READINGS

COMPULSORY READING 1 Jule (2007). Language as Gendered

1. What does the author mean by describing language as gendered?

The author claims that language is not a neutral and passive phenomenon. Language can
actually be a tool of “oppression or empowerment”. Through language we don’t just
communicate or say things; we also do things.

“Language is not just a reflection of society; it is also involved in the construction and
perpetuation of social realities”, like gendered behaviours and identities.

2. Why is the example of a woman being referred to as a ‘girl’ made relevant in

this chapter?

● Men are referred to as ‘boy’ in similar contexts.

● This reveals a patriarchal society that benefits in some way by referring to a grown,
professional woman as a child. This attitude towards women is perpetuated through
language.

● It both reflects and constructs power relations between men and women.

3. Why is it necessary to study language and gender, according to the author? What
use is it?

Because it is related to a feminist concern of stopping any continued systematic inequalities

that exist between men and women. And, paying attention to what we say and do through
the use of language is of great importance: “language is a key tool that can and is used to
create a certain understanding of things”.

“Studying language plays a big part in changing gendered divisions precisely because it
reveals them. (…) It is worth considering the previous and residual view in society of the
feminine as deficient and the masculine as powerful as a way to move towards tome
alternative, more equitable understandings”.

4. Provide your own definition of the following key concepts mentioned in the
chapter.

SEXISM: the discrimination and/or hatred against people based on their sex rather than on
their individual merits. It can also refer to any and all systemic differentiations based on the
sex of the individuals.

OTHERING: “The other” is a key concept that refers to that which is the other than oneself.
The concept of otherness is integral to the understanding of identities, as people construct
roles for themselves in relation to an ‘other’.
THE NORM: the term used to describe the effects of those cultural structures which regulate
the function of social activity. It also describes actions intended to normalize something or to
make something acceptable.

GENDER BIAS: favouritism towards or prejudice against a particular gender. Prejudiced

actions or thoughts based on the gender-based perception that women are not equal to men
in rights and dignity. (examples: gender pay gap; lack of paternity leave; the glass ceiling;
…)

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM: Social constructionists believe that conventional knowledge

is not necessarily based on objective, unbiased observations of the world. All ways of
understanding are historically and culturally relative. What is thought of as natural, and the
categories and concepts we use, are an effect of history and culture. Knowledge is
constructed through interactions between people and the world. Thus, an Villanueva
Morales, Victoria Alheli individual’s perception of “truth” is a product of social processes and
the interactions that an individual is engaging in rather than objective observation (Burr
2015).

5. What is the theory of difference? When was it relevant?

Atheory that postulates that there are innate or somewhat socialized differences in the use of
language between males and females. It was popular in the 1990s.

6. What theoretical position prevails today: the theory of deficit/dominance or the

theory of difference?

Although both of them have influenced many studies on language and gender, linguists
today agree that things said in any conversation depend on many variables including
gender, but also including the participant’s age, experience, ethnic background, personality,
job, context, etc. The focus now is not on making essentialist claims.

7. What theoretical position prevails today: the theory of deficit/dominance or the

theory of difference?

Although both of them have influenced many studies on language and gender, linguists
today agree that things said in any conversation depend on many variables including
gender, but also including the participant’s age, experience, ethnic background, personality,
job, context, etc. The focus now is not on making essentialist claims.

8. Robin Lakoff’s Women’s Language supported the belief that women and men
are significantly different and that this was reflected in the way both sexes
used language. Why was Lakoff’s work criticized and/or questioned by
scholars?

Because it invited essentialist explanations; her description of “women’s language” was only
based on her own local community of upper-class white women in 1970s New York but she
drew conclusions or made claims about ‘women as a global category’.
9. Why is Critical Discourse Analysis an approach used to explore how gender
roles are socially constructed in language use?

● Because it is mainly concerned with or focused on power as seen in language use.

● It helps us go beyond the surface meaning of texts that may be problematic.

● Three levels of CDA:

○ TEXT: What are the characteristics of the text? (FORM)
○ DISCOURSE: What is the intention of the writer/speaker? How is the writer /
reader positioned? (SUBJECT POSITIONS)
○ IDEOLOGY: What ideology do we find behind this text? What are the
consequences of consuming this text uncritically?
COMPULSORY READING 2 Eckert & McConell-Ginet (2003). Language and Gender.
Cambridge. (pp. 9-51)
COMPULSORY READING 3. Stokoe, E., & Attenborough, F. (2014). Gender and categorial
systematics. In The handbook of language, gender, and sexuality (pp. 161-179). John Wiley
& Sons.
COMPULSORY READING 4. Stokoe, E. (2012). 'You know how men are': Description,
categorization and common knowledge in the anatomy of a categorial practice. Gender & Language,
6(1).

1. What is what ethnomethodologists call the “problem of relevance”? According

to Stokoe, E. (2012). 'You know how men are': Description, categorization and
common knowledge in the anatomy of a categorial practice. Gender &
Language, 6(1).

The "problem of relevance" in ethnomethodology refers to the challenge of understanding

how people in everyday interactions determine what information or actions are relevant to a
given situation.

Ethnomethodologists study how individuals use their common sense and shared knowledge
to make sense of social situations and to decide what to say or do next. In the context of
Stokoe's article, it likely discusses how individuals use description, categorization, and
common knowledge to navigate and interpret social interactions, addressing this problem of
relevance. However, for specific details and insights from Stokoe's work, you would need to
refer to the article itself.

2. What do gender difference studies focus on? According to Stokoe, E. (2012).

'You know how men are': Description, categorization and common knowledge
in the anatomy of a categorial practice. Gender & Language, 6(1)

Gender difference studies typically focus on examining how language and communication
patterns vary between individuals of different genders. In the context of Stokoe's article,
"You know how men are," the focus appears to be on how gender-specific descriptions,
categorizations, and common knowledge are used in everyday interactions. These studies
aim to uncover how people construct and reinforce gender identities and roles through
language and communication practices, shedding light on the ways in which societal norms
and expectations are reflected in everyday discourse. To get specific insights from Stokoe's
work, you would need to refer to the article directly.

3. What do gender construction studies focus on?

Gender construction studies, as mentioned in the previous text, focus on examining how
individuals perform and construct gender identities in their interactions and communication.
These studies are concerned with understanding how people actively engage in behaviors,
language use, and expressions that align with or challenge societal norms and expectations
related to gender. Key points related to gender construction studies in the provided text
include:

● Analyst's Categories: Gender construction studies often use analysts' categories to

examine how individuals perform femininities and masculinities. These categories are
applied to language and behavior to understand how individuals enact their gender
identities.
 ● Circular Explanations: The text points out that some gender construction studies
may fall into the trap of circular explanations, where the performance of gender is
explained with reference to predefined gender categories.

● Analyzing Gender as Performance: Gender construction studies seek to analyze

gender as something performed in interaction rather than assuming it as a static
characteristic. This approach acknowledges the dynamic and context-dependent
nature of gender.

● Resistance and Accountability: These studies also explore how individuals resist
or challenge categorizations related to gender and how they hold each other
accountable for their membership in specific gender categories.

In summary, gender construction studies aim to investigate how individuals actively engage
in the performance and construction of gender identities through language and behavior in
various social contexts. They emphasize the performative and context-dependent nature of
gender rather than treating it as a fixed attribute.

4. What is the aim of MCA, according to Stokoe?

According to the text you provided, the aim of Membership Categorization Analysis (MCA),
as described by Stokoe, is to systematically study how people use categories and
categorizations in their everyday interactions. Specifically, MCA aims to:

● Analyze the Design and Action Orientation: MCA seeks to examine the design
and action orientation of turns or texts in which categories, categorization devices, or
resonant descriptions are used. It looks at how these linguistic components are
employed within the context of the interaction to accomplish specific actions.

● Investigate How Recipients Respond: MCA also focuses on how recipients of

communication respond to categories and categorizations and how they orient
themselves to these linguistic constructs. It explores the interactional consequences
of using categories.

● Identify Co-occurring Component Features: MCA looks for co-occurring

component features within categorial formulations. This involves analyzing not only
the categories themselves but also the linguistic features and context surrounding
their usage.

● Study Systematic Categorial Practices: The overarching goal of MCA, as

described in the text, is to demonstrate that there are systematic, repeatable, and
patterned categorial practices in everyday communication. It aims to show that these
practices can be identified and analyzed, similar to how sequential phenomena have
been studied in Conversation Analysis (CA).

In summary, the aim of MCA, as outlined by Stokoe, is to provide a systematic and empirical
approach to understanding how categories and categorizations are used in language and
communication within various social settings. It emphasizes the importance of studying