COMPUTER NETWORK AND

ADMINISTRATION
CORE - I

B.Voc SD | CNA | SEM-IV

NETWORK HARDWARE :
The basic computer hardware components that are needed to set up a

network are as follows −

Network Cables
Network cables are the transmission media to transfer data from one

device to another. A commonly used network cable is category 5 cable

with RJ – 45 connector, as shown in the image below:

Routers
A router is a connecting device that transfers data packets between

different computer networks. Typically, they are used to connect a PC or

an organization’s LAN to a broadband internet connection. They contain

RJ-45 ports so that computers and other devices can connect with them

using network cables.

Repeaters, Hubs, and Switches

1. Repeaters, hubs, and switches connect network devices, so that

they can function as a single segment, A repeater receives a signal and regenerates it before re-
transmitting so that it can travel longer distances.

2. A hub is a multiport repeater having several input/output ports, so that

input at any port is available at every other port.

3. A switch receives data from a port and uses packet switching to resolve the

destination device and then forwards the data to the particular

destination, rather than broadcasting it as a hub.

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Bridges
A bridge connects two separate Ethernet network segments. It forwards

packets from the source network to the destined network.

Gateways
A gateway connects entirely different networks that work upon different

protocols. It is the entry and exit point of a network and controls

access to other networks.

Network Interface Cards

NIC is a component of the computer to connect it to a network. Network

cards are of two types: Internal network cards and external network

cards.

NETWORKING SOFTWARE :

Networking :
Networking is the exchange of information and ideas among people with a common
profession or special interest, usually in an informal social setting. Networking often begins with a
single point of common ground.

Types of Networks
1. PAN (Personal Area Network)
2. LAN (Local Area Network)
3. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
4. WAN (Wide Area Network)

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Networking software :
Networking software is a foundational element for any network. It helps administrators
deploy, manage, and monitor a network. Traditional networks are made up of specialized hardware,
such as routers and switches, that bundle the networking software into the solution.

THE TCP/IP (TRANSMISSION CONTROL

PROTOCOL/INTERNET PROTOCOL) :
The TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) reference model is a
conceptual framework used to understand and design computer networks. It is not as formalized as
the OSI model but is widely employed, especially in the context of the Internet. The TCP/IP model
consists of four layers:

Application Layer:
This layer provides network services directly to end-users or applications. Protocols like
HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), and SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol) operate at this level.

Transport Layer:
Responsible for end-to-end communication, it ensures the reliable and orderly delivery of
data. The two main protocols at this layer are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), which provides
reliable, connection-oriented communication, and UDP (User Datagram Protocol), which is
connectionless and faster.

Internet Layer:
Manages addressing, routing, and fragmentation of data into packets for transmission. IP
(Internet Protocol) operates at this layer, allowing devices on different networks to communicate.

Link Layer:
Also known as the Network Interface Layer or Network Access Layer, this layer deals with
the physical connection to the network medium. It includes protocols such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi,
addressing devices on the local network.

The TCP/IP model is a key part of the architecture that underlies the functioning of the
Internet, and its simplicity and practicality have contributed to its widespread use. Unlike the
seven-layer OSI model, the TCP/IP model combines the data link and physical layers into a single
layer, recognizing the reality that these two layers are often closely intertwined in practical
implementations.

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ARPANET :
ARPANET, which stands for the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network, was one of
the earliest packet-switching networks and is considered the precursor to the modern Internet.
Developed by the United States Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA,
now DARPA) in the late 1960s and early 1970s, ARPANET was designed to facilitate communication
and data exchange among researchers and scientists at various institutions.

ARPANET used packet-switching technology, allowing data to be broken down into packets
and transmitted independently across the network. This decentralized approach to data transmission
was a key innovation that contributed to the robustness and flexibility of the network.

On October 29, 1969, the first successful message was sent over ARPANET between the
University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA), and the Stanford Research Institute (SRI). The message
was intended to be "LOG IN," but the system crashed after only two letters, making it one of the most
famous first messages in Internet history.

Over time, ARPANET expanded, connecting more research institutions and playing a crucial
role in the development of networking protocols and technologies. As ARPANET laid the
groundwork for the Internet, it became an essential milestone in the history of computer networking
and communication.

INTERNET PHYSICAL LAYER GUIDED TRANSMISSION :

Introduction:
Guided transmission media are cables like twisted pair cables, coaxial cables, and Fibre
optic cables. Unguided transmission media are wireless, such as infrared, radio waves, and
microwaves. Connectors are used to connect the media with networking devices, and they are
specific for each transmission medium

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One Mark Question :
1. A single channel is shared by multiple signals by ____________

A. analog modulation

B. digital modulation

✓ C. multiplexing

D. phase modulation

2. The physical layer translates logical communication requests from the ______ into hardware-
specific operations.

✓ A. data link layer

B. network layer

C. transport layer

D. application layer

3. Which transmission media provides the highest transmission speed

in a network?

A. coaxial cable

B. twisted pair cable

✓ C. Optical Fibre

D. electrical cable

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5mark question:
Difference between Guided and Unguided Media

8Mark Question
S.NO Guided Media Unguided Media

In guided media, the signal In unguided media, the signal energy

1. energy is communicated via communicates through the air.
wires.
Guided media is generally Unguided media is generally preferred for
2. preferred when we want to radio broadcasting in all directions
execute direct communication
Unguided media is generally The unguided media formed the continuous
3. preferred for radio network topologies
broadcasting in all directions
Here, the signals are in the Here, the signals are in the state of
4. state of current and voltage electromagnetic waves.

In the case of guided media, In the case of unguided media, it is not

5. the transmission capacity can feasible to acquire more capacity.
be boosted by counting more
wires
Open Wire, Twisted Pair, Microwave Transmission, Radio
6. Coaxial Cable, and Optical Transmission, and Infrared Transmission are
Fibre are the different kinds of the types of unguided media
guided media
For a shorter distance, this is For longer distances, this method is used
7. the best option
The guided media is also called The unguided media is also called wireless
8. wired communication or communication or unbounded transmission
bounded transmission media media
Signals are in the form of Signals are in the form of electromagnetic
9. voltage, current, or photons in waves in unguided media
the guided media
It is unable to pass through It can pass through walls
10. walls

Types of transmission media:

In data communication terminology, a transmission medium is a physical path between the
transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the channel through which data is sent from one place to
another. Transmission Media is broadly classified into the following types

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Guided Media:
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being

transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.

Features:
A. High Speed
B. Secure
C. Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other.

Generally, several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the

most widely used Transmission Media.

Twisted Pair is of two types:

➢ Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):

UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around one another. This type of

cable can block interference and does not depend on a physical shield for

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this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages:
▪ Least expensive
▪ Easy to install
▪ High-speed capacity

Disadvantages:
▪ Susceptible to external interference
▪ Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
▪ Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Applications:
Used in telephone connections and LAN networks

➢ Shielded Twisted Pair (STP):

This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid covering or a foil shield)

to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and voice and

data channels of telephone lines.

Advantages:
▪ Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
▪ Eliminates crosstalk
▪ Comparatively faster

Disadvantages:
▪ Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
▪ More expensive
▪ Bulky

Applications:
The shielded twisted pair type of cable is most frequently used in extremely cold climates,

where the additional layer of outer covering makes it perfect for withstanding such

temperatures or for shielding the interior components.

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Coaxial Cable
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and

2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial cable transmits
information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable
bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and

analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Coaxial cables are of two types.

Baseband transmission:
It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high speed.

Broadband transmission:
It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals simultaneously

Advantages:
▪ High Bandwidth
▪ Better noise Immunity
▪ Easy to install and expand
▪ Inexpensive

Disadvantages:
▪ Single cable failure can disrupt the entire network

Applications:
Radiofrequency signals are sent over a coaxial wire. It can be used for cable television

signal distribution, digital audio (S/PDIF), computer network connections (like Ethernet),

and feedlines that connect radio transmitters and receivers to their antennas.

Optical Fibre Cable

It uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or plastic. The

core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is used

for the transmission of large volumes of data.

The cable can be unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division

Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

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Advantages:
▪ Increased capacity and bandwidth
▪ Lightweight
▪ Less signal attenuation
▪ Immunity to electromagnetic interference
▪ Resistance to corrosive materials

Disadvantages:
▪ Difficult to install and maintain
▪ High cost
▪ Fragile

Applications:
▪ Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
▪ Defence Purpose: Used in the transmission of data in aerospace.
▪ For Communication: This is largely used in the formation of internet cables.
▪ Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the
▪ interior and exterior of automobiles.

TWISTED CABLES :
1. Basic Structure: Twisted pair cables consist of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted
together. The twisting helps reduce electromagnetic interference, enhancing signal
integrity.

2. Types: There are two main types—Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted
Pair (STP). UTP is more common due to its cost-effectiveness, while STP has additional
shielding for extra protection against interference.

3. Categories: Twisted pair cables come in different categories (Cat5e, Cat6, Cat7), indicating
their performance capabilities. Higher categories generally support higher data transfer
rates and better performance.

4. Ethernet Connectivity: Twisted pair cables are widely used for Ethernet connections,
serving as the physical medium for local area networks (LANs) in homes, offices, and data
centres.

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 5. Data Transmission: Twisted pair cables transmit data using differential Signalling, where
information is carried by the difference in voltage between the two wires in a pair. This
method helps in noise reduction.
6. Distance Limitations: The effective transmission distance of twisted pair cables can be
influenced by factors such as cable category, quality, and external interference. Repeaters
or switches may be used to extend the reach of the network.

7. RJ-45 Connectors: Twisted pair cables often terminate with RJ-45 connectors, which are
standard for Ethernet connections. These connectors play a crucial role in maintaining the
integrity of the connection.

8. Versatility: Twisted pair cables are versatile and used not only for networking but also for
telephone connections. Their widespread use is due to their balance of performance, cost-
effectiveness, and ease of installation.

COAXIAL CABLE:
Coaxial cable, often referred to as coax cable, is a type of electrical cable that consists of a
central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic shield, and an outer insulating layer. It is designed
to transmit signals with minimal interference and is commonly used in various applications,
including television, internet connectivity, and telecommunications.

1. Central Conductor: This is usually made of copper or aluminium and serves as the core
through which electrical signals are transmitted.

2. Insulating Layer: Surrounding the central conductor is an insulating material, typically

made of plastic, foam, or other dielectric materials. This layer prevents the signal from
leaking and also maintains the geometry of the cable.

3. Metallic Shield: A layer of metallic foil or braided wire surrounds the insulating layer.
This shield serves multiple purposes: it provides additional insulation, acts as a grounding
mechanism, and protects the signal from external electromagnetic interference.

4. Outer Insulating Layer: The entire cable is covered by an outer insulating layer, usually
made of plastic or rubber, to protect it from environmental factors like moisture and
physical damage.

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 Coaxial cables are widely used for transmitting cable television signals, internet connectivity
(particularly in cable broadband), and various communication systems. They offer good signal
quality, low signal loss, and effective shielding against interference, making them suitable for
applications where signal integrity is crucial.

FIBRE OPTICS :
Fibre optics is a technology that uses thin strands of glass or plastic Fibres to transmit data
as pulses of light. These optical Fibres carry information over long distances with high bandwidth
and low signal loss, making them a crucial component in modern communication systems.

Here are the key components of Fibre optic cables:

1. Core: The core is the innermost part of the Fibre optic cable, where light travels. It is
usually made of glass or plastic and serves as a medium for transmitting light signals.

2. Cladding: Surrounding the core is the cladding, which is also made of glass or plastic. The
cladding has a lower refractive index than the core, which helps to guide the light within
the core by reflecting it into the core.

3. Buffer Coating: An outer layer called the buffer coating protects the core and cladding
from external environmental factors and physical damage. It also helps to maintain the
flexibility of the Fibre.

The process of transmitting data through Fibre optics involves using light pulses to represent
binary data (0s and 1s). When light passes through the core, it undergoes total internal reflection
due to the difference in refractive index between the core and cladding. This property allows the
light to travel long distances within the Fibre without significant signal loss.

Fibre optic communication offers several advantages, including:

➢ High Bandwidth: Fibre optics can transmit a large amount of data over long distances at
high speeds.
➢ Low Signal Loss: Optical Fibres experience less signal loss compared to traditional copper
cables.
➢ Immunity to Electromagnetic Interference: Fibre optics are not affected by
electromagnetic interference, making them ideal for areas with high electromagnetic noise.
➢ Security: Fibre optic signals are difficult to tap into, providing a higher level of security for
data transmission.

Fibre optics are widely used in telecommunications, internet services, cable television, networking,
and various other applications where high-speed, reliable data transmission is essential.

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WIRELESS TRANSMISSION :
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no
physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless signals
are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.

When an antenna is attached to the electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it

converts the digital data into wireless signals and spreads all over within its frequency range. The
receptor on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.

A little part of the electromagnetic spectrum can be used for wireless transmission.

Radio Transmission
Radiofrequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength, it can penetrate through
walls and structures alike. Radio waves can have wavelengths from 1 mm to 100,000 km and have
frequencies ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely High
Frequency). Radio frequencies are subdivided into six bands.

Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in
straight lines and bounce back. The power of low-frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover
long distances. High-frequency radio waves have more power.

Lower frequencies such as VLF, LF, and MF bands can travel on the ground up to
1000kilometers, over the earth’s surface.

Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They
use the Ionosphere of the earth's atmosphere. High-frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF
bands are spread upwards. When they reach the Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.

Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over
them can be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves
travel in straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line of sight.

Microwaves can have wavelengths ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequencies ranging
from 300 MHz to 300 GHz.

Personal Area Network

Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in the picture
above, multiple antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and
do not penetrate wall-like obstacles.

Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it
is used.

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Infrared Transmission
Infrared wave lies in between the visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has a
wavelength of 700 nm to 1 mm and frequency ranges from 300 GHz to 430 THz.

Infrared wave is used for very short-range communication purposes such as television and
its remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of the high-
frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.

Light Transmission
The highest electromagnetic spectrum that can be used for data transmission is light or
optical Signalling. This is achieved using LASER, Because of the frequency light uses, it tends to
travel strictly in a straight line. Hence the sender and receiver must be in the line of sight. Because
laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends of communication the laser and the photo-
detector need to be installed. The laser beam is generally 1mm wide hence it is a work of precision
to align two far receptors each pointing to a laser source.

Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors work as Rx (receiver). Lasers cannot penetrate
obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, the laser beam is distorted by wind,
atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the path. Laser is safe for data transmission
as it is very difficult to tap a 1mm wide laser without interrupting the communication channel.

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