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Fiber Optic Sensors
An Introduction for Engineers
and Scientists

EDITED BY ERIC UDD

A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

Copyright 0 1991,2006 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
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Limit of LiabilityiDisclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in
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Printed in the United States of America.

1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contributors
J. W. BERTHOLD111, The Babcock & Wilcox Company, 1562 Beeson
Street, Alliance, OH 44601
P. E. BLASZYK, Corning Incorporated, Research, Development & Engi-
neering Division, Corning, NY 14831
FRANK
BUCHOLTZ, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Optical Sciences
Division, Code 6574, Washington, DC 20375-5000
ANTHONY DANDRIDGE,U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Optical Sci-
ences Division, Code 6574, Washington, DC 20375-5000
LEONARD M. JOHNSON, Lincoln Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Lexington, MA 02173-9108
ALAND. KERSEY, US. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC
20375
GORDONL. MITCHELL, Metricor, Inc., 14724 NE 177 Street, Wood-
inville, WA 98072
D. A. NOLAN, Corning Incorporated, Research, Development & Engi-
neering Division, Corning, NY 14831
W. B. SPILLMAN, JR., Simmonds Precision, Aircraft Systems Division,
Vergennes, Vermont 05491
ERIC UDD, McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company, 1801 E
St. Andrew Place, Santa Ana, CA 92705

V
Preface
For many applications ideal sensors would have such attributes as low
weight, small size, low power, environmental ruggedness, immunity to
electromagnetic interference, good performance specifications, and low
cost. As technology has advanced, the need for these sensors has become
increasingly acute in such areas as aerospace, defense, manufacturing,
medicine, and construction. The convergence of fiber optic technology,
which was largely driven by the telecommunication industry in the 1970s
and 1980s, in combination with low-cost optoelectronic components for
such commercial markets as compact disk players, personal copiers, and
laser printers, has enabled fiber optic sensor technology to approach its
ideal potential for many applications.
This book provides engineers, scientists, graduate students, and ad-
vanced undergraduates with an introduction to the rapidly emerging field
of fiber optic sensors. I began to work on this book in 1981; however,
because of the rapid expansion of the field from a few workers scattered
worldwide in the late 1970s to thousands of active participants by the late
1980s, it became increasingly difficult for one person alone to produce a
book that was both current and of sufficient depth. This led to my decision
in early 1987 to solicit help from my colleagues in the fiber optic sensor
field to generate this book by writing chapters on their own areas of
expertise. I was extremely gratified that all of my first choices responded
positively and with enthusiasm. Each contributor has worked extensively in
the fiber optic sensor field, and many have produced extensive collections
of internationally recognized work. Insofar as possible, each contributor
endeavored to make his chapter independent so that the book can serve as
a ready reference. At the same time, the book follows the outline of the
original introductory text I was preparing, which in turn has been used to
support short courses I have taught with considerable success at UCLA,
Optical Engineering Conferences, and McDonnell Douglas. Thus the book
can also be used to support advanced undergraduate and graduate-level
science and engineering courses as well as industrial seminars on fiber
optic sensors.
The book begins with an introduction and overview of critical compo-
nents utilized by fiber optic sensors. This part of the book, which includes
the first five chapters, covers optical fibers, light sources, detectors, and

xi
xii PREFACE

optical modulators and serves the dual purpose of introducing the funda-
mental building blocks of fiber optic sensors and pointing out many of the
connections between these elements and fiber optic sensor technology.
These connections are then reinforced and expanded on in later sections
of the book. Many aspects of these chapters may also be of interest to
readers wanting to expand their background in telecommunications, as
these basic components form the heart of most conventional and advanced
telecommunication systems. In Chapter I, Eric Udd provides a brief
overview of the emergence of fiber optic sensor technology and predictions
on where it may be headed. Chapter 2, on optical fibers, by Paul Blaszyk,
Dan Nolan, and Eric Udd is a basic introduction to the types of fibers
used in fiber optic sensors and the physical phenomena associated with
optical fibers used for sensing. Chapter 3, on light sources, by Eric Udd is
a brief introduction to these components from the point of view of a fiber
optic sensor developer. In Chapter 4, Bill Spillman writes about optical
detectors from a similar point of view. Chapter 5 , on optical modulators,
by Len Johnson describes both bulk and integrated optical modulators
used for phase and frequency shifting.
The second section of the book covers fiber optic sensors. The section
begins with a discussion of extrinsic or hybrid fiber optic sensors. For these
types of fiber optic sensors, the fiber carries a signal to and from an optical
black box that impresses information onto the light beam, often in the
form of amplitude or polarization modulation. Chapter 6, by Gordon
Mitchell, opens with an overview of intensity sensors for monitoring
temperature, position, and other environmental effects, followed by a
more detailed discussion of the Fabry-Perot-based fiber optic sensor,
which is one of the earliest fiber optic sensors to be exploited successfully
commercially. In Chapter 7, Bill Spillman discusses the grating-based fiber
optic sensor, which has been used for hydrophones and displacement
sensors. This is followed by Chapter 8, also by Bill Spillman, which
provides an excellent introduction to polarization and describes the effec-
tiveness of this approach in implementing a powerful class of fiber optic
sensors. Intrinsic or all-fiber sensors are covered in Chapters 9 through 11
where the sensing takes place through the interaction of a light beam with
an environmentally perturbed optical fiber. The environmental effect for
this type of sensor is usually based on changes in the effective optical path
length of the light beam as a consequence of its action on the optical fiber.
The net result is a phase shift that can be measured to a high degree of
accuracy using interferometric techniques. These fiber sensors have the
potential for extremely high performance and may replace entire classes of
high-value sensors in use today.
PREFACE xiii

In Chapter 9, Eric Udd describes the Sagnac interferometer and passive

ring resonator classes of sensors, which may be used as rotation sensors to
replace existing gyroscopes. This promises to be one of the highest-value
applications of fiber optic sensors, with markets valued in many hundreds
of millions of dollars. These sensors may also be used to sense other
environmental effects, and the techniques for doing so are reviewed. In
Chapter 10, Tony Dandridge describes the Mach-Zehnder and Michelson
interferometers, which have important applications in undersea acoustic
sensing. These sensors offer extraordinary sensitivity and have the poten-
tial of being multiplexed into arrays of hundreds of sensors. In Chapter 11,
Alan Kersey proceeds to describe these multiplexing techniques as well as
distributed fiber optic sensing, which offers an important alternative to
arrays of sensors for many applications.
The final section of the book illustrates the potential of fiber optic
sensor technology by focusing on specific applications. In Chapter 12,
Frank Bucholtz provides a detailed description and examples of magnetic
sensors based on the Faraday effect, magnetostriction, and Lorentz forces.
These sensors are already in use monitoring current for electrical utilities
and offer the prospect of widespread commercial and military use. John
Berthold follows in Chapter 13 with an overview of the many uses of fiber
optic technology in industry. Included in this chapter are examples of
temperature, pressure, fluid level, flow, position, vibration, chemical analy-
sis, and current-voltage measurements, followed by a discussion of issues
associated with the industrial application of fiber optic sensor technology.
The book concludes with Chapter 14, in which Eric Udd provides an
overview of the emerging field of fiber optic smart structures. This field
merges fiber optic sensor technology with the mechanical and material
sciences to form one of the most exciting and rapidly growing development
areas.
An undertaking of this sort would not have been possible without the
efforts and support of many people. First and foremost I would like to
thank my contributors, who dedicated themselves to delivering high-
quality manuscripts in a timely manner. I would also like to thank my
patient editors at John Wiley & Sons, especially Ms. Beatrice Shube for
her early effort in helping me initiate this book and to Mr. George Telecki
for helping me finish it. McDonnell Douglas has continually supported my
efforts to develop fiber optic technology, and I would like to acknowledge
management support from my friend and mentor Richard Cahill, Dr.
Roger Roberts, Gerald Johnston, William Branch, Charlie Marvin, Dave
Karnes, Ken Francis, Dan Green, and many others. I am also heavily
indebted to my coworkers at McDonnell Douglas, especially John Paul
xiv PREFACE

Theriault, Stuart Higley, Dr. Steve Watanabe, Dr. Wil Otaguro, Dave
Tubbs, Dr. John Gallager, A I Joseph, Dr. Herb Smith, Jeff Russom, Ric
Baldini, Tim Clark, Tom Weaver, Jim Moore, John Marcin, Ray Wagoner,
and the nearly two hundred other teammates of the McDonnell Douglas
Fiber Optic Working Group. My wife, Holly, and daughters, Emelia and
Ingrid, are owed my thanks for being patient with my efforts.
Finally, I would like to dedicate my part in bringing this book to reality
to the memory of Dr. Wolfgang K. Schuebel of Wright-Patterson Air
Force Base, who championed fiber optic gyro development in the United
States.

Huntington Beach, California ERICUDD

Contents
Preface xi

Chapter 1. The Emergence of Fiber Optic Sensor Technology 1

Eric Udd

Chapter 2. Optical Fibers 9

D. A. Nolan, P. E. Blaszyk, and E. Udd
2.1 Introduction 9
2.2 Types of Optical Fibers 10
2.3 Means to Fabricate Fibers 24
2.4 Usage of Optical Fibers and Their Properties
as Sensors 31
2.5 Summary 35
References 35

Chapter 3. Light Sources 37

Eric Udd
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Fundamental Properties of Light Sources 37
3.3 Coherence Length 46
3.4 Semiconductor Light Sources 47
3.5 Summary 66
References 66

Chapter 4. Optical Detectors 69

W. B. Spillman, Jr.
4.1 Introduction 69
4.2 Theoretical Background 69
4.3 Semiconductor Photodiodes 74
4.4 Avalanche Photodiodes 81
4.5 Noise 82
4.6 Spectral Detection 91
4.7 Summary 96
References 97
vii
viii CONTENTS

Chapter 5. Optical Modulators for Fiber Optic Sensors 99

Leonard M. Johnson
5.1 Introduction 99
5.2 Electroopt ic Effect 100
5.3 Bulk Modulators 104
5.4 Integrated-Optical Modulators 111
5.5 All-Fiber Optical Modulators 133
References 136

Chapter 6. Intensity-Based and Fabry-Perot

Interferometer Sensors 139
Gordon L. Mitchell
6.1 Intensity Sensors 139
6.2 Band-Edge Temperature Sensors 143
6.3 Encoder-Based Position Sensors 144
6.4 Multimode Fabry-Perot Sensors 146
6.5 Single-Mode Fabry-Perot Sensors 152
References 153

Chapter 7. Multimode Grating Sensors 157

W. B. Spillman, Jr.
7.1 Introduction 157
7.2 Theoretical Background 158
7.3 Sensors Based on Relative Movement of Opposed
Gratings 164
7.4 Sensors Based on Grating Period Modulation 170
7.5 Development Status of Sensors 178
7.6 Summary 179
References 179

Chapter 8. Multimode Polarization Sensors 181

W. B. Spillman, Jr.
8.1 Introduction 181
8.2 Theoretical Background 181
8.3 Sensors Based on the Photoelastic Effect 210
8.4 Sensors Based on Retardation Plates 219
8.5 Development Status of Sensors 229
References 230
CONTENTS ix

Chapter 9. Fiber Optic Sensors Based on the Sagnac

Interferometer and Passive Ring Resonator 233
Eric Udd
9.1 Introduction 233
9.2 Brief Overview of Optical Rotation Sensing
and the Sagnac Effect 234
9.3 Ring Laser Gyros 240
9.4 Passive Ring Resonator Gyros 245
9.5 Fiber Optic Gyros 250
9.6 Trade-off Between the Ring Laser, Passive Ring
Resonator, and Fiber Optic Interferometer as
Rotation Sensors 25 4
9.7 Environmental Sensing Using the
Sagnac Interferometer 260
Acknowledgment 267
References 267

Chapter 10. Fiber Optic Sensors Based on the Mach-Zehnder

and Michelson Interferometers 271
Anthony Dandridge
10.1 Introduction 27 1
10.2 Principle of Operation 273
10.3 Fiber Interferometer Configurations 303
10.4 Applications 3 10
10.5 Summary 319
References 320

Chapter 11. Distributed and Multiplexed Fiber Optic Sensors 325

Alan D. Kersey
11.1 Introduction 325
11.2 Distributed Sensing 327
11.3 Basic Principles of Sensor Multiplexing 340
11.4 Interferometric Sensor Multiplexing 346
References 365

Chapter 12. Fiber Optic Magnetic Sensors 369

Frank Bucholtz
12.1 Introduction 369
12.2 Faraday Effect Sensors 370
X CONTENTS

12.3 Magnetostrictive Sensors 382

12.4 Lorentz Force Sensors 403
References 406

Chapter 13. Industrial Applications of Fiber Optic Sensors 409

J. W. Berthold ZZZ
13.1 Introduction 409
13.2 Background 411
13.3 Temperature Measurement 413
13.4 Pressure Measurement 419
13.5 Fluid-Level Measurement 422
13.6 Flow Measurement 424
13.7 Position Measurement 426
13.8 Vibration Measurement 427
13.9 Chemical Analysis 430
13.10 Current-Voltage Measurement 432
13.11 Important Issues for Industrial Application 433
13.12 Summary 435
References 436

Chapter 14. Fiber Optic Smart Structures 439

Eric Udd
14.1 Introduction 439
14.2 Fiber Optic Sensor Systems 441
14.3 Applications of Fiber Optic Smart Structures
and Skins 454
14.4 Example of the Application of a Fiber Optic Sensor
to Smart Structures 45 7
14.5 Conclusions 465
References 465

Subject Index 469

The Emergence of Fiber Optic
Sensor Technology
ERICUDD
McDonnell Douglas Electronic Systems Company
Santa Ana, California

Telecommunications have been revolutionized by fiber optic technology.

The revolution began with limited system applications needing superior
performance provided by fiber optics. The revolution became a rout as
mass production techniques coupled with technical improvements resulted
in superior performance at lower cost than those of alternative ap-
proaches. Simultaneous improvements and cost reductions in optoelec-
tronic components in combination with mass commercial production led to
similar displacements and the emergence of new product areas, including
compact disc players, personal copiers, and laser printers. A third revolu-
tion is emerging as designers combine the product outgrowths of fiber
optic telecommunications with optoelectronic devices to create fiber optic
sensors.
The areas of opportunity are staggering and include the potential of
replacing the majority of environmental sensors in existence today as well
as opening up entire markets where sensors with comparable capability do
not exist. Figures 1.1 through 1.3 provide an overview of the types of fiber
optic sensors that are being developed and the environmental parameters
that are most often associated with each type of sensor. The chapters of
this book that correspond to each of the sensors are also indicated. Figure
1.1 lays out the various types of extrinsic or hybrid fiber optic sensors.
Extrinsic fiber optic sensors are distinguished by the characteristic that
sensing takes place in a region outside the fiber. Hybrid fiber optic sensors

Fiber Optic Sensors: An Introduction for Engineers and Scientists, Edited by Eric Udd.
ISBN 0-471-83007-0 0 1991 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

1
2 THE EMERGENCE OF FIBER OPTIC SENSOR TECHNOLOGY

I I I I I
Encoder Reflection and Total Internal Gratings Fluorescence
Plates/Disks Transmission Reflection

Chaps. 6, 13 Chaps. 13, 14 Chaps. 6,1 3 Chap. 7 Chaps. 6, 13, 14

Linear and Pressure Liquid level Pressure Temperature
angular Flow Pressure Acoustics Viscosity
position Damage Vibration Chemical
analysis

are similar and can be thought of as a “black box” sensor for which
fibers are used to carry light to the box and data back. For most cases
the two terms can be applied interchangeably. A major distinction arises
for the case of power by light sensors when a light beam is used to
power an electronic sensor and data are carried back via a fiber optic data
link. In this case the hybrid designation would appear to be more
appropriate.
Figure 1.2 shows a diagram illustrating many of the intrinsic or all-
fiber-optic sensors. “Intrinsic” and “all-fiber” indicate that the sensing
takes place within the fiber itself. In this case the two designations can be
and commonly are used interchangeably. A large and important subclass
of intrinsic or all-fiber sensors are the interferometric sensors of Fig. 1.3.
Many of the highest-performance sensors fall into this group. The fiber
sensors of Figs. 1.1through 1.3 have been grouped into categories that are
representative of their most common current state of development.
Crossovers may occur; perhaps the most important example is the case of
interferometric sensors, many of which have been or are still being built in
an extrinsic or hybrid form.
From Figs. 1.1 through 1.3 it is apparent that virtually any environmen-
tal effect that can be conceived of can be converted to an optical signal to
THE EMERGENCE OF FIBER OPTIC SENSOR TECHNOLOGY 3

I Intrinsic Fiber Optic Sensors 1

Chaps. 2, 6, 13, 14 Chaps. 13, 14 Chaps. 2, 6, 8,9,10, 12, 14

Strain Temperature Rotation
Pressure Acceleration
Vibration Acoustics
Magnetic fields
Electric fields
Strain
Temperature
Pressure

:
Current
See Figure 1.3

Rayleigh Raman
distributed

Chap. 11 Chap. 11 Chap. 11 Chaps. 6, 11, 12, 13

Strain Temperature Strain Acoustic
Temperature Pressure Acceleration
External Temperature Strain
refractive Magnetic
index field
Temperature
Figure 1.2. Intrinsic or all-fiber fiber optic sensors: the environmental effect is converted to
a light signal within the fiber.

be interpreted. The usual case is that each environmental effect may be

measured by dozens of fiber optic sensor approaches. The key is often to
design the sensor so that only the desired environmental effect is sensed.
Initial penetration of fiber optic sensors into markets has been driven
by performance advantages. Some of these advantages are compared to
conventional electronic sensors in Table 1.1. Fiber optic sensors offer an
all-passive dielectric approach that is often crucial to successful applica-
tions, including electrical isolation of patients in medicine, elimination of
conductive paths in high-voltage environments, and compatibility with
placement in materials. The light weight and small size of these devices
are critical in such areas as aerospace and provide substantial advantages
to many products. Coupled to the issue of size and weight is immunity to
electromagnetic interference. Conventional electrical sensors often require
4 THE EMERGENCE OF FIBER OPTIC SENSOR TECHNOLOGY

u
i_l
Interferometric Fiber Optic Sensors

Sagnac Mach -2ehnder Michelson

Coupling

Chaps. 11, 14 Chaps. 9, 12, 14 Chaps. 10, 12, 14 Chaps. 2 , 10, 14

Strain Rotation Acoustics Acoustics
TemDerature Acceleration Magnetic fields Magnetic fields
Strain Electric fields Electric fields
Acoustics Acceleration Temperature
0 Wavelength Strain Strain
measurement Temperature
Magnetic field Current
Current

Resonator Polarization

ChaD. 9 ChaDs. 8 . 12.13.14

Rotation 0 Acoustics
Acceleration Acceleration
Pressure
Temperature
Strain

Chap. 6 Chaps. 6, 10
Temperature Acoustics
Pressure Temperature
Index of Pressure
refraction
Figure 1.3. Interferometric fiber sensors.

heavy shielding, significantly increasing cost, size, and weight. Environ-

mental ruggedness provides key opportunities for fiber optic sensors,
including high-temperature operation and all-solid-state configurations
capable of withstanding extreme vibration and shock levels. Complement-
ing these attributes are high sensitivity and bandwidth of fiber optic
sensors. When multiplexed into arrays of sensors the large bandwidths of
the optical fibers themselves offer distinct advantages in their ability to
transport the resultant data.
Early work on fiber optic sensors generally fell into two distinct cate-
gories. Relatively simple fiber optic sensors were developed rapidly into
commercial products, often by small start-up firms, to perform measure-
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