Question Answer

● While Plato, Aristotle, etc were all political idealists who

believed that there are some universal moral values on
which political life could be based, Machiavelli was a
realist.
● His ideas are to be found in The Prince, which is advice
to rulers on acquiring and retaining power.
● Machiavelli is the first modern political thinker. The
medieval scholars tried to consider how politics and the
State can be fitted into the divine scheme of things.
Machiavelli examined the manner of organizing and
preserving power. A clear separation between ethics and
politics is seen in his work.
● In The Prince, Machiavelli seeks “the effectual truth of
the matter rather than the imagined one.” In modern
terms, rulers have to face up to harsh realities and
avoid chasing illusions. He outlines practical
prescriptions for making both individuals and countries
prosperous and strong.
● Machiavellianism is a radical type of political realism. It
1. Why is Machiavelli considered a modern denies the relevance of morality in politics and claims
thinker? that all means (moral and immoral) are justified to
achieve certain political ends. This is the doctrine of
raison d’état which implies that rulers should follow
whatever is good for the state and not follow ethical
scruples or norms.
● He cautions against blind and imprudent pursuit of
unrealistic ideals. Machiavelli mentions that good men
will perish in a society full of evildoers.
● Later the German statesman Bismarck expressed
similar sentiments: “It is the destiny of the weak to be
devoured by the strong.” Some things which seem
virtues, if followed, will lead to one’s ruin; and some
things which seem vices, if followed, result in one’s
greater security and well–being. Machiavelli also says
that princes need not necessarily keep their promises.
● Kautilya’s Arthasastra contains many prescriptions that
sound similar to Machiavelli’s ideas. However, this view
has been criticized by other leaders like Gandhi, Lincoln,
and Nelson Mandela who emphasize that exercise of
power has to be regulated by idealism.

2. Write a short on Thomas Hobbes’s ● The first modern philosopher to articulate a detailed
Social Contract Theory? contract theory was Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679).
 ● According to Hobbes, the lives of individuals in the
state of nature were "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and
short", a state in which self-interest and the absence of
rights and contracts prevented the "social", or society.
● Life was "anarchic" (without leadership or the concept
of sovereignty). Individuals in the state of nature were
apolitical and asocial. This state of nature is followed by
the social contract.
● The social contract was seen as an "occurrence" during
which individuals came together and ceded some of
their individual rights so that others would cede theirs.
This resulted in the establishment of the state, a
sovereign entity like the individuals now under its rule
used to be, which would create laws to regulate social
interactions. Human life was thus no longer "a war of all
against all".
● Having concluded that it is natural and rational for
people to give up some liberty in order to gain the
security of self-preservation, Hobbes develops a
conception of what forms of social organization and
political system are consistent with those aims.
● The condition in which people give up some individual
liberty in exchange for some common security is the
Social Contract.
● Hobbes defines a contract as "the mutual transferring of
rights." In the state of nature, everyone has the right to
everything - there are no limits to the right to natural
liberty.
● In place of the natural right, we have created a limited
right.
● Hobbes notes that we do not make these agreements
explicitly because we are born into a civil society with
laws and conventions (i.e. contracts) already in place.
● One matter that Hobbes' investigation allows is the
examination of governments for the purpose of
determining their legitimacy. The purpose of a
government is to enforce the law and serve common
protection. Wherever the government turns to favor the
strong over the weak, one might say that the
government has exceeded its legitimate function.

● Virtue is the highest good, and living in accordance with

nature and reason leads to eudaimonia (flourishing).
3. What are the philosophical ideas of ● Emotions should be controlled and suppressed, as they
Stoicism? often lead to irrational behaviour and distress.
● Acceptance of fate and events beyond one's control,
practising resilience and equanimity.
 ● Living in harmony with others and recognizing the
shared humanity of all people.
● Detachment from material possessions and external
circumstances, focusing on internal well-being.
● Self-improvement and self-discipline to develop moral
character.
● The dichotomy of control, distinguishing between what
is within our power and what is not.
● A cosmopolitan perspective, advocating for universal
brotherhood and the unity of humankind.

● Just war theory is a set of ethical principles that guide

the decision-making process for engaging in war.
● It aims to determine when and how military action is
4. What is Just war theory?
justified, based on criteria like just cause,
proportionality, reasonable chance of success, and last
resort.

● Immanuel Kant's Categorical Imperative is a moral

principle that applies universally to all rational beings.
● It emphasizes the importance of acting out of a sense of
duty rather than desire or self-interest.
● The first formulation of the Categorical Imperative
states, "Act only according to that maxim whereby you
can at the same time will that it should become a
5. Notes on Immanuel Kant's Categorical universal law."
Imperatives. ● The second formulation, known as the Humanity
Principle, says, "Act in such a way that you treat
humanity, whether in your own person or in the person
of any other, always at the same time as an end and
never merely as a means to an end."
● Kant believed that the Categorical Imperative provides a
rational foundation for moral principles and allows for
moral judgments to be universal and objective.

● Utilitarianism: Critics argue that Kant's emphasis on

absolute moral rules neglects the consequences of
actions and their overall utility for the greatest
happiness of the greatest number.
● Cultural Relativism: Kantian ethics can be seen as
culturally biased, as it prescribes universal principles
6. What are the counter views of
without considering cultural variations in ethical norms
Kantianism?
and values.
● Moral Dilemmas: Critics contend that the Categorical
Imperative might not be able to resolve complex moral
dilemmas where two maxims seem equally rational.
● Emotion and Intuition: Kantian ethics is often
criticized for downplaying the role of emotions and
 intuition in ethical decision-making, which some argue
are important in moral reasoning.
● Lack of Flexibility: Critics claim that Kantian ethics is
rigid and lacks flexibility in adapting to individual
situations, making it less practical in real-life scenarios.

● Social Contract: Rousseau's most significant concept is

the Social Contract, which suggests that society is
based on an agreement between individuals to form a
collective body with shared values and laws.
● General Will: Rousseau believed in the concept of the
"general will," where the collective will of the people
represents the common good and guides the direction
of society.
● State of Nature: He theorized about the state of
nature, suggesting that humans were initially free,
equal, and independent, but the emergence of private
7. What are the philosophical ideas of property led to inequality and social problems.
Rousseau? ● Emphasis on Nature: Rousseau emphasized the
importance of living in harmony with nature, believing
that modern civilization has led to corruption and moral
decay.
● Education and Freedom: Rousseau advocated for an
education system that fosters individual freedom,
allowing individuals to develop their natural abilities and
potential.
● Direct Democracy: He supported direct democracy
where citizens actively participate in decision-making
processes rather than representative forms of
governance.

● "I will give you a talisman. Whenever you are in doubt,

or when the self becomes too much with you, apply the
following test. Recall the face of the poorest and the
weakest man [woman] whom you may have seen, and
ask yourself, if the step you contemplate is going to be
of any use to him [her]. Will he [she] gain anything by
it? Will it restore him [her] to control over his [her] own
8. What is Mahatma Gandhi’s talisman? life and destiny? In other words, will it lead to swaraj
[freedom] for the hungry and spiritually starving
millions? Then you will find your doubts and your self
melt away.”
● According to Mahatma Gandhi’s Talisman, whenever a
decision is to be made or a policy needs to be created
we have to give priority to the concerns of the poorest
or weakest person in the context.
 ● Bhagavat Gita prescribes that man should perform his
duty without any desire for its fruits, without
attachment and aversion, and without getting distracted
by selfish and base motives.
● In brief, duty has to be performed for its own sake.
Duties are performed for the welfare of humanity and
for the good of all living creatures. Ultimately, duties
have to be performed for realizing the vision of God.
● It does not say that men should get rid of all emotions.
9. Write a note on the ethical ideas
One has to control bad emotions such as — attachment,
in the Bhagavad Gita.
aversion, illusions, fears, lust, grief, anger, hatred,
malice, and envy.
● Similarly, positive emotions are to be cultivated. These
include universal goodwill and benevolence, kindness
towards people in trouble, magnanimity, serenity,
indifference to worldly concerns, and love and devotion
to God.
● It places emphasis on ethics through action, devotion,
and knowledge.

● Thiruvalluvar, commonly known as Valluvar, was a

celebrated Tamil poet and philosopher.
● Thiruvalluvar’s primary work Thirukkural contains 1330
couplets (kurals) that are divided into 133 sections of
10. Throw some light on 10 couplets each.
Thiruvalluvar. ● The text is divided into three parts with teachings on
dharma, artha, and kama (virtue, wealth, and love).
Hence it deals with ethics, politics, and economics.
● The text is considered an exceptional and widely
cherished work of Tamil literature.

The Eightfold Path: The eightfold path says that truth is

found in the Middle Way. A person can get to the Middle Way
by following the eightfold path.

The eight rules are these:

● Right Vision (Drishti): Our actions have
consequences.
11. What is the Buddhist eightfold ● Right Thought (Sankalpa): Harmlessness,
path? compassion, selflessness.
● Right Speech (Vak): A person should try to be truthful
and kind when they talk.
● Right Actions (Karma): A person should try to do
good things. If they cannot do a good thing, then they
should try to not do a bad thing.
● Right Livelihood (Jeevika): A person should not work
at something that can hurt themselves or other people.
● Right Effort (Prayathna): A person should try to be
better.
● Right Mindfulness (Smrithi): A person cannot be
confused. They must not use drugs or alcohol.
● Right Meditation (Samadhi): A person must try to
reach enlightenment through meditation.