate.

• Actively control muscular actions as you move through the ROM

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretch Proprioceptive

neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretch

• Hold-relax

• Passive prestretch (10 seconds)

• Isometric hold (6 seconds)

• Passive stretch (30 seconds)

Types of Stretching Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretch

• Contract-relax

• Passive prestretch (10 seconds)

• Concentric muscle action through full ROM

• Passive stretch (30 seconds)

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretch

• Hold-relax with agonist contraction

• During third phase (passive stretch), concentric action of the agonist is used to
increase the stretch force.

Hold-Relax With Agonist Contraction

• Passive prestretch during hold-relax with agonist contraction PNF hamstring
stretch

• Isometric action of hamstrings during hold-relax with agonist contraction PNF

hamstring stretch

• Concentric contraction of quadriceps during hold-relax with agonist contraction

PNF hamstring stretch, creating increased ROM during passive stretch

The hold-relax with agonist contraction is the most effective PNF stretching
technique due to facilitation via both reciprocal and autogenic inhibition.

Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretch

• Common PNF stretches with a partner

• Calves and ankles

• Chest

• Groin

• Hamstrings and hip extensors

• Quadriceps and hip flexors

• Shoulders

• Warm up should be geared toward the particular sport or activity and should use
an appropriate structure, ensuring than an athlete is optimally prepared for
subsequent activity.

• Optimal flexibility for performance varies from sport to sport and is closely
related to the type of movements and actions an athlete will be required to
perform.

• The concept of mobility may be more appropriate than flexibility with its focus on
active movement through the required ROM.

• List the physiological responses of a warm-up.

• Explain the positive effects on performance related to an effective
warm-up.
• List the components of a warm-up.
• Differentiate between general warm-up and specific warm-up.
• Discuss the phases of a targeted and structured warm-up for athletic
performance
• List and describe the anatomical and training-related factors that
affect flexibility.
• Explain the importance of frequency, duration and intensity of
stretching.
• Explain when stretching should be performed to optimise benefits in
athletic performance.
• Discuss the neurophysiology of stretching.
• List and describe the different types of stretching
• Design an effective flexibility training programme, within the context
of athletic performance

Here are the answers:

Physiological Responses of a Warm-up:

1. Increased heart rate and blood flow

2. Elevated body temperature

3. Increased muscle temperature and flexibility

4. Enhanced neural activity and muscle contraction force

5. Increased oxygen delivery and utilization

Positive Effects on Performance:

1. Improved muscle power and speed

2. Enhanced endurance and stamina

3. Reduced risk of injury

4. Improved mental preparation and focus

Components of a Warm-up:

1. Cardiovascular exercise (e.g., jogging, cycling)

2. Dynamic stretching (e.g., leg swings, arm circles)

3. Muscle activation exercises (e.g., glute bridges, planks)

4. Skill-specific movements (e.g., sport-specific drills)

Difference between General and Specific Warm-up:

- General Warm-up: Broad, non-specific exercises (e.g., jogging, jumping jacks)

- Specific Warm-up: Exercises tailored to the specific sport or activity (e.g., soccer
drills, tennis serves)

Phases of a Targeted Warm-up:

1. General Preparation (5-10 minutes)

2. Dynamic Stretching and Mobility (5-10 minutes)

3. Muscle Activation and Skill-Specific Movements (10-15 minutes)

Factors Affecting Flexibility:

1. Anatomical factors (e.g., joint structure, muscle length)

2. Training-related factors (e.g., exercise selection, frequency, duration)

Importance of Frequency, Duration, and Intensity of Stretching:

1. Frequency: Regular stretching (2-3 times per week)

2. Duration: Hold stretches for 15-30 seconds

3. Intensity: Moderate to high intensity stretching

Optimal Time for Stretching:

1. After warm-up, before exercise

2. After exercise, as part of cool-down

Neurophysiology of Stretching:

1. Increased neural activity and muscle relaxation

2. Reduced muscle spindle activity and stiffness

Types of Stretching:

1. Static stretching

2. Dynamic stretching

3. Ballistic stretching

4. Proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation (PNF) stretching

Effective Flexibility Training Programme:

1. Regular stretching exercises (2-3 times per week)

2. Focus on major muscle groups and movement patterns

3. Incorporate dynamic and static stretching

4. Gradually increase duration and intensity

5. Monitor progress and adjust programme as needed