Outlines

Woldia University
Woldia Institute of Technology
School of Electrical & Computer Engineering
Introduction to power systems
ECEG 4131

Prepared by: Tebeje T.

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 Chapter Three
Mechanical design of transmission lines
System Outline

• Introduction

• Components of overhead lines

• Potential distribution over a string of suspension insulators

• Sag and tension calculations,

• Introduction to Corona

• Disruptive critical voltage and Visual critical voltage

2
 Introduction
o A proper mechanical design is one of the essentials in providing good
service to customers
o A large majority of service interruptions can be traced to physical failures
on the distribution system, broken wires, broken poles, damaged insulation,
damaged equipment, etc
o Of course, many of these service interruptions are more or less un
avoidable, but their numbers can be reduced if the design and construction
of the various physical parts can withstand, with reasonable safety factors,
not only normal conditions but also some probable abnormal conditions
o The conductors and poles must have sufficient strength with a
predetermined safety factor to withstand the loads due to the line itself and
stresses imposed by ice and wind loads.
o Thus, the overhead line should provide satisfactory service over a long
period of time without the necessary for too much maintenance
o Ultimate economy is provided by a good construction since excessive
maintenance or especially short life can be easily more than overbalance a
saving in the first cost
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o The overhead line must have a proper strength to withstand the stresses
imposed on its component parts by the line itself.
o In general, the factors affecting a mechanical design of the overhead lines
are:
1. Right of way

2. Mechanical loading

3. Required clearances

4. Types of supporting structures

5. Grade of construction

6. Conductors

7. Types of insulators

8. Joint use by the utilities

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Main Components of Overhead Lines
o In general, the main components of an overhead lines are:
▪ Conductors:- which carry electric power from the sending end station
to the receiving end station

▪ Supports:- which may be poles or towers and keep the conductors at a

suitable level above the ground

▪ Insulators:- which are attached to support and insulate the conductors

from the ground

▪ Cross arms:- which provide support to the insulators

▪ Shield wires:- which provides grounding and communication services

for the overhead transmission line.

▪ Miscellaneous items:- such as phase plates, danger plates, anti-

climbing wires, etc
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Conductor materials
o The conductor is one of the important items as most of the capital outlay is
invested for it. Therefore, proper choice of material and size of conductor is of
considerable importance

o The conductor material used for transmission and distribution of electric power
should have the following properties:
▪ High electrical conductivity
▪ High tensile strength in order to withstand mechanical stresses
▪ Low cost so that it can be used for long distances
▪ Low specific gravity so that weight per unit volume is small

o All above requirements are not found in a single material. Therefore, while
selecting a conductor material for a particular case, a compromise is made
between the cost and the required electrical and mechanical properties
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Commonly used conductor materials
o The most commonly used conductor materials for overhead lines are

▪ copper,
▪ aluminum,

▪ steel cored aluminum,

▪ galvanized steel and

▪ cadmium copper

o The choice of a particular material will depend up on the cost, the required
electrical and mechanical properties and local conditions

o All conductors used for overhead lines are preferably stranded in order to
increase the flexibility

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Copper:
o Copper is an ideal material for overhead lines owing to its high electrical
conductivity and greater tensile strength
o The merits of this metal as a line conductor are:
i. It has a best conductivity in comparison to other metals.
▪ The conductivity of copper, however depends upon the percentage of impurities
present in it, the more the impurities the lesser will be the conductivity.
▪ The conductivity of copper conductor also depends upon the method by which it
has been drawn.
ii. It has higher current density, so for the given current rating, lesser cross-
sectional area of conductor is required and hence it provides lesser cross-
sectional area to wind loads
iii. The metal is quite homogeneous
iv. It has low specific resistance

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Aluminum:
o Aluminum is cheap and light as compared to copper but it has much smaller
conductivity and tensile strength
o Next to copper, aluminum is the conductor used in order of performance as far
as the conductivity is concerned.
o Its merits and demerits are:
i. It is cheaper than copper
ii. It is lighter in weight (the specific gravity of aluminum is lower than that of
copper, i.e an aluminum conductor has almost one half the weight of
equivalent copper conductor)
iii. It is second in conductivity (among the metals used for transmission).
Commercial hard-down aluminum wire at standard temperature has
approximately 60.6 percent conductivity in comparison to standard annealed
copper wire.
iv. For same ohmic resistance, its diameter is about 1.27 times that of copper.
v. At higher voltages it causes less corona loss
vi. Since the diameter of the conductor is more, so it is subject to greater wind
pressure due to which greater is the swing of the conductor and greater is the
sag
vii. Since the conductors are liable to swing, so it requires larger cross arms

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viii. As the melting point of the conductor is low , so the short circuit etc. will
damage it.
ix. Joining of aluminum is much more difficult than that of any other material

o In the modern over head transmission system, bare aluminum conductors are
used (for purpose of heat dissipation) which are classifies as:
▪ AAC - All Aluminum Conductors
▪ AAAC - All Aluminum Alloy Conductors
▪ ACSR – Aluminum Conductors Steel Reinforced
▪ ACAR - Aluminum Conductors Alloy Reinforced
Steel
o No doubt it has got the greatest tensile strength, but it is least used for
transmission of electrical energy as it has got high resistance.
o Bare steel conductors are not used since, it deteriorates rapidly owing to
rusting. Generally galvanized steel wires are used.

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o It has the following properties:
a. It is lowest in conductivity
b. It has high internal reactance
c. It is much subjected to eddy current and hysteresis loss
d. In a damp atmosphere it is rusted
o Hence its use is limited

Line supports
o The supporting structures for overhead line conductors are various types of
poles and towers called line supports
o In general, the line supports should have the following properties
▪ High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of conductors and
wind load etc
▪ Light in weight without the loss of mechanical strength
▪ Cheap in cost and economical to maintain
▪ Longer life

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o The line supports used for transmission and distribution of electric power are
of various types
▪ Wooden poles
▪ Steel poles
▪ Reinforced concrete (R.C.C) poles
▪ Lattice steel towers
Wooden poles:
o These are made of seasoned wood and are suitable for lines of moderate X-
section area and of relatively shorter span, say up to 50 meters
o Such supports are cheap, easily available, provide insulating properties and
therefore, are widely used for distribution purposes in rural areas as an
economical proposition
o The wooden poles generally tend to rot below the ground level, causing
foundation failure. In order to prevent this, the portion of the pole below the
ground level is impregnated with preservative compounds like creosote oil
o Double pole structures of the ‘A’ or ‘H’ type are often used (see fig. below) to
obtain a higher transverse strength than could be economically provided by
means of a single poles
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o The main objections to wooden
supports are
i. Tendency to rot below the ground level
ii. Comparatively smaller life (20-25 years)
iii. Can not be used for voltages higher than 20 kV
iv. Less mechanical strength and
v. Require periodical inspection

Figure wooden poles

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Steel poles:
o The steel poles are often used as a substitute for wooden poles
o They posses greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit longer
spans to be used
o Such poles are generally used for distribution purposes in the cities
o This type of supports need to be galvanized or painted in order to prolong
its life
o The steel poles are of three types
▪ Rail poles
▪ Tubular poles and
▪ Rolled steel joints
RCC poles:
o The RCC poles have become very popular as line supports in recent
years
o They have greater mechanical strength, longer life and permit longer
spans than steel poles
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▪ Moreover, they give good
outlook, require little maintenance
and have good insulating properties
▪ Figure below shows R.C.C poles
for single and double circuit
▪ The holes in the poles facilitate
the climbing of poles and at the
same time reduce the weight
of line supports
▪ The main difficulty with the use
of these poles is the high cost
of transport owing to their
heavy weight

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Steel tower:
❖In practice, wooden, steel and reinforced concrete poles are used for
distribution purposes at low voltages, say up to 15 kV. However, for long
distance transmission at higher voltage, steel towers are invariably
employed

❖Steel towers have greater mechanical strength, longer life, can withstand
most sever climatic conditions and permit the use of longer spans

❖The risk of interrupted service due to broken or punctured insulation is

considerably reduced owing to longer spans

❖Tower footings are usually grounded by driving rods into the earth, this
minimizes the lightning troubles as each tower acts as a lightning
conductor
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17
 Spacing between the conductor
▪ The most suitable spacing between
the conductors can be arrived at
by mathematical calculations.
▪ It can only be obtained by
empirical formulae which have
been obtained from practical
considerations.

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▪ Generally the following formula is used for obtaining spacing between
the conductors(phases):
𝐷
Spacing (cm) = 0.3048 × 𝑉 + 4.010 𝑆
𝑊
Where V = Voltage of system in kV
D = Diameter of Conductor in cm S = sag in cm
W = weight of conductor in kg/m
▪ In addition to phase conductors, a transmission line usually includes one
or two steel wires called shield wires. These wires are electrically
connected to the tower and to the ground, and, therefore, are at ground
potential.
▪ In large transmission lines, these wires are located above the phase
▪ conductors, shielding them from lightning.

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20
Insulators
❖The overhead line conductors should be supported on the poles or towers
in such a way that currents from conductors do not flow to earth through
supports
❖Provide Electrical insulation between live conductor and earthed
structure under operating and overvoltage conditions
❖To act as a reliable mechanical link between the structure and the
conductor and keep the mechanical integrity under normal operating and
overload conditions.
❖The insulators are mainly made of either glazed, porcelain or toughened
glass.
❖The dielectric strength of porcelain should be 15KV to 17KV for every
one tenth inch thickness. Porcelain is mechanically strong, less affected
by temperature and has minimum leakage problem.

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❖Toughened glass is also sometimes used for insulators because it has
higher dielectric strength (35KV for one tenth inch thickness), But it has
lower coefficient of thermal expansion. And it condenses moisture very
easily (since those reasons it use is limited up to 33KV )

❖In general, the insulators should have the following desirable properties:
▪ High mechanical strength in order to withstand conductor load, wind
load, etc
▪ High electrical resistance of insulator material in order to avoid
leakage current to earth
▪ High relative permittivity of insulator material in order that dielectric
strength is high
▪ The insulator material should be non-porous and free from
impurities otherwise the permittivity will be lowered
▪ High ration of puncture strength

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Types of Insulators
❖ In overhead transmission lines, the conductors are suspended from a pole
or a tower via insulators.
❖There are several types of insulators but the most commonly used are pin
type, suspension type, strain insulator and shackle insulator
1. Pin type insulators
❖consist of a single or multiple shells adopted to be mounted on a spindle
to be fixed to the cross arm of the supporting structure. Multiple shells
are provided in order to obtain sufficient length of leakage
❖ There is a groove on the upper end of the insulator for housing the
conductor. The conductor passes through this groove and is bound by the
annealed wire of the same material as the conductor
❖ Pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric
power at voltages up to 33 kV. Beyond operating voltage of 33 kV, the
pin type insulators become too bulky and hence uneconomical

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Insulators are required to withstand both mechanical and electrical
stresses

Cause of insulator failure

o The latter type is primarily due to line voltage and may cause the
breakdown of the insulator

o The electrical break down of the insulator can occur either by puncture
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 2. Suspension type insulators
▪ The cost of pin type insulator increases rapidly as the working voltage is
increases. Therefore, this type of insulator is not economical beyond 33
kV.

▪ For high voltages (greater than 33 kV), it is a usual practice to use

suspension type insulators shown in figure below.

▪ They consists of a number of porcelain discs connected in series by

metal links in the form of a string

▪ The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string while the
other end of the string is secured to the cross-arm of the tower. The
number of discs in series would obviously depend upon the working
voltage 25
26
 Advantages
i. Suspension type insulators are cheaper than pin type insulators for
voltages beyond 33 Kv
ii. Each unit or disc of suspension type insulator is designed for low
voltage, usually 11 kV. Depending upon the working voltage, the
desired number of discs can be connected in series
iii. If any one disc is damaged, the whole string does not become useless
because the damaged disc can be replaced by the sound
iv. The suspension arrangement provides greater flexibility to the line. The
connection at the cross arm is such that insulator string is free to swing
in any direction and can take up the position where mechanical stress
are minimum10
v. In case of increased demand on the transmission line, it is found more
satisfactory to supply the greater demand by raising the line voltage
than to provide another set of conductors. The additional insulation
required for the raised voltage can be easily obtained in the suspension
arrangement by adding the desired number of discs
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(vi). The suspension type insulators are generally used with steel towers. As
the conductors run below the earthed cross-arm of the tower, therefore, this
arrangement provides partial protection from lightning

3 Strain Insulators
▪ When there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the
line is subjected to greater tension. In order to relive the line of excessive
tension, strain insulators are used
▪ For low voltage lines (less than 11 kV), shackle insulators are used as
strain insulators. However, for high voltage transmission lines, strain
insulators consists of assembly of suspension insulators as shown in
figure below.
▪ The discs of strain insulators are used in the vertical plane. When the
tension in line is exceedingly high, as at long river spans, two or more
strings are used in parallel

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 4. Shackle Insulators
➢ In early days, the shackle insulators were used as strain insulators. But
➢ now a day, they are frequently used for low voltage distribution line.
➢ Such insulators can be used either in a horizontal position or a vertical
position
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➢ They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the cross arm.
Figure below shows a shackle insulator fixed to the pole. The conductor
in the groove is fixed with a soft binding wire

Figure: Shackle insulator

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Potential distribution over a string of suspension insulators
❖ The thumb rule for finding the number
of insulator discs for a particular operating
voltage is to have one disc for every 11KV;
this doesn’t mean that the voltage across
the discs of the string is uniformly distributed.
This is because of the capacitance formed
between the metal part of the insulator and the
tower structure.
❖ The capacitance could be made negligible
small by increasing the distance between the
insulator and the tower structure (but it requires
larger length of cross arm and bigger size of tower
and hence it becomes uneconomical).

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❖ The capacitance of each string unit is known as mutual capacitance,

𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑐
𝑚= =
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑐

❖Here capacitance to ground is the capacitance of metal part of the

insulator disc to the tower structure
❖Since the insulator discs are identical, each disc is represented by its
mutual capacitance mC. Let V be the operating voltage and V1, V2, V3
and V4 are the voltage drops across the units starting from the cross arm
towards the power conductor
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + 𝑉4 (3.1)
❖ The objective is to find out the voltage across each disc as a multiple of
the operating voltage and to compare the voltage across each unit. From
the diagram it is clear that
𝐼2 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼𝐶1 = 𝑉1 𝜔𝑚𝑐 + 𝑉1 𝜔𝑐 (3.2)
Where, 𝜔 is the supply frequency

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Or 𝐼2 = 𝑉1 𝐶𝜔(𝑚 + 1)
𝑉2 𝑚𝜔𝐶 = 𝑉1 𝐶𝜔(𝑚 + 1)
Or
𝑉1 𝑚+1
𝑉2 = 𝑚+1 = 𝑉1 (3.3)
𝑚 𝑚

Also, 𝐼3 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼𝐶2
= 𝑉2 𝑚𝜔𝐶 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 𝜔𝐶
𝑉3 𝑚𝜔𝐶 = 𝑉2 𝜔𝐶 𝑚 + 1 + 𝑉1 𝑤𝐶
❖Substituting for V2 in terms of V1 gives
𝑚+1
𝑉3 𝑚𝜔𝐶 = 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 𝑚 + 1 + 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶
𝑚
(𝑚+1)2
= 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 +1
𝑚

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 𝑚2 + 3𝑚 + 1
𝑉1 𝜔𝐶
𝑚
Or
𝑚2 +3𝑚+1
𝑉3 = 𝑉1 (3.4)
𝑚2

❖Similarly V4 can also be expresses in terms of V1 as follows

𝐼4 = 𝐼3 + 𝐼𝐶3
𝑚2 + 3𝑚 + 1
𝑉4 𝑚𝜔𝐶 = 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 + ω𝐶(𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 )
𝑚
𝑚2 +3𝑚+1 𝑚+1 𝑚2 +3𝑚+1
= 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 + 𝜔𝐶 𝑉1 + 𝑉1 + 𝑉1
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚2

𝑚2 +3𝑚+1 3𝑚2 +4𝑚+1

= 𝑉1 𝜔𝐶 +
𝑚 𝑚2

𝑚2 +3𝑚+1 3𝑚2 +4𝑚+1

𝑉4 = 𝑉1 + (3.5)
𝑚2 𝑚3

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❖So we have expressed V2, V3 and V4 in terms of V1 and the ratio of the
capacities i.e. m
❖Now V=V1+V2+V3+V4
❖Therefore, since m is known, V1 can be expresses in terms of V and from
this V2, V3 and V4 can be obtained
❖Normally the value of m>1. Let m=5, with this if there is a string of four
insulators as shown in above figure
𝑚+1 6
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 = 𝑉1
𝑚 5

𝑚2 + 3𝑚 + 1 41
𝑉3 = 𝑉1 2
= 𝑉1
𝑚 25
Similarly,
52 + 3 ∗ 5 + 1 3 ∗ 52 + 4 ∗ 5 + 1 41 75 + 20 + 1
𝑉4 = 𝑉1 + = 𝑉1 +
52 53 25 125

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❖This shows that V1< V2< V3< V4
❖This means the voltage drop across the unit nearest the cross arm is
minimum and it goes on increasing as we go towards the power conductor
❖The voltage drop across the unit nearest the power conductor is maximum
❖It is clear that the lowest unit in a string of insulators is fully stressed or
utilized.
❖As we go towards the cross arm the units are less stressed as compared to
their capacity and hence they are not utilized fully.
❖String efficiency is a measure of the utilization of material in the string and is
defined as:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
ղ=
𝑛 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
Or
𝑆. 𝑂. 𝑉. 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
ղ=
𝑛 × 𝑆. 𝑂. 𝑉. 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐
36
❖where n is the number of insulators in the string and S.O.V. represents
the spark over voltage
❖The potential distribution
across the insulator string
be obtained in an easier way
as follows.
❖Figure below is modified
slightly so as to keep symmetry
in writing mathematical expression

At junction n,
𝐼𝑛+1 = 𝐼𝑛 + 𝐼𝐶𝑛

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 𝑉𝑛
𝑣𝑛+1 = + 𝑣𝑛 (3.6)
𝑚

❖Here Vn is the voltage across n units from the top and 𝑣𝑛 is the voltage drop
across 𝑛𝑡ℎ unit. With this formula voltage drop across any unit can be
obtained in terms of 𝑣𝑛 .
❖Since it is known that the total voltage across the string is the sum of
voltages across all the units (which have been obtained in terms of 𝑣𝑛 ), the
value of 𝑣𝑛 can be obtained and hence by back substitution the value of
voltage across every unit can be calculated
❖The procedure can be explained by the following example:
Example
❖Let m = 5, number of units = 5 and total operating voltage is 66 kV line to
ground. Calculate the voltage drop across each unit and the string efficiency
Solusion
▪ Using the relation
38
 Vn
𝑣𝑛+1 = + 𝑣𝑛
m
𝑉1
𝑣2 = +𝑣1
𝑚

Similarly, V1 = 𝑣1
1 1
𝑣2 = + 1 𝑣1 = + 1 𝑣1 = 1.2𝑣1
𝑚 5
𝑉2 𝑣1 + 𝑣2
𝑣3 = + 𝑣2 = + 1.2𝑣1
𝑚 5
𝑣1 +1.2𝑣1
+ 1.2𝑣1 = 0.44𝑣1 + 1.2𝑣1 = 1.64𝑣1
5
𝑉3 𝑉2 + 𝑣3
𝑣4 = + 𝑣3 = + 𝑣3
𝑚 𝑚
𝑣1 +𝑣2 𝑣3 2.2𝑣1 +1.64𝑣1
= + + 𝑣3 = + 1.64𝑣1
𝑚 𝑚 5

𝑣4 = 0.768 + 1.64 𝑣1 = 2.408𝑣1

𝑉4 𝑉3 + 𝑣4 3.84𝑣1 + 2.408𝑣1
𝑣5 = + 𝑣4 = + 2.408𝑣1 = + 2.408𝑣1
𝑚 𝑚 5
39
v

𝑣5 = 1.2496 + 2.408 𝑣1 = 3.6576𝑣1

∴ 𝑉 = 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 + 𝑣3 + 𝑣4 + 𝑣5

= 𝑣1 1 + 1.2 + 1.64 + 2.408 + 3.6576 = 9.9056𝑣1

66
𝑣1 = = 6.67𝑘𝑉
9.9056
𝑣2 = 1.2 × 6.67 = 8𝑘𝑉

𝑣3 = 1.64 × 6.67 = 10.92𝑘𝑉

𝑣4 = 2.408 × 6.67 = 16.03𝑘𝑉

𝑣5 = 3.6576 × 6.67 = 24.3𝑘𝑉

66 × 100
% 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = = 54.4%
5 × 24.3

40
 Sag in overhead lines
•

❖While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that conductors are

under safe tension.
❖If the conductors are too much stretched between supports in a bid to
save conductor material, the stress in the conductor may reach unsafe
value and in certain cases the conductor may break due to excessive
tension.
❖In order to permit safe tension in the conductors, they are not fully
stretched but are allowed to have a dip or sag.
❖The difference in level between points of supports and the lowest point
on the conductor is called sag.
❖Fig. below (i) shows a conductor suspended between two equivalent
supports A and B. The conductor is not fully stretched but is allowed to
have a dip. The lowest point on the conductor is O and the sag is S. The
following points may be noted :

41
a. When the conductor is suspended between two supports at the same
level, it takes the shape of catenary. However, if the sag is very small
compared with the span, then sag-span curve is like a parabola.
b. The tension at any point on the conductor acts tangentially. Thus
tension TO at the lowest point O acts horizontally as shown in Fig. (ii).
c. The horizontal component of tension is constant throughout the length
of the wire.
d. The tension at supports is approximately equal to the horizontal
tension acting at any point on the wire. Thus if T is the tension at the
support B, then T =TO.

42
 Sag and tension calculations
➢ Figure below shows a conductor suspended freely from two supports,
which are at the same level and spaced L meter, takes the form of a
catenary curve providing the conductor is perfectly flexible and
conductor weight is uniformly distributed along its length

➢ When the sag (d) is very small in comparison to span L (i.e., the
conductor is tightly stretched), the resultant curve can be considered as
parabola

➢ If d<0.06L, the error in sag computed by the parabolic equations is less

than 0.5%

➢ If 0.06 L < d < 0.1 L, the error in sag computed by the parabolic
equations is about 2%
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Centenary Method
❖Supports at same Level
▪ Figure below shows a span of conductor with two supports at the same
level and separated by a horizontal distance L. Let O be the lowest point
on the catenary curve, l supports be the length of the conductor between
two supports.

▪ Let W is the weight of conductor per unit length (kg/m), T is the tension
of the conductor (kg) at any point P in the direction of the curves, and H
is the tension (kg) at origin O.

▪ Further, s be the length of the curve between points O and P, thus the
weight of the portion S is ws

44
Figure: Conductor suspended between supports at the same level
▪ Tension T can be resolved into two components, Tx, the horizontal
component and Ty, the vertical component.
▪ For equilibrium
𝑇𝑥 = 𝐻 (3.7)
𝑇𝑦 = 𝑤𝑠 (3.8)

45
➢ Thus, the portion OP of the conductor is in equilibrium under the tension
T at P, the weight ws acting vertically downward, and the horizontal
tension H

➢ Figure below shows a triangle, where ds represents a very short portion

of the conductor, in the region of point P

➢ When s is increased by ds, the corresponding x and y are increased by dx

and dy, respectively

Therefore, we can write,

𝑑𝑦 𝑉 𝑤𝑠
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = = (3.9)
𝑑𝑥 𝐻 𝐻

46
From the triangle,
(𝑑𝑠)2 = (𝑑𝑥)2 +(𝑑𝑦)2

𝑑𝑠 2 𝑑𝑦 2
=1+ (3.10)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Using eqns. (3.9) and (3.10), we get

2 2
𝑑𝑠 𝑤𝑠
=1+
𝑑𝑥 𝐻

ds
dx = (3.11)
ws 2
1+ H

Integrating both side of eqn. (3.11)

ds
‫ ׬‬dx = ‫׬‬
ws 2
1+ H
47
Therefore,
𝐻 𝑤𝑠
𝑥= sinh−1 +𝑘 (3.12)
𝑊 𝐻
1
Where k is constant of integration Note, ‫׬‬ 𝑑𝑥 = sinh−1 𝑥
1+𝑥 2

When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑠 = 0, and hence k= 0

‫؞‬ 𝑥=
𝐻
𝑊
sinh−1
𝑤𝑠
𝐻

𝐻 𝑤𝑥
‫؞‬ 𝑠= sinh (3.13)
𝑊 𝐻

Note, y = asinh 𝑎𝑥 → 𝑥 = 𝑎 sinh−1 (𝑎𝑦)

𝐿 𝑙
When 𝑥 = , 𝑆 =
2 2

‫؞‬ 𝑙
2
=
𝐻
𝑊
sinh
𝑤𝐿
2𝐻
+𝑘

48
 ‫؞‬ l=
2𝐻
𝑊
sinh
𝑤𝐿
2𝐻
+𝑘 (3.14)

Or we can write

3
2𝐻 1 𝑤𝐿 1 𝑤𝐿
𝑙= + +⋯
𝑤 1! 2𝐻 3! 2𝐻

or approximately,

𝑤 2 𝐿2
𝑙 =𝐿 1+ (3.15)
24𝐻 2

From eqns. (3.9) and (3.13), we get,

𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑠 𝑤𝑥
= = sinh
𝑑𝑥 𝐻 𝐻

𝑤𝑥
∴ 𝑑𝑦 = sinh dx (3.16) 49
𝐻
Integrating both sides of eqn. (3.16), we get,
𝑤𝑥
𝑦 = න sinh 𝑑𝑥
𝐻
𝐻 𝑤𝑥
∴ 𝑦= cosh + 𝐾1 (3.17)
𝑤 𝐻

if the lowest point of the curve is taken as the origin, when 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0,

−𝐻
Then 𝐾1 = , since by the series, cosh(0) =1
𝑤

Therefore,
𝐻 𝑤𝑥
y= cosh −1 (3.18)
𝑤 𝐻

The curve of eqn. (3.18) is called a catenary. Equation (3.18) can also be
written as
𝐻 1 𝑤𝑥 2
𝑦= 1+ +⋯ −1 (3.19)
𝑤 2! 𝐻

50
or in approximate form,
𝑤𝑥 2
𝑦= (3.20)
2𝐻

From figure (triangle),

𝑇 = 𝐻2 + 𝑉 2
𝑉 2
𝑇 =𝐻 1+ (3.21)
𝐻

From eqns. (3.21)and eqns. (3.9)

𝑑𝑦 2
𝑇 =𝐻 1+ (3.22)
𝑑𝑥

From eqn.(3.16), we get

𝑑𝑦 𝑤𝑥
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛ℎ (3.23)
𝑑𝑥 𝐻

From eqns.(3.22)and(3.23)
𝑤𝑥
𝑇 = 𝐻 cosh (3.24)
𝐻

51
 𝐿
whereas the total tension in the conductor at the support 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = is
2
𝑤𝐿
𝑇 = 𝐻 cosh (3.25)
2𝐻

Or
1 𝑤𝐿 2 1 𝑤𝐿 4
T= 𝐻 1 + + +⋯ (3.26)
2! 2𝐻 4! 2𝐻

The sag or deflection of the conductor for a span of L between supports on the
𝐿
same level is 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = , 𝑦 = 𝑑, 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(3.18)
2
𝐻 𝑊𝐿
𝑑= cosh −1 (3.27)
𝑤 2𝐻

Or
𝐿 1 𝑊𝐿 1 𝑤𝐿 3 1 𝑤𝐿 5
d= + + +⋯
2 2 2𝐻 4! 2𝐻 6! 2𝐻

or approximately,

𝑤𝐿2
𝑑= (3.28)
8𝐻

52
Example
▪ A transmission line conductor has been suspended freely from two towers
and has taken the form of a catenary that has c = 487.68 m. The distance
between the two towers is 152 m, and the weight of the conductor is 1160
kg/km. Calculate the following:
a). Length of the conductor
b). Sag
c). Maximum value of conductor tension using catenary method
d). Approximate value of tension by using parabolic method
Solution
a). Length of the conductor
2𝐻 𝑤𝐿
𝑙= sinh
𝑤 2𝐻
𝐻
Since 𝑐 =
𝑤
𝐿
𝑙 = 2𝑐 sinh c=487.67m, L=152m
2𝑐
152
𝑙 = 2 × 487.68 sinh
2×487.68
53
𝑙 = 152.576𝑚
or by using approximation formula

𝑤 2 𝐿2
𝑙 =𝐿 1+
24𝐻 2

𝐿2 1522
𝑙 =𝐿 1+ 2
= 152 1 + 2
𝑚
24𝑐 24 × (487.68)
𝑙 = 152.615𝑚

b). Sag is calculated as

𝐻 𝑤𝐿
𝑑= cosh −1
𝑤 2𝐻

𝐿 𝐻
‫ 𝑐 = 𝑑 ؞‬cosh −1 since, 𝑐 =
2𝐶 𝑤

152
‫ = 𝑑 ؞‬487.68 cosh −1
2×487.68

‫ = 𝑑؞‬5.934𝑚 54
c). Maximum tension
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑤(𝑐 + 𝑑)
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 1.16 × 487.68 + 5.934 𝑘𝑔

‫؞‬ 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 572.59𝑘𝑔

d). Tension using parabolic equation

𝑤𝐿2
𝑑=
8𝑇

𝑤𝐿2 1.16×(152)2
‫=𝑇 ؞‬ = 𝑘𝑔
8𝑑 8×5.934

‫؞‬ 𝑇 = 564.55𝑘𝑔

55
 Introduction to corona
o The use of high voltage is extremely important in order to meet the
rapidly increasing power demand
o When the applied voltage exceeds a certain value, called critical
disruptive voltage, the conductors are surrounded by a faint violet glow
called corona
o The phenomenon of violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone
gas in an overhead transmission line is known as corona
o The corona characteristic of transmission lines having voltage level 220
kV or above assumed greater importance
o Investigations on the basis of experiments reveals that it is possible to
predict corona performance of transmission line under various operating
conditions
o Corona has associated power loss, radio and TV interference and audible
noise
o Corona influences the line losses and design of overhead transmission
line conductors, accessories, hardware and insulators, etc
56
 Phenomenon of corona
o Air is not a perfect insulator and even under normal condition, the air contains a
number of free electrons and ions

o Consider two large parallel conducting planes. When an electric gradient is setup
between them, the electrons and ions acquire motion by this electric field and
they maintain a very small current between the conducting planes. This current is
negligible, when the electric field intensity is less than 30 kV/cm

o But when the electric field intensity or potential gradient reaches the critical
value of about 30 kV/cm, the air in the immediate vicinity of conductors no more
remains a dielectric and at this intensity, the ions attain high velocity and on
striking another neutral molecule dislodge one or more electrons from the neutral
molecule. This produces a new electron and a positive ion which in turn are
accelerated and collide with other air molecules to ionize them further

57
o Thus the number of charged particles goes on increasing rapidly.

o If a uniform field intensity is assumed between the electrodes such conditions are
produced everywhere in the gap. As a result of this, the saturation is reached.
Therefore, the air becomes conducting, hence a complete electric breakdown occurs
and arc is established between the two electrodes

o When an alternating potential difference is applied across two conductors whose

spacing is large in comparison with the diameter, then the air surrounding the
conductor is subjected to electro-static stresses. This stress or intensity is maximum at
the surface of the conductor and then decreases in reverse proportion to the distance
from the center of the conductor

o If this potential difference is gradually increased, a point will be reached when a faint
luminous glow of violet color will make its appearance, and at the same time a hissing
noise will be heard. This phenomenon is called corona and is accompanied by the
formation of ozone, as indicated by the characteristic odor of this gas.
58
Critical disruptive voltage
o The minimum phase-neutral voltage at which complete disruption of air
occurs and corona starts is called the disruptive critical voltage.
o The potential gradient corresponding to this value of the voltage is called
disruptive critical voltage gradient
o Consider a single phase transmission line of figure below. Let r be the
radius of each conductor and D the distance of separation such that D>>r.
o Since it is a single phase transmission line, let q be the charge per unit
length on one of the conductors and hence –q on the other.
o If the operating voltage is V, the potential of conductor A with respect to
neutral plane N will be V/2 and that of B will be –V/2
o Consider a point p at a distance x where we want to find the electric field
intensity, Bringing a unit positive charge at P.

59
o The field due to A will be repulsive
and that due to B will be attractive;
thereby the electric field intensity at
p due to both the line charges
will be additive and it will be

𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 1 1
𝐸𝑥 = + = +
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 2𝜋𝜀0 (𝐷 − 𝑥) 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 𝐷 − 𝑥
The potential difference between the conductors
𝐷−𝑟 𝐷−𝑟
𝑞 1 1
𝑉 = න 𝐸𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = න + 𝑑𝑥
𝑟 𝑟 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 𝐷 − 𝑥
𝑞 𝐷−𝑟
= ln 𝑥 − ln 𝐷 − 𝑥 𝑟
2𝜋𝜀0
𝑞 𝐷−𝑟 𝑞 𝐷−𝑟 1
= . 2 ln = . ln (3.25) Note:- ‫ = 𝑥𝑑 ׬‬ln 𝑥
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 𝑥
1
Since r is very small as compared to D, D-r = D ‫𝐷 ׬‬−𝑥 = − ln(𝐷 − 𝑥)
60
 𝑞 𝐷
𝑉= ln (3.26)
𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

Now gradient at any point x from the center of the conductor A is given by by

𝑞 1 1
𝐸𝑥 = +
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑥 𝐷 − 𝑥
𝑞 𝐷
= .
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑥(𝐷 − 𝑥)
Substituting for q from the equation (3.26),
𝜋𝜀0 𝑉
𝑞=
𝐷
ln
𝑟
𝜋𝜀0 𝑉 1 𝐷
𝐸𝑥 = . .
𝐷 2𝜋𝜀0 𝑥(𝐷 − 𝑥)
ln
𝑟
𝑉 𝐷
= 𝐷.
2ln 𝑟 𝑥(𝐷−𝑥)

61
 𝑉 ′𝐷
𝐷 (3.27)
𝑥(𝐷−𝑥) ln 𝑟
• Here V'

•
r

Hence 𝑉 ′ is the line to neutral voltage of the system. In case of 3-phase

system
𝑉𝐿
𝑉′ =
3
o From the expression for the gradient it is clear that for a given
transmission system the gradient increases as x decreases i.e., the
gradient is maximum when x = r, the surface of the conductor, and this
value is given by
g 𝑉′ 𝐷 Where D>>r, D-r=D
𝑚𝑎𝑥= 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷
𝑟(𝐷−𝑟) ln 𝑟

𝑉′
= 𝐷
𝑟 ln 𝑟

Or
𝐷
𝑉 ′ = 𝑟g 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ln (3.28)
𝑟

62
o Critical disruptive voltage is defined as the voltage at which complete
disruptive of dielectric occurs.
o This voltage corresponds to the gradient at the surface equal to the
breakdown strength of air
o This dielectric strength is normally denoted by g 0 and is equal to 30
kV/cm peak at NTP i.e, 25°𝐶 and 76 cm Hg
o At any other temperature and pressure
ǵ₀= g 0 .δ (3.29)
• Where

•
o o

Where δ is the air density correction factor and is given by

3.92𝑏
δ= (3.30)
273+𝑡
Where b is the barometeric pressure in cm of Hg and t the temperature in
oC

Therefore, the critical disruptive voltage is given by

𝐷
𝑉 ′ = 𝑟g 0 .δ ln kV (3.31)
𝑟

63
o In driving the above expression, an assumption is made that the
conductor is solid and the surface is smooth.
o The irregularities on the surface of such a conductor are increased further
because of the deposition of dust and dirty on its surface and the
breakdown voltage is further reduced
o An average value for the ratio of breakdown voltage for such a conductor
and smooth conductor lies between 0.85 to unity and is denoted by mo
o Suitable values of mo are given below.
▪ Polished wires 1.0

▪ Roughened or weathered wires 0.98 to 0.93

▪ Seven strand cable 0.87 to 0.83

▪ Large cables with more then seven strands 0.90 approx.

64
o The final expression for critical disruptive voltage after taking into
account the atmospheric conditions and the surface of the conductor is
given by
𝐷
𝑉 ′ = 𝑟g 0 .δmo ln kV (3.32)
𝑟

Visual critical voltage

o Visual luminous glow of corona generally occurs at a voltage higher than
the disruptive critical voltage. Actual visual corona does not start at the
disruptive critical voltage
o The voltage at which corona glow appears all along the line conductor is
called visual critical voltage
If VV is the critical visual voltage, then
𝐷
𝑉𝑉 = g 𝑉 𝑟 ln
𝑟
for visual distruptive, the voltage gradient is

0.3
g𝑉 = g0𝛿 1 +
𝑟𝛿
65
Then
0.3 𝐷
V𝑣 = 𝑟g 0 𝛿 1 + ln kV
𝑟𝛿 𝑟

In case the irregularity factor is taken into account

0.3 𝐷
V𝑣 = g 0 𝑚𝑣 𝛿𝑟 1 + ln kV
𝑟𝛿 𝑟
0.3 𝐷
= 21.1g 0 𝑚𝑣 𝛿𝑟 1 + ln kV(r m s)
𝑟𝛿 𝑟
Where r is the radius in cms. the irregularity factor 𝑚𝑣 has the following
values
𝑚𝑣 = 1.0 for polished wires
= 0.98 to 0.93 for rough conductor exposed to atmospheric severity
= 0.72 for local corona on stranded conductors
o Since the surface of the conductor is irregular, the corona does not start
simultaneously on the whole surface but it takes place at different points
of the conductor which are pointed and this is known as local corona.
o For local corona 𝑚𝑣 = 0.72 and for decided corona or general corona 𝑚𝑣
= 0.82

66
Example
▪ Find the critical disruptive voltage and visual critical voltages for local
and general corona on a 3-phase overhead transmission line, consisting
of three stranded copper conductors spaced 2.5 m apart at the corners of
an equilateral triangle. Air temperature and pressure are 21°c and 73.6
cm Hg respectively. The conductor diameter, irregularity factor and
surface factor are 10.4 mm, 0.85, 0.7 and 0.8 respectively.

Solution
The critical disruptive voltage is given by
𝐷
𝑉𝑑 = 21.1𝑚𝛿𝑟 ln
𝑟
3.92𝑏 3.92×73.6
Where δ= = δ= = 0.9813
273+𝑡 273+21
250
𝑉𝑑 = 21.1 × 0.85 × 0.9813 × 0.52 × ln = 56.5𝑘𝑉
0.52
67
or the critical disruptive line to line voltage = 56.5 × 3 = 97.89𝑘𝑉
The visual critical voltage is given by
0.3
𝐷
𝑉𝑣 = 21.1𝑚𝛿𝑟(1 + )ln
𝑟𝛿 𝑟
Here, m = 0.7 for local corona
= 0.8 for decided corona or general corona
Now, 𝑟𝛿 = 0.52 × 0.9813 = 0.71433
𝐷
∴ 𝑉𝑣 for local corona =21.1 × 0.7 × 0.9813 × 0.52(1 + 0.42) ln
𝑟
= 10.7 × 6.175 = 66.0725𝑘𝑉
The line to line voltage will be 66.0725 × 3 = 114.44𝑘𝑉
The visual critical voltage for general corona will be
0.8
114.44 × = 130.78𝑘𝑉
0.7

68
Thank you!!
Chapter-4

69