Type Andrews

John author names

& Nick
here
Jelley

Lecture 11:

Energy demand in buildings,

industry, and transport

© John Andrews and Nick Jelley, 2017. All rights reserved.

Global Energy demand and CO2 emissions
Buildings, industry and transport
account for

• ~ 87% of global energy demand,

• 28.5 GtCO2 (c.f. total fossil fuel

emissions of 32 GtCO2)

CO2 emissions

• projected to increase by 50-

150% on baseline scenarios by
2050

• To limit global warming to 2 oC

requires 80% cut in CO2
emissions by 2050 Note: Decarbonizing heat is as important as
decarbonizing electricity

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

 Areas for reducing energy consumption and CO2 emissions

• Improve energy efficiency

• More conservation

• Change lifestyle (e.g. less reliance on cars)

• More recycling

• Low-carbon buildings (cement production is energy-intensive)

• Retrofitting old buildings (60% of existing homes will still be around in 2050)

• Imposing regulations on fuel efficiency of fossil-fuel powered vehicles

• Decarbonizing transport (electric vehicles)

• Generating heat from renewable electricity

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

 How energy consumption in buildings and
CO2 emissions can be reduced
• Restricting heating and lighting to where and when it is needed; lowering indoor
temperatures. Space heating and cooling, and water heating, accounts for 60% of global
energy consumption in buildings.

• Using renewable energy resources e.g. solar thermal or geothermal energy for hot-water
heating and using heat pumps driven by renewable electricity

• Improving air-tightness and thermal insulation (e.g. double-glazing, cavity insulation)

• Using reflective services in hot climates (= less air conditioning)

• Installing efficient appliances and cook-stoves

• Using LEDs

The IEA estimates that enhanced energy efficiency and electricity decarbonization could
reduce CO2 emissions by ~ 75%

Passive design houses can save up to 40% of the energy used in present designs.

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

Improved lighting and biomass cook-stoves
Comparison of light sources luminosity lm W-1 efficiency %
Tungsten incandescent lamp 15 2
Compact fluorescent tube 70 10
LED 210 30

Lighting accounts for ~ 20% of electricity consumption in UK

Widespread adoption of LEDs could reduce UK electricity consumption by ~ 15%
If adopted globally, the reduction in CO2 emissions would be ~ 2 GtCO2 (c.f. total = 34.5 GtCO2)

Biomass
3 billion people cook with wood. Most biomass stoves in use are very inefficient and emit
harmful smoke. 4 million people die prematurely every year from smoke inhalation due to
indoor cooking fires.

Switching to improved biomass cook-stoves would save lives, energy and the
environment.

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

 Thermal Mass

Thermal mass helps to keep

buildings at a comfortable
temperature in summer without
wasting energy on air conditioning.

The essential idea is to use the

thermal capacity of the building
to keep the temperature inside
between comfortable limits.

Thermal mass is useful in

Buildings with low thermal mass closely follow
countries where there is a large
the external temperature.
temperature difference
between day and night.
Buildings with high thermal mass are less
responsive to the external temperature and the
A thick concrete floor or outside
peak temperature lags behind that of the
wall can act as a heat sink
outside.
during daytime and a heat
source at night-time.

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

 Quantifying heat losses and thermal insulation

Heat is lost from a building through the walls,

windows, roof, doors and floor. Thermal insulation is
required for all of them.

To quantify thermal insulation, we define the rate of heat

transfer through a material, Q, as
1
Q = UA ΔT = A ΔT
R
A = area
U = thermal conductance or U-value (W m-2K-1)
DT = difference in temperature across material

U and R are related to the thermal

Thermal
conductivity k and thickness d of the
image of
material by
Passive
House 1 k
U= =
R d
Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition
Comparison between old, new and passive house

The Table compares the heat losses from an old house, a new house and a passive house.
All houses are detached, have the same footprint of 7m x 7m and ceiling heights of 2.5 m.
To calculate the total heat loss over a month, we need to know the average temperature
difference between the inside and the outside of the house for the month.
This is given by the number of degree-days per month.
Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition
 Degree-Days

To calculate the number

of degree-days, we
assume that buildings
are heated only when the
ambient temperature is
less than a nominal
base temperature.

number of degree-days per

month can be defined as
= Sum for each day of month of
(base temperature – average For the house illustrated, the non-space heating
ambient temperature) requirement is 8000 kWh per month and for a
{N.B. No. of degree-days = 0 if month with 150 degree days then the heating
average ambient temperature needed is 5000 kWh. The line shown is called the
exceeds base temperature} performance line
Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition
 Mitigation measures for buidlings

Space heating and cooling accounts for ~ 60% of global energy consumption in
buildings. so
• Electrical resistance heating and incandescent light bulbs need to be
phased out.
• New buildings should have low energy demand and use passive heating and
cooling.
• Existing buildings should be retrofitted with energy-saving technology.

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

 Direct emissions of CO2 from Industry
Globally, the industry accounts for 28% of final
energy use, with about 70% from fossil fuels.

Production of cement, pulp and paper,

aluminium, chemicals, iron and steel, account for
~ 75% of direct emissions of CO2 from
industry (=13.1 Gt in 2010).

Industrial plant ©zhaojiankang/istock

Decarbonizing industry is difficult:

• Investment timescales for replacing
equipment are 20-40 years
• Many processes are energy-
intensive and involve heat from
fossil-fuel combustion
• Reluctance to lose competitiveness

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

 Breakdown of GHG emissions for industrial processes

For any given industry, the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions per year, G,
can be usefully expressed as a product

G E M
G= × × ×P
E M P
G
where = carbon intensity
E
E
= energy intensity
M
M
= mass material per product (product efficiency)
P
P = number of products

G E M
Hence, reducing the ratios , , reduces the emissions of GHGs.
E M P

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

Mitigation measures for industrial emissions

Power-to-gas process: Use surplus renewable energy to produce gaseous fuels

(e.g. hydrogen, methane, ammonia).

Electro-thermal processes: Develop specific electrical heating processes for low

(< 100oC), medium (100-400oC), high (400-2000oC) industrial applications, e.g.
electric furnaces, induction heating, microwave, laser, electron beam, plasma
heating.
Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition
 Reducing CO2 emissions by industry
Carbon capture in industrial processes: Large steel plants could provide better
economies of scale for CCS than for power plants. Ammonia plants produce almost
pure stream of CO2, which only needs compressing.

Steel industry: In blast furnaces, ~ 80% of CO2 emissions in steel production come
from reducing iron using coke. Alternatives to coke are hydrogen (requires heat),
electrolysis (electrowinning), biochar.

Cement industry: produces ~6% of global CO2 emissions, 60% from converting
limestone (CaCO3) to lime (CaO), 40% from burning fossil fuels for heat. Using
biomass/oxy-fired process with CCS could produce negative CO2 emissions.
Alternatives to CaCO3 cement exist but not competitive.

Electrification of heat: the large-scale electrification of energy-intensive industries

could become viable if and when renewable electricity becomes cheaper than fossil
fuels.

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

Reducing CO2 emissions by industry (continued)

Chemical industry: very diverse compared with cement and steel industries, but
some large scale opportunities exist for fossil fuel-based materials and energy (see
Table below). Also opportunities for improving heat and energy recovery.
Summary of industrial emissions reduction:
• Substantial investment needed to make significant impact.
• CCS could be more economic if renewable energy becomes cheaper than fossil
fuels and if there are economies of scale.
• 80% reduction in emissions by 2050 looks very difficult to achieve.
Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition
 Transport sector overview

Mitigation options

• Increasing use of public

transport, more walking and
cycling

• Increasing local manufacturing

• Avoiding unnecessary journeys

• More internet shopping

• Transport sector accounted for ~23% of energy-related CO2 emissions in 2010

• Transport emissions projected to increase from 6.7 GtCO2 in 2010 to 12 GtCO2 in 2050
• No. of LDVs (light duty vehicles) expected to increase from 1 million to 2 million over
next few decades.
Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition
 Carbon emissions by mode of transport

• Policy changes could encourage the use for freight of high-speed rail
and shipping rather than trucks and aircraft.
• Efficiency improvements and an increased number of occupants can
reduce the energy intensity
Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition
 Freiburg: Germany’s green city

Philosophy: to make energy, transport & building

as clean and efficient as possible

• Excellent public transport

• Renewable energy (especially solar PV)
• New buildings = low-carbon
• District heating via CHP
• Car sharing promoted
• Maximum speed = 20 mph or less

Vauban (suburb 3 km from centre of Freiburg)

• Restricted number of through roads

• Extensive cycle paths
• Parking only on edge of district
• 70% of households have no car (57% of these gave up car on moving to Vauban)

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

 Mitigation measures for transport

There are developments in

• communications and controls of cars, with improvements in sensors and as a
result in safety
• the testing of self-driving cars, and the increasing use of ride-sharing
arrangements using smartphones.
• An benefit of electric vehicles (EVs) is that the batteries can be used to
provide energy storage, which will become increasingly important as the
percentage of renewable power increases.

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

 Hybrid and electric vehicles

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs):

• combine internal combustion engine with electric motor and battery

• Use regenerative braking (braking energy stored in battery)

Up to 35% reduction in CO2 emissions compared with conventional vehicles.

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) = bridge to pure EVs, based on statistics in
Europe and USA that

Europe: 50% < 10 km, 80% < 25 km

USA: 60% < 50 km, 80% < 100 km

Electric vehicles (EVs): between 2016 and 2021

• Battery costs expected to fall by 60%

• Driving range expected to increase by 70%, comparable with conventional cars

16% of cars in Norway are EVs

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

 Electric Vehicles

Charging of EVs:

• Near workplace when PV electricity is

available

• At small distributed PV farms

Global penetration:

Possibly 22% by 2025

Wikimedia Commons under creative commons license 2.0

Wholesale shift from fossil-fuel cars to electric cars depends on

• Future oil prices, and regulations and policies on carbon emissions

• Development of long-range (200 km) rechargeable batteries.

• Falling costs of batteries through ‘learning’

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition

 Key Points
• Buildings, industry & transport account for ~ 87% of final energy demand

• Business-As-Usual scenario: emissions to increase by 50-150% by 2050

• Limiting global warming to 2oC requires 80% cut in GHG emissions

• Need to improve heat insulation of buildings, efficiency of machines and processes,
urban design, and reuse and recycle

• Opportunities exist for reducing emissions in industry, notably in the cement and
steel industries
• CCS with hydrogen production may be an important source of decarbonised heat

• Switching to electric vehicles, using renewable energy for recharging, and deploying
more heat pumps would make a significant difference

• Will require development of heat and electricity storage and effective policies

• Essential to significantly reduce and shift energy demand, and to decarbonize

electricity and heat

Andrews & Jelley: Energy Science, 3rd edition