A4.

1 Evolution and Speciation

●​ Whales have adapted to life in water, breathing air, feeding, mating, giving birth, and
raising their young in the open waters of the ocean
○​ Hard to believe that their earlier relatives lived on land
■​ Hippos are thought to be the closest living relatives
●​ No clear reason why whale's ancestors moved to the water, but those best adapted to
water were the ones that survived
○​ Limbs became flippers, and eventually became the distinct species we know now
●​ What is evolution?
○​ Study of fossils, selective breeding of plants and animals, comparative anatomy of
animals, nucleotide and amino acid sequences, and the geographical distribution
of organisms act as evidence for evolution
●​ 2 main theories for evolution and evidence
○​ Darwinism (Charles Darwin)
■​ By fossils, his observations in the Galapagos Islands, experiments on
selective breeding: all paving the way for the idea of natural selection
■​ Tendency in nature to produce more offspring than supported by the
environment, 'overproduction' leading to competition, allowing population
sizes to level out
■​ Individuals are not identical but varied
■​ Variations that allow better survive in the environment are more likely to
survive, reproduce, and pass on positive variations, and vice versa
■​ They are almost being selected by nature, thus natural seleciton
■​ Eventually, the individual with favourable variations will become a greater
proportion of the population
■​ These populations of species will become highly adapted for their
environment, and if a population of species is isolated reproductively,
physically, or behaviourally, eventually, will become new species
○​ Lamarckism (Charles Lamarck)
○​ Proposed that physical changes acquired by organisms during their lifetime were
passed on to their offspring
■​ Changes in environment led to the certain use/disuse of organs
■​ Organs used more would increase in size over their lifetime, and organs
not used would shrink
■​ These changes would be passed to their offspring
●​ Now that we know that evolution is about the change in inherited characteristics,
Lamarckism is no longer accepted as these acquired changes do not affect germ cells and
can therefore not control what genes are passed on from one to another
●​ DNA, RNA, and proteins are universal in nature and all organisms have the same
nucleotide bases (organic molecules that make up DNA) and amino acids (the small
molecules that make up proteins)
○​ Shows a common origin of life
■​ So, to prove the common origin of life, one can take comparative analyses
of the sequences of bases in DNA and RNA or amino acids in proteins
■​ "Molecular phylogeny"
■​ Examination of how closely two species are related on a molecular
level, with greater similarity point to greater relation
■​ Changes in genome (or specific amino acids) occur due to mutations
■​ Rate of mutations for all genes are fairly constant and lead to
differens in the DNA
■​ These mutations over time lead to accumulations
■​ So the number of differences between the sequence
of bases of a gene between two species increases
with time, creating this idea of a molecular clock (a
technique that uses the mutation rate of
biomolecules to deduce the time since two species
shared a common ancestor)
■​ The fewer the differences, the shorted the amount of
time since the species diverged from each other
●​ Selective breeding of dogs, seen in the huge variety of dog breeds
○​ But studies have found all these dog breeds have come from the same extinct wolf
species
○​ After all, humans played a big role in creating these breeds, breeding for desired
characteristics through the process of selective breeding
■​ Unlike natural selection where organisms naturally adapt to being better
suited for an environment, selective means that humans decide what
favourable variations are
■​ Desirable characteristics are chosen and use them as the next
generation of parents
■​ As humans continuously choose the desirable
characteristics while removing less desirable ones, there is
rapid genetic change
○​ This is not new, and humans have been doing this for centuries with plants and
animals to benefit us
■​ Farmers selectively breed cows to increase milk production, hens to
increase egg size, crops to increase disease resistance and yield
■​ For example, the wild mustard plant has been bred to produce what
we now known of as kale, broccoli, and cauliflower
 ■​ This all brings rapid changes in the genetic makeup of a population,
eventually leading to evolution
○​ Darwin's experiments on pigeon breeding helped him frame his theory of natural
selection, as different breeds of pigeons all descended from the same wild rock
pigeon
■​ By examining and drawing parallels between this known selective
breeding, Darwin created theories of natural selection
■​ Stated that while selective is more rapid, both lead to evolution
through the choice of favourable characteristics
○​ Some body structures of organisms are fundamentally similar
■​ Homologous structures have the same basic structural plan, indicating that
they have the same ancestors
■​ Ex. the pentadactyl limb of vertebrates
■​ While the pentadactly can have different functions, they
have striking similarities in structure
■​ They are a result of divergent evolution, where organisms from the
same ancestor adapt to different environmental conditions due to
natural selection pressures
■​ Analagous structures are body parts that have very similar or the same
function in different groups of organisms and different structures
■​ Ex. a feather bird wing to an insects wing
■​ Do not indicate evolutionary relationships but instead convergent
evolution, where distantly related groups of organisms face similar
environmental conditions and adapt in similar ways
●​ When similar organisms can mate with each other and produce viable, fertile offspring,
they are considered the same species (reproductive compatability)
○​ But this definition is not always perfect... what does that do to our definition then?
●​ We estimate 8.7 million eukaryotic species on Earth
●​ Speciation: the formation of new species by the splitting of one pre-existing species into
two or more new species
○​ An ancestral species will split into two or more descendent species that are
genetically different from each other and can no longer interbreed
●​ Populations of species share gene pools (collecitons of variants of the genes in the
species)
○​ Speciation allows for modification of original gene pools into separate gene pools
to prevent interbreeding
○​ So, speciation leads to genetic separation
■​ Speciation is the mechanism to increase the total number of species, which
extinction is the opposite
 ○​ Note that gradual evolutionary changes does not always lead to the formation of a
new species
■​ Addiotionally, evolutionary changes in the gene pool can occur before
speciation
●​ Many different theories to speciation
○​ [1] Reproductive isolation due to geographical barriers
■​ Prevents populations of the same species from interbreeding and
producing fertile offspring
■​ Ex. physical barriers, mountain ranges, rivers, large distances,
human-made barriers like roads and dams
■​ Stages:
■​ Large population occupies a habitat
■​ Formation of new geographical barrier divides the population into
two smaller ones
■​ This barrier prevents member from each group from mixing or
interbreeding
■​ Due to evolutionary forces, genes that provide better adaptation to
environmental challenge will be selected over other and
transmitted through generations
■​ (or, natural selection will lead to differential reproduction
and in a way, differential selection)
■​ Differential selection gradually leads to genetic separation
■​ Selection differential is the difference between the mean of
a qualitative character in a whole population and the mean
of the individuals selected to reproduce in the next
generation
■​ A measure of association between a trait's value and
its ability to confer reproductive success survival
rates
■​ Resulting behavioural and/or physiological changes prevent
populations from mating
■​ Now, even if barrier is removed, the populations with not
interbreed and two new species have been formed
○​ Example: Chimpanzees and bonobos
■​ Chimpanzees live across equatorial Africa, while bonobos are restricted to
a region south of the Congo River
■​ Chimpanzees are larger, more aggressive, and male-dominated
■​ Bonobos are slender, more playful, and female dominated
■​ Both once belonged to the same common ancestral species living in the
DRC's rainforests
 ■​ But with the formation of the Congo River, the deepest river in the world,
1.5-2 million years ago, the populations were split into two
■​ In the north, intense competition in both and with gorillas, with aggressive
tendencies being favoured
■​ In the south, resources were plentiful, leading to more slender and
cooperative bonobos

C4.1 Populations and Communities

●​ In ecosystems, different species interact with one another and their non-living
surroundings, resulting in the formation of complex feeding relationships, which then
play a vital role in maintaining the structure and health of the ecosystem
○​ Varies between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
○​ Understanding this allows for better monitoring of ecosystems overtime,
especially following disturbances and when pursuing conservation
○​ Estimating the size of populations allows for better studying of the dynamics of
populations and communities, but counting individuals is impractical and tedious
○​ So how else do we count?
●​ C4.1.1-2 Population sizes and random sampling
○​ A concept of a species can be determined in various aspects
○​ But a population refers to a groups of organisms of the same species that typically
interbreed and share a common gene pool
○​ Within species, populations can show variations due to geographic or
environmental factors
○​ Factors that distinguish populations are reproductive isolation due to
geographical, behavioural, or temporal isolation
■​ This then restricts gene flow between organisms and leads to the
accumulation of different genetic variations and the emergence of distinc
populations, potentially leading to speciation
○​ Random sampling is a method of selecting a subset of individuals from a larger
population in a way that each individual has an equal chance of being selected
■​ This allows for the minimization of bias, ensuring an accurate reflection of
an overall population
■​ Targeting specific traits or characteristics creates skewed data that would
not properly reflect true diversity and distribution
●​ C4.1.3-4 Estimating population sizes
○​ The way to estimate a population's size depends on the nature of the organisms
being observed
○​ Quadrat sampling is a technique best used to study populations of sessile
organisms
 ■​ A quadrat, or a square frame of known area is randomly placed over a
section of the habitat being studied and the number of organisms of
interest that fall within the quadrat are recorded
■​ Size of quadrat typically depending on the dimensions of the organisms
and overall size area
■​ Quadrats should be randomly placed over multiple sections of a study area
■​ Once in position, observer counts and records the number or organisms in
each quadrat
■​ Allows for estimation of population sizes and spatial distribution
patterns
■​ When species are outside of the quadrat, reserachers need to establish
standard counting criterion
○​ Quadrat sampling can also be done through photographs, where scientists capture
high-resolution images of a habitat and overlay a grid system on a photo
■​ This is non-intrusive and is also useful for studying organisms that are
difficult to physically access or study in situ
■​ This expands the applicability of quadrat sampling, allowing for
braoder research possibilties and studies
■​ When choosing the number of quadrats, there needs to be enough to be
able to reliable estimates while not being so large to be too onerous to
carry out
■​ When collecting data from multiple samples, this allows for more accurate
estimates of population size and distribution patterns
○​ Once data collected, mean number of organisms per quadrat is calculated by
adding up counts and dividing by total number of sampled quadrats
○​ Crucial to understanding population dynamics, assessing ecological patterns, and
monitoring changes over time
■​ By conducting random quadrats of the same habitat over time, can track
changes in population size, consistency of distribution patterns, and detect
shifts
○​ But measuring motile organisms is challenging
■​ Would use the capture-mark-release recapture method and Lincoln index
■​ Capturing a significant sample of the population and then marking
(without also harming or compromising the survival of organisms)
■​ Then released into the population and given time to naturally
interact with unmarked individuals
■​ After suitable period of time has passed (a few days or weeks),
second sample is collected with marked and unmarked
■​ Then use the Lincoln index with
 ■​
○​ But it is important to acknowledge the assumptions and limitations
■​ Assumptions for capture-mark-release-recapture is that
■​ The marking technique does not have any influence on the
behaviour or survival of the organism
■​ That the marked individuals fully reintegrate into the population
and have equal chances of being captured compared to unmarked
individuals
■​ There are no births, deaths, immigrations, or emigrations
■​ Assumptions for Lincoln index
■​ Marked individuals are representative of entire population
■​ Ratio of marked to unmarked accurately reflects ratio of
population
○​ Despite this, can enhance accuracy by increasing sample sizes and conducting
repeated sampling
○​ Factors that affect the signficance of this are:
■​ Level of mobility, population density, and availability of resources to
perform the study play a role in determining how big of a sample is
required
■​ Statistical techniques can determine the appropriate sample size based on
desired accuracy and significance
●​ C4.1.5-8 Population dynamics
●​ Carrying capacity:
○​ Every environment has a limit, or their carrying capacity (the max population size
of a species that can be sustained by a given environment)
○​ Influenced by availability of resources
○​ Is dynamic, varies over space and time depending on the abundance of limiting
resources
○​ Ex. Bats
■​ With lots of insects and roosting sites, = high carrying capacity
■​ With lots of insects but scarcity in roosting sites = lower carrying capacity
 ○​ Not just determined by availability of resources, but also by limiting factors
(environmental factors that restrict growth, distribution, or abundance of a
population or organism within an ecosystem)
○​ Competition of resources for survival can be interspecific (referring to
interactions or relationships that occur between individuals of different species) or
intraspecific (referring to interactions or relationships that occur between
individuals of the same species)
●​ Population density:
○​ Refers to the number of individuals per unit area/volume
○​ Measure how closely packed they are
○​ Ex. # of palm trees in a coastal region of Hawaii vs # of E coli bacteria in a test
tube
●​ Density-dependent factors:
○​ Refers to factors that influence population dynamics and vary in impact according
to the population density. These factors, such as competition for resources,
predation and disease, tend to have a stronger effect as population density
increase.
○​ Ex. competition, predation, disease, and parasitism
○​ Increase in population size→limited resources ↔ leading to intensified
competition
○​ Competition can→reduced reproductive success, decrease growth rates, increased
mortality
○​ These density-dependent factors would act as negative feedback (a mechanism by
which a system responds to changes in its internal/external environment by
reversing the direction of the change, thereby maintaining homeostasis) to
regulate population sizes
○​ Ex, forest ecosystems. Foxes predate on rabbits and when there are lots of rabbits,
food for foxes increase so they increase in population, vice versa
■​ This all helps maintain a relative balance in ecosystems, ensuring survival
of both predators and preys
●​ Density-independent factors:
○​ Refers to factors that influence populations regardless of their size or density
○​ External, can cause sudden and drastic changes
○​ Ex. natural disasters
○​ Can directly affect survival rates of individuals by destroying habitats→leads to
significant fluctuations in population sizes
○​ Anthropogenic events can also be considered density-independent
■​ Ex. pollution, urbanization, deforestation, climate change, etc.
○​ These can all alter the availability of resources, changing the carrying capacity
●​ Exponential population growth:
 ○​ Often observed in bacterial populations grown in labs as they can reproduce
rapidly in nutrient-rich environments with adequate resources
○​ However in. nature, exponential growth is limited by the amount of nutrients,
competition for resources, predation, and parasitism
■​ Exponential growth in populations in nature would be highly unrealistic
●​ Sigmoid population growth:
○​ “S-shaped curve”
○​ Occurs in environments with limited resources
○​ Initially exponential growth with abundant resources and low competition
■​ With increased population size, then density-dependent factors come into
play and limited population growth
■​ Scarcity of resource intensifies competition, eventually leading to a
decrease in population growth rate
■​ Eventually reaches a steady state equilibrium which represents its carrying
capacity
■​ Birth rate = death rate, population stabilizes
○​ Represents the transition from rapid exponential growth to gradual increase until
the reaching of carrying capacity
○​ Sigmoid populations growth is a common pattern observed in nature and provides
insight into how populations interact with their environment and constraints
imposed by resource scarcity
○​ Ex. wolves on Isle Royale (small island in US)
■​ In late 1940s, wolves reached the island by ice bridge, population grew
exponentially at first with the sudden abundance of prey, eventually
reached carrying capacity, growth rate levelled
■​ Now, population of wolves is regulated like mores populations by
predator-prey relationships
●​ Graphing population growth:
○​ Important to plot actual population data > interpret results when analyzing
○​ Recommended to use a log scale for population size on y-axis and non-log scale
on x-axis
○​ By analyzing population graph, can identify whether the population growth
follows or deviates from expected models and patterns
●​ Collecting data on population growth:
○​ Encourage to collect data of your own using organisms like yeast or duckweed
○​ Suitable as they show rapid growth under controlled lab settings
●​ C4.1.9-10 - Intraspecific Interactions
○​ Refers to interactions or relationships that occur between individuals of the same
species
■​ Can refer to competition for limited resources, cooperation, etc.
 ■​ Competition, when members of the the same species compete for limited
resources
■​ Leads to adaptation of individuals to niches, displacement of less
competitive individuals, and regulation of population size
■​ Cooperation, regardless of species, collaborate to increase chances of
survival and reproduction
■​ Ex. dictyostelium discoideum ameoba when facing starvation,
aggregate to form a multicellular structure
○​ Communities consist of a diverse array of populations within a specific area,
ranging from plants, animals, within a specific area
■​ Interact and coexist, forming complex ecological relationships
■​ Ex. Coral Triangle in the Pacific Ocean
○​ Each population within a community has unique characteristics that contribute to
overall diversity and stability
●​ C4.1.11-12 - Interspecific interactions
○​ Occurring between different species within an ecosystem
○​ Herbivory
○​ Refers to the ecological interaction in which animals, known as herbivores, feed
on plants or plant parts
○​ Ex. giant panda and bamboo plants
■​ Pandas feed exclusively on bamboo, relying on its nutritional content for
all of its sustenance
■​ Highlights how some herbivores have evolved specialized traits to
effectively extract nutrients from plants
○​ Predation
○​ Refers to an ecological interaction where one organism (a predator) captures and
feeds on other organisms (the prey)
■​ Ex. grizzly bears and salmons
○​ Interspecific competition
○​ Refers to when different species compete for limited resources within an
ecosystem
○​ Significant implications on species distribution, abundance, and evolution in
terms of resource acquisition
○​ Ex. grey squirrels vs red squirrels for nuts
○​ Parasitism
○​ Parasite refers to a living organism (or virus) that lives in or on another living
thing, benefiting from the pairing at the expense of the host
○​ Extract nutrients and resources from the host, causing disease or harm
■​ Ex. tapeworms residing in their host’s digestive systems
○​ Pathogenicity
 ○​ Pathogen refers to a microorganism, such as a virus, bacterium, fungus, or
infectious agent, capable of causing disease in its host
○​ Typically invade and multiple in host tissue, disrupting normal physiological
functions and illness
○​ Unlike parasites: have a direct and immediate detrimental effect and can spread
easily from on host to another
■​ Ex. salmonella
○​ Mutualism
○​ Symbiotic interaction between two or more species, where both parties gain
benefits
○​ Ex. bees and flowering plants
■​ Root nodules in Fabaceae
■​ Legume plants have root nodules filled with nitrogen-fixing
bacteria that convert into useable atmospheric nitrogen that can be
used
■​ While the bacteria provide the plants with vital nutrients, the plant
also provides the bacteria with necessary carbohydrates and
compounds for survival
■​ Mycorrhize in orchidaceae
■​ Fungi help orchids with nutrient acquisition by extending their
hyphae (thread like filaments that constitute the main body of a
fungus), increasing surface area for nutrient absorption
■​ Allows fungi to access nutrients that orchid roots cannot reach
■​ In return orchids provide the fungi with organic compounds
produced through photosynthesis
■​ Zooxanthellae in hard corals
■​ Live in the tissues of hard corals and provide essential nutrients to
support coral growth, reproduction, and overall health
■​ Provide vibrant pigments that protect corals from excessive UV
radiation from the Sun
■​ In return, give shelter and access to sunlight for effective
photosynthesis
●​ C4.1.13-14 - Invasive Species
○​ Humans have played large roles in introducing species to new environments, be it
good or bad
○​ Ex. colonialists brought potatoes to Peru, which lead to delicious potato-based
meals
○​ However many species end up becoming invasive, rapidly spreading and ausing
harm to native ecosystems
○​ Competition between endemic and invasive species
 ○​ Invasive species refers to organisms that are not indigenous/native to a particular
area and can potentially cause harm to the ecosystem
○​ Threatens balance of ecosystems worldwide
○​ Unlike native species that have evolved and adapted, invasive species are
introduce to new environments where conditions are favourable to rapidly spread
○​ Can lead to rapid decline and even extinction of endemic (species that are
naturally found in a specific geographical region and not anywhere else) species
○​ Human activities play a large part in the introduction and spread of invasive
species
■​ Trade, transportation, intentional/accidental releases
■​ Detrimental impacts on native biodiversity, making them invasive
■​ Leads to needing challenging and expensive management to mitigate
negative effects
■​ Ex. caulerpa taxifolia
■​ Killer algae, originally native to the Indian Ocean has been
introduced to the Mediterranean Sea with devastating
consequences
■​ Secrete toxins that deter molluscs, herbivorous fish, and sea
urchins
■​ Form dense mats that smother and displace native species
■​ Lack of predators and rapid growth
○​ Testing for interspecific competition
○​ Laboratory experiments provide controlled conditions where variables can be
manipulated to observe their effects on species’ success
○​ Field observations through random sampling also allow scientists to gather data
and insights
○​ One approach: selectively removing a species from a community and observing
their impact
●​ C4.1.14 The chi-squared test
●​ Observations alone may not be sufficient to establish the significance between two
species
●​ The chi-squared test is a statistical analysis used to determine whether there is a
significant association between two categorical variables, or in our case, the presence of
two species
○​ Otherwise known as the test of independence or the chi-squared goodness of fit
test
●​ Data is obtained through quadrat sampling, looking for a positive or negative associatoin
○​ Associations can be attributed to competitive exclusion ore resource partitioning
●​ Can have a null or alternative hypothesis as well
 ●​ Works by taking the observed quadrat sample values and comparing to expected values
(or where there is no assumed association) and is only valid if the frequencies are 5+ and
are taken from at random

Steps!

●​
○​ Construct contingency tables and input observed values,
○​ Calculate expected frequencies assuming independent distribution

■​
○​ Calculate number of degrees of freedom

■​
■​ When testing for an association between two different species, degrees of
freedom must always be 1
○​ Determine the critical region by referring to a table of chi-squared values, using
the degrees of freedom to select a significant level
○​ Calculate chi square statistic

■​
○​ Interpret the results
■​ If exceeds critical value, ex, there is evidence at the 5% significance level,
this means that the null hypothesis can be rejected with 95% confidence
■​ Is equal or below, suggests that there is insufficient evidence to reject null
hypothesis
●​ Limitations of chi
○​ Sensitivity to sample size, where the expected frequencies need samples sizes of
at least 50+ to be accurate
■​ But excessively large sample sizes can also lead to trivial relationships
erroneously appearing statistically significant
○​ Can establish a statistical association between two variables but not determine a
causal relationship, and causation needs additional studies and evidence to
investigation underlying mechanisms and factors driving observed associations
○​ Assumes samples compared are independent and random, but with spatial and
temporal dependencies, this is not always true
○​ Does not account for other potential factors that influence results, like different
conditions or environmental factors
●​ C4.1.16-18 Control of populations
○​ Population control in ecology refers to the regulation of the size and growth of
populations within an ecosystem
○​ Fundamental concept in maintaining ecological balance and preventing
detrimental effects such as resource depletion and overexploitation
○​ Various factors influence, but predators are crucial to regulate prey populations
with selective pressure and prevented unchecked growth
■​ Example of density-dependent factors and negative feedback
■​ As predators grow, prey declines, which declines predators, which
increases prey, and continue
■​ This forms fluctuating cycles of population regulation
■​ Ex. cheetahs and gazelles
○​ Top down control refers to the abundance or behaviour of lower trophic levels in
food chains being regulated by the presence and activities of organisms at higher
trophic levels
■​ Typically predators at the top of the food chain consuming and limiting
abudance of their prey
■​ Ex. grey wolves in Yellowstone, feed on elk, elk feed on
vegetation less, growth of plants increased, allowing for changes in
composition and structure of plants
○​ Bottom up control refers to the availability of resources at lower trophic levels
influencing abundance and distribution of organisms at higher tropic levels
■​ Factors like nutrient availability, climatic conditions, and primary
productivity are examples
■​ Ex. availability of soil nutrients affects the productivity of plants,
influencing abundance of herbivores and thus predators
●​ These controls can operate simultaneously or dominate different ecosystems, shaping
interactions and population sizes of organisms at various trophic levels
 ●​ Alleopathy refers to the process by which organisms release biochemical compounds into
the environment, influencing the growth, survival, or reproduction of other organisms
●​ And antibiotic secretion are two processes where organisms release chemical substances
into their environment to deter potential competitors
○​ Can also shape the dynamics of an ecosystem and have implications in the natural
ecosystem and medicine
○​ Ex. black walnut tree releases chemical juglone, a potent inhibitor, suppressing
growth of nearby plants, inhibiting key physiological processes (root
development, photosynthesis, and creating a zone of reduce plant diversity around
itself
●​ Or the secretion of antibiotics allows for hindrance of the growth of bacteria
○​ Streptomyces bacteria can secrete a variety of antibiotics, providing it a
competitive advantage, specifically by secreting streptomycin, which is used in
the field of medicine for treating a diverse amount of bacterial infections

D4.1 Natural Selection

●​ Antarctica is home to many penguins, orca, whales, and other animals

○​ Ex. Penguins, flightless birds with wings modified into flippers
■​ Specialized for aquatic life, fusiform and streamlined bodies, webbed feet,
and flat-feathered flippers allow them to expertly swim
■​ Blubber under their skin insulates them from cold temperatures
■​ Countershading with dark backs and white undersides allow for
camouflage
●​ There are 18 species of penguins that primarily live in the southern hemisphere
○​ Vary greatly, from tall emperor penguins to fairy penguins
●​ Earth is home to 8.7 million species, with many other forms of life yet to be discovered
○​ And while each are diverse and distinct from each other, there also exist
variations between the individuals
■​ Some are favourable, resulting in better adaptation to the surrounding
environment, allowing them to pass these positive variations onto their
offspring
■​ Overtime, the frequency of favourable variations in a population increases
while the frequency for unfavourable decreases
○​ This idea that better adapted organisms will survive rather than those less adapted,
this is known as natural selection
○​ Key ideas:
■​ Variations are seen among organisms in a population, heritable or genetic
variations are passed on to offspring
 ■​ Overproduction allows for competition for resources
■​ In the struggle for existence, organisms with better traits are better suited
to survive and reproduce "survival of the fittest"
■​ Organisms that survive can pass their variations to their offspring
■​ Over time, the frequency of favourable variations occurring increases
■​ Natural selection eventually causes the population to become better
adapted to its environment
○​ Natural selection and its forces are continuously operating on genetic variations of
populations
○​ Isolation of these populations geographically or otherwise prevents interbreeding
○​ Over many generations, these accumulated differences of positive variations can
reach a point where two or more new species are created
■​ Ex. Darwin's finches on the Galapagos islands originated from one
ancestral species
■​ Ex.2 lizards on the Caribbean islands
●​ Natural selection is the mechanism that allows for evolutionary change, allowing for
incredibly biodiversity
●​ Biodiversity refers to the diversity of life on Earth and encompasses genetic, species, and
ecosystem diversity
○​ Genetic variation refers to the differences in genomes among individuals of the
same species, an essential prerequisite for natural selection
■​ Arises due to mutations and sexual reproduction
●​ Mutations are errors in the copying of genetic information during DNA replication,
creating alleles or many alternate forms of a gene
○​ Allows for the introduction of new alleles into a population
○​ Most are neutral, but some can be harmful or beneficial
■​ Ex. random mutations leading to increased antibiotic resistance
○​ Note!! Only mutations in cells that produce gametes can be inherited
■​ In other cells, these are considered 'dead-end' mutations that have no value
in introducing variation or being passed down
●​ Sexual reproduction introduces variation
○​ Formation of gametes involves crossing over and the independent assortment of
homologous chromosomes, resulting in unique allele combinations
○​ Then, random fertilization leads to unique and new combinations of alleles from
parents
○​ In populations of many reproducing individuals, alleles are constantly being
mixed and allowed to create endless variation
●​ Inspired and framed by the economist Malthus's essay on the Principle of Population
showed that human populations were exponential while food production were liner
 ○​ Because food produced could not meet the demands of population, poverty,
famine, and wars would break out
●​ In nature, there is a tendency for overproduction, with fish and oysters laying millions of
eggs at a time, with only a fraction surviving up to adulthood
●​ All living organisms need resources, food, water, shelter, space, and mates
○​ These factors are then considered limiting factors as they determine the carrying
capacity of the environment
●​ Overproduction creates competition for these limiting factors, where only those that are
more 'fit' with favourable variables to meet the needs to survive and reproduce
○​ With others dying or producing fewer (if any) offspring
●​ Helps keep population sizes relatively stable
○​ Therefore, overproduction and the subsequent competition for resources is what
leads to differential survival, differential reproduction, and therefore natural
selection
○​ Overtime, offspring of survivors make up a larger proportion of a population and
the population as a whole is better adapted to the environment, potentially looking
complete different from their ancestors, eventually then becoming a new species
●​ Selection pressures are factors that lead to differential survival or reproduction, creating
changes in genetic composition of populations
○​ Could include density-dependent/independent factors
■​ Dependent are factors that affect the size of the population and depend on
the existing density of the population
■​ Intraspecific competition is density dependent and also paves the
way for natural selection
■​ Ex. availability of food, mates, water, shelter, resources, presence
of predators, and spread of pathogens
■​ Ex. two trees of the same species growing close to each
other compete for water, nutrients, and sunlight, could
outcompete by growing taller or increasing the spread of
leaf canopy
■​ Ex. 2 dance of adder snakes between rival males to
establish supremacy and attract females, dance until one of
the slithers away defeated or out-competed
■​ Independent are abiotic factors affect the size of the population
irrespective of their density
■​ Ex. natural disasters, pollution, temperature, CO2 and O2 levels
○​ Density dependent and independent factors are usually interlinked
●​ Biological fitness is the ability of an organism to reproduce and pass on its genetic
material to its offspring
○​ Relative and determined by:
 ■​ Environment that a genotype lives in, with fitness varying as
environmentla conditions change
■​ The survival value of an individual, the traits that allow it to survive and
reach reproductive age (avoidance of predators, higher disease resistance)
■​ Reproductive potential of an individual, traits like the ability to attract
mates, production of viable gametes, and parental care
●​ Traits then favoured by natural selection must:
○​ Be beneficial to the organism and increase the chance of their survival and
reproduction in a particular environment
○​ Be heritable, i.e., encoded in the genetic material to be then passed on to offspring
●​ Acquired traits, or traits acquired in the lifetime of an individual by environmental factors
are often physical and behavioural and not in the phenotype
○​ If they do not have corresponding genotypic alternations, or are not encoded in
the base sequence of the DNA, they cannot be passed down and are not
considered heritable
●​ Sexual selection is a special case of natural selection, where the focus is on finding a
mate and reproduction
○​ Intrasexual selection refers to the competition between individuals of one sex to
mate with the opposite
■​ Usually male to male competition, but female to female exists
■​ Ex. male deer and male elephant seals
○​ Intersexual refers to the individuals of one sex, often females, choosing an
individual of the opposite sex as a mate
■​ Puts strong pressure on the positive characteristics of the opposite sex, like
courtship dances, mating calls, elaborate plumage, and genitalia
■​ Taken as markers for overall fitness
■​ Ex. male peacock's brilliant blue and green tail feathers, strutting back and
forth
■​ Peahen's choice of the largest, showiest feathers ensures that these
traits are what are passed down
■​ Ex. 2 Birds of paradise showy mating rituals, with the males being the one
that are colourful, showy, flamboyent, etc. and with females that are
typically more subdued greys and browns
○​ This is typically cited as the main reasons why sexual dimorphisms exists in
animals
●​ Guppies are tropical, freshwater fish often referred to as rainbow or million fish
●​ Range of colouration in different streams and different parts of streams
○​ Brightly coloured, spots, dull, drab, etc.
●​ Biologist John Endler studied this, and discovered that bright spots were typically
indicators of biological fitness for male guppies, so in areas with less predators there
were more bright spots, while in areas with lots of predators there were less
○​ Rivilus are less dangerous predators, but pike cichlids are very dangerous