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Elements of Matrix
Modeling and
Computing
with
MATLAB ®
Elements of Matrix
Modeling and
Computing
with
MATLAB ®

Robert E. White

Boca Raton London New York

Chapman & Hall/CRC is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
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Contents

List of Figures vii

List of Tables xi

Preface xiii

Introduction xv

1 Vectors in the Plane 1

1.1 Floating Point and Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Complex Valued Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Vectors in R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4 Dot Product and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.5 Lines and Curves in R2 and C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2 Vectors in Space 47
2.1 Vectors and Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2 Cross and Box Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 Lines and Curves in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.4 Planes in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
2.5 Extensions to Rq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

3 Ax = d: Unique Solution 95
3.1 Matrix Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.2 Matrix Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.3 Special Cases of Ax = d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.4 Row Operations and Gauss Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.5 Inverse Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.6 OX Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.7 Determinants and Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

4 Ax = d: Least Squares Solution 171

4.1 Curve Fitting to Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.2 Normal Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

v
vi CONTENTS

4.3 Multilinear Data Fitting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

4.4 Parameter Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199

5 Ax = d: Multiple Solutions 209

5.1 Subspaces and Solutions in R3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.2 Row Echelon Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
5.3 Nullspaces and Equilibrium Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230

6 Linear Initial Value Problems 243

6.1 First Order Linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6.2 Second Order Linear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
6.3 Homogeneous and Complex Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
6.4 Nonhomogeneous Dierential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.5 System Form of Linear Second Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

7 Eigenvalues and Dierential Equations 281

7.1 Solution of x0 = Dx by Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
7.2 Real Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
7.3 Solution of x0 = Dx + f (w) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

8 Image Processing in Space Domain 311

8.1 Matrices and Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
8.2 Contrast and Histograms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
8.3 Blurring and Sharpening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

9 Image Processing in Frequency Domain 343

9.1 Laplace and Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
9.2 Properties of DFT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
9.3 DFT in Rq × Rq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
9.4 Frequency Filters in Rq × Rq . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370

A Solutions to Odd Exercises 381

Bibliography 397

Index 399
List of Figures

1.1.1 Complex Numbers as Arrows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.1.2 Norm(} 2 ) and Angle(} 2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.1 A!ne, Square and Square Root of z . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.2.2 Solutions of } 12 = 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3.1 A Vector in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.2 f2 = d2 + e2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.3 f2 = e2 + d2  2de cos() . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
$
 $ $ 
 $ $

1.3.4 d + e >d  e and v e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.4.1 Trigonometric Identity and Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.4.2 Area and Dot Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.4.3 Linearly Independent Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.4.4 Work and a Ramp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4.5 Torque on a Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.4.6 Work with Independent Paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.5.1 Line Given a Point and Direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.5.2 Minimum Distance of Point to a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.5.3 Cycloid and Wheel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.5.4 Cycloid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.5.5 Two-tone Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

2.1.1 Point in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2.1.2 Vector in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.1.3 Vector Addition in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.2.1 Unit Vector Cross Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.2.2 Projected Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.2.3 Box Product and Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.2.4 Determinant and Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.3.1 Vector Equation and Minimum Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
2.3.2 Distance between Two Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.3.3 Helix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
2.3.4 Projectile in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.4.1 Normal and Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
2.4.2 Three Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

vii
viii LIST OF FIGURES

2.4.3 Linear Combination of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

2.4.4 Minimum Distance to a Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
2.5.1 Mesh of Image Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.5.2 Imwrite of Image Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.5.3 Negative Image Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

3.1.1 Box with Fixed Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

3.1.2 Cost of a Box . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.1.3 Two-bar Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.1.4 Two-loop Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.2.1 Heat Conduction in a Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.2.2 Steady State Heat Diusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.3.1 Temperature in Wire with Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.4.1 Six-bar Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.5.1 Five-bar Truss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
3.6.1 Three-loop Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.6.2 Potential in a Single-loop Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
3.7.1 Three-tank Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

4.1.1 Sales Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

4.1.2 Least Squares Function for Sales Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.1.3 Radioactive Decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
4.2.1 World Population Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.4.1 US Population and Logistic Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.4.2 Temperature Data and Curve Fit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207

5.3.1 Bar e with Four Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237

5.3.2 Fluid Flow in Four Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

6.2.1 Mass-Spring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251

6.3.1 Variable Damped Mass-Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.4.1 Forced Mass-Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
6.5.1 Series LRC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
6.5.2 Tuned Circuit with Modulated Signal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

7.3.1 Heat Diusion in Thin Wire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

8.1.1 Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

8.1.2 Enhanced Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
8.1.3 Aerial Photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.1.4 Enhanced Aerial Photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
8.1.5 Mars Rover Photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.1.6 Enhanced Mars Rover Photo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
8.1.7 Moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
8.1.8 Sharper Moon Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
8.1.9 Plot of the Matrix C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
LIST OF FIGURES ix

8.1.10 Image of Letter C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317

8.1.11 Negative Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
8.1.12 Matrix NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
8.1.13 Image of NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
8.1.14 Negative Image of NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
8.1.15 Center Grain in Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
8.2.1 Histogram of Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
8.2.2 Histogram of Lighter Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
8.2.3 Lighter Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
8.2.4 Piecewise Linear Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
8.2.5 Histogram for Enhanced Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
8.2.6 Higher Contrast Pollen Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
8.2.7 Mars Rover Image Using Power 1/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
8.2.8 Mars Rover Image Using Power 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
8.3.1 Deblurred 1D Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
8.3.2 Original NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.3.3 Blurred NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
8.3.4 Deblurred NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
8.3.5 Increased Contrast Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
8.3.6 Brighter and Sharper Pollen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
8.3.7 Original Moon Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
8.3.8 Brightened and Sharpened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

9.2.1 DFT of Sine and Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

9.2.2 Noisy Sine Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
9.2.3 Filtered Sine Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
9.3.1 2D DFT of Sine and Cosine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
9.3.2 Noisy 2D Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
9.3.3 Mesh Plot of Noisy Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
9.3.4 DFT of Noisy Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
9.3.5 Low-pass Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
9.3.6 Filtered DFT of Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
9.3.7 Filtered Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
9.4.1 Noisy NCSU Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
9.4.2 Low-pass Filtering of NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
9.4.3 Ideal Low-pass NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
9.4.4 Band-reject Filtering of NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
9.4.5 Band-reject Filtered NCSU . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
9.4.6 Light and Noisy Aerial Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
9.4.7 Filtering Aerial Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
9.4.8 Filtered Aerial Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
9.4.9 Micro Chip Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
9.4.10 Sharpening of Micro Chip Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
9.4.11 Sharpened Micro Chip Image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
List of Tables

4.1.1 Computer Sales Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

4.1.2 World Population Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.1.3 Radioactive Decay Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
4.3.1 Multlinear Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.3.2 Price Data for Three Markets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.3.3 Home Appraisal Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.3.4 Three-tank Mixing Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.4.1 US Population Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.4.2 Temperature Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

xi
Preface

An important objective of this book is to provide "math-on-time" for second

year students of science and engineering. The student should have had one
semester of calculus. The student most likely would take this matrix course
concurrently with the second semester of calculus or would use this text for in-
dependent study of these important topics. This text fills in often missed topics
in the first year of calculus including complex numbers and functions, matri-
ces, algebraic systems, curve fitting, elements of linear dierential equations,
transform methods and some computation tools.
Chapters one and two have introductory material on complex numbers, 2D
and 3D vectors and their products, which are often covered in the beginning of
multivariable calculus. Here a connection is established between the geometric
and algebraic approaches to these topics. This is continued into chapters three,
four and five where higher order algebraic systems are solved via row operations,
inverse matrices and LU factorizations. Linearly independent vectors and sub-
spaces are used to solve over and under determined systems. Chapters six and
seven describe first and second order linear dierential equations and introduce
eigenvalues and eigenvectors for the solution of linear systems of initial value
problems. The last two chapters use transform methods to filter distorted im-
ages or signals. The discrete Fourier transform is introduced via the continuous
versions of the Laplace and Fourier transforms. The discrete Fourier transform
properties are derived from the Fourier matrix representation and are used to
do image filtering in the frequency domain.
The first five chapters can be used as a two-credit course (28 50-minute
classes). Among the nine chapters there is more than enough material for a
three-credit course. This three-credit matrix course when coupled with a nine-
or ten-credit calculus sequence can serve as a more "diverse" alternative to the
traditional twelve-credit calculus sequence. The twelve-credit calculus sequence
can be adapted to this alternative by reducing the precalculus, moving some of
2D and 3D vectors and dierential equations into the matrix course, and using
computing tools to do the complicated computations and graphing.
Most sections have some applications, which should indicate the utility of the
mathematics being studied. Seven basic applications are developed in various
sections of the text and include circuits, trusses, mixing tanks, heat conduc-
tion, data modeling, motion of a mass and image filters. The applications are

xiii
xiv PREFACE

developed from very simple models to more complex models. The reader can
locate sections pretaining to a particular application by using the index.
°R
MATLAB is used to do some of the more complicated computations. Al-
though the primary focus is to develop by-hand calculation skills, most sec-
tions at the end have some MATLAB calculations. The MATLAB m-files used
in the text are listed in the index and are included in the book’s Web site:
http://www4.ncsu.edu/~white. The approach to using computing tools in-
cludes: first, learn the math and by-hand calculations; second, use a computing
tool to confirm the by-hand calculations; third, use the computing tool to do
more complicated calculations and applications.
I hope this book will precipitate discussions concerning the core mathemat-
ical course work that scientists and engineers are required to study. Discrete
models and computing have become more common, and this has increased the
need for additional study of matrix computation, and numerical and linear al-
gebra. The precise topics, skills, theory and appropriate times to teach these
are certainly open for discussion. The matrix algebra topics in this book are
a small subset of most upper level linear algebra courses, which should be en-
hanced and taken by a number of students. This book attempts to make a
bridge from two- and three-variable problems to more realistic problems with
more variables, but it emphasizes skills more than theory.
I thank my colleagues who have contributed to many discussions about the
content of this text. And, many thanks go to my personal friends and Liz White
who have listened to me emote during the last year.

Bob White
MATLAB is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product
information, please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com ?http://www.mathworks.com/A.
Introduction

One can view an p×q matrix as a table of objects with p rows and q columns.
The objects are usually real or complex numbers, but they could be characters
or records of information. A simple example is data for the last 12 months of
car sales where there are p = 12 rows and q = 2 columns. The first column
will have the month’s number and the second column will have the number of
cars sold in the corresponding month. By examining the data one would like
to make a prediction about futures sales. This is where the modeling enters.
If the graph of the sales versus months "looks" like a straight line, then the
data may be modeled by a linear function of time | = pw b + f. The slope p b
and intercept f must be chosen so that the computed sales are "close" to the
car sales data. This is done by appropriate manipulations of the two column
vectors and computing a solution of the resulting system of algebraic equations.
Once p b and f have been found, the predicted sales for w larger than 12 can
easily be calculated by evaluating the linear function. The modeling process is
complicated by incorrect sales data, changing prices and other models such as
a parabolic function of time.
This text examines a variety of applications, which have matrix models and
often have algebraic systems that must be solved either by-hand calculations
or using a computing tool. Applications to projectiles, circuits, mixing tanks,
trusses, heat conduction, motion of a mass, curve fitting and image enhancement
will be initially modeled in very simple ways and then revisited so as to make
the model more accurate. This is typical of the modeling process where there is
an application, a model, mathematical method, computations and assessment
of the results. Then this cycle is repeated so as to enhance the application’s
model.
The first two chapters deal with problems in two- and three-dimensional
space where the matrices have no more than three rows or columns. Here
geometric insight can be used to understand the models. In Section 2.5 the
extension to higher dimensions is indicated for vectors and matrices, solution
to larger algebraic systems, more complicated curve fitting, time dependent
problems with systems of dierential equations and image modeling. Chapters
three, four and five have the basic matrix methods that are required to solve
systems in higher dimensions. Chapters six and seven contain time dependent
models and introduce linear systems of dierential equations. The last two

xv
xvi INTRODUCTION

chapters are an introduction to image and signal processing.

Most sections have some by-hand matrix calculations in the numbered ex-
amples, some applications and some MATLAB computations, see [4] and [6].
The focus is on the by-hand calculations, and one should carefully study the
numbered examples. Each numbered example usually has two exercises associ-
ated with it. There are also additional exercises, which may fill in some parts of
the text, be related to applications or use MATLAB. This text is not intended to
be a tutorial on MATLAB, but there are a number of short codes that may help
you understand the topics being discussed. The by-hand calculations should be
done, and MATLAB should be used to confirm these calculations. This will give
you confidence in both your understanding of the by-hand matrix computation
and the use of MATLAB. Larger dimensional problems can easily be done using
MATLAB or other computer software.
The following matrices are used in Chapters 3, 4, 5 and 9, and they can
be generalized to larger matrices enabling one to cross the bridge from models
with few variables to many variables.
5 6 5 6
0 0 0 1 0 0
]=7 0 0 0 8 L=7 0 1 0 8
0 0 0 0 0 1
5 6 5 6
1 0 0 1 7 10
H32 (3) = 7 0 1 0 8 X =7 0 2 4 8
0 3 1 0 0 3
5 6 5 6
2 1 0 200 1 1 0 200
[D g] = 7 1 2 1 0 8 b = 7 0 3@2 1
[X g] 100 8
0 1 2 70 0 0 4@3 410@3
5 6 5 6
2 1 0 0 8 6 4 2
9 1 2 1 0 : 9 6 12 8 4 :
D=9 7 0 1 2 1 8
: D1 = (1@10) 9
7 4 8 12
:
6 8
0 0 1 2 2 4 6 8
5 6
1 1 5 6
9 2 1 : 1 2 3 4 5
OV = 97 3 1 8
: UHI = 7 0 0 1 2 1 8
0 0 0 0 0
4 1
5 6
1 1 1 1
9 1 } }2 }3 :
F4 = 9
7 1 }2 1 }2 8
:

1 }3 }2 }
Chapter 1

Vectors in the Plane

This chapter contains geometric and algebraic descriptions of objects in two

dimensional space, R2 > and in the complex plane, C. The objects include vec-
tors, lines, complex valued functions and some curves. Fundamental operations
include vector addition and dot product. The basic properties of complex num-
bers and complex valued functions are introduced. Applications to navigation,
work, torque, areas and signal representation via phasors are given.

1.1 Floating Point and Complex Numbers

In this section we first discuss the integers and rational numbers. The floating
point numbers, which are used in computers, are a finite subset of the rational
numbers. The real and complex numbers are natural extensions of these. The
complex numbers also can be represented by directed line segments or vectors in
the plane. Although initially complex numbers may appear to be of questionable
value, they will be used extensively in the chapters on dierential equations and
image processing.

1.1.1 Rational Numbers

The integers are the set of whole numbers and include both positive, negative
and zero
Z  {· · ·  2> 1> 0> 1> 2> · · · }=
The addition and product of two integers are also integers. Any integer can
be uniquely factored into a product of prime numbers (an integer that is only
divisible by itself and one). For example, 90 = 51 32 21 =
The rational numbers are fractions of integers p@q where q is not zero and
p and q are integers

Q  {p@q : p> q 5 Z> q 6= 0}=

1
2 CHAPTER 1. VECTORS IN THE PLANE

The set of rational numbers has a countable but infinite number of elements.
Also, the addition and product of two rational numbers are rational numbers.

1.1.2 Real Numbers

Any real number is approximated by a sequence of rational numbers. Tradi-
tionally, one uses a base ten decimal expansion with {l > h 5 Z and 0  {l ? 10

{ = ±(={1 · · · {g · · · )10h
 ±({1 @10 + · · · + {g @10g + · · · )10h =

This expansion is either a bounded increasing or decreasing sequence of rational

numbers and, therefore, by the completeness axiom for the real numbers it must
converge.

R  {±({1 @10 + · · · + {g @10g + · · · )10h : {l > h 5 Z> 0  {l ? 10}=

Real numbers contain the rational numbers, but not all real numbers are
rational. For example, consider { = 31@2 where 3 is a prime number. If { were
a rational number, then { = p@q giving 3 = p2 @q2 and 31 q2 = p2 . The
left side has an odd number of prime factors 3, and the right side has an even
number of prime factors 3. This contradicts the unique factorization property
and, hence, { cannot be a rational number.

1.1.3 Floating Point Numbers

Computers use a finite subset of the rational numbers to approximate any real
number. This set of numbers may depend on the computer being used. How-
ever, they do have the same general form and are called floating point num-
bers. Any real number { can be represented by an infinite decimal expansion
{ = ±(={1 · · · {g · · · )10h , and by truncating this we can define the chopped
floating point numbers.
Let { be any real number and denote a floating point number by

i o({) = ±={1 · · · {g 10h

 ±({1 @10 + · · · + {g @10g )10h =

This is a floating point number with base equal to 10 where {1 is not equal
to zero, {l are integers between 0 and 9, the exponent h is an integer between
given integers i and j and g is a positive integer called the precision of the
floating point system

F  {±({1 @10 + · · · + {g @10g )10h : {1 6= 0> 0  {l ? 10> 0 ? g}=

Associated with each real number, {, and its floating point approximate
number, i o({), is the floating point error, i o({)  {. This error decreases as
the precision, g, increases. Each computer calculation has some floating point
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