CLASS

CLASS XII XII (2024-25)

(2023-24)
PHYSICS (THEORY)

Time: 3 hrs. Max Marks: 70

No. of Marks
Periods
Unit–I Electrostatics
Chapter–1: Electric Charges and Fields
26
Chapter–2: Electrostatic Potential and 16
Capacitance
Unit-II Current Electricity
18
Chapter–3: Current Electricity
Unit-III Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism
25
Chapter–4: Moving Charges and Magnetism
Chapter–5: Magnetism and Matter 17
Unit-IV Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating
Currents 24
Chapter–6: Electromagnetic Induction
Chapter–7: Alternating Current
Unit–V Electromagnetic Waves
04
Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves
Unit–VI Optics 18
Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical 30
Instruments
Chapter–10: Wave Optics
Unit–VII Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and 8
Matter 12
Unit–VIII Atoms and Nuclei
15
Chapter–12: Atoms
Chapter–13: Nuclei
Unit–IX Electronic Devices
Chapter–14: Semiconductor 10
Electronics: Materials, Devices and 7
Simple Circuits
Total 160 70
Unit I: Electrostatics 26 Periods

Chapter–1: Electric Charges and Fields

Electric charges, Conservation of charge, Coulomb's law-force between two-

point charges, forces between multiple charges; superposition principle and
continuous charge distribution.

Electric field, electric field due to a point charge, electric field lines, electric
dipole, electric field due to a dipole, torque on a dipole in uniform electric
field.

Electric flux, statement of Gauss's theorem and its applications to find field
due to infinitely long straight wire, uniformly charged infinite plane sheet and
uniformly charged thin spherical shell (field inside and outside).

Chapter–2: Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance

Electric potential, potential difference, electric potential due to a point charge,

a dipole and system of charges; equipotential surfaces, electrical potential
energy of a system of two-point charges and of electric dipole in an
electrostatic field.

Conductors and insulators, free charges and bound charges inside a

conductor. Dielectrics and electric polarization, capacitors and capacitance,
combination of capacitors in series and in parallel, capacitance of a parallel
plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium between the plates,
energy stored in a capacitor (no derivation, formulae only).

Unit II: Current Electricity 18 Periods

Chapter–3: Current Electricity

Electric current, flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor, drift velocity,

mobility and their relation with electric current; Ohm's law, V-I characteristics
(linear and non-linear), electrical energy and power, electrical resistivity and
conductivity, temperature dependence of resistance, Internal resistance of a
cell, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination of cells in series and
in parallel, Kirchhoff's rules, Wheatstone bridge
Unit III: Magnetic Effects of Current and Magnetism 25 Periods

Chapter–4: Moving Charges and Magnetism

Concept of magnetic field, Oersted's experiment.

Biot - Savart law and its application to current carrying circular loop.

Ampere's law and its applications to infinitely long straight wire. Straight
solenoid (only qualitative treatment), force on a moving charge in uniform
magnetic and electric fields.

Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field, force

between two parallel current-carrying conductors-definition of ampere,
torque experienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic field; Current loop
as a magnetic dipole and its magnetic dipole moment, moving coil
galvanometer- its current sensitivity and conversion to ammeter and
voltmeter.

Chapter–5: Magnetism and Matter

Bar magnet, bar magnet as an equivalent solenoid (qualitative treatment

only), magnetic field intensity due to a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) along
its axis and perpendicular to its axis (qualitative treatment only), torque on a
magnetic dipole (bar magnet) in a uniform magnetic field (qualitative
treatment only), magnetic field lines.

Magnetic properties of materials- Para-, dia- and ferro -magnetic substances

with examples, Magnetization of materials, effect of temperature on magnetic
properties.

Unit IV: Electromagnetic Induction and Alternating Currents 24 Periods

Chapter–6: Electromagnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction; Faraday's laws, induced EMF and current;

Lenz's Law, Self and mutual induction.
 Chapter–7: Alternating Current

Alternating currents, peak and RMS value of alternating current/voltage;

reactance and impedance; LCR series circuit (phasors only), resonance,
power in AC circuits, power factor, wattless current.
AC generator, Transformer.

Unit V: Electromagnetic waves 04 Periods

Chapter–8: Electromagnetic Waves

Basic idea of displacement current, Electromagnetic waves, their

characteristics, their transverse nature (qualitative idea only).

Electromagnetic spectrum (radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible,

ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays) including elementary facts about their uses.

Unit VI: Optics 30 Periods

Chapter–9: Ray Optics and Optical Instruments

Ray Optics: Reflection of light, spherical mirrors, mirror formula, refraction

of light, total internal reflection and optical fibers, refraction at spherical
surfaces, lenses, thin lens formula, lens maker’s formula, magnification,
power of a lens, combination of thin lenses in contact, refraction of light
through a prism.

Optical instruments: Microscopes and astronomical telescopes (reflecting and

refracting) and their magnifying powers.

Chapter–10: Wave Optics

Wave optics: Wave front and Huygen’s principle, reflection and refraction of
plane wave at a plane surface using wave fronts. Proof of laws of reflection
and refraction using Huygen’s principle. Interference, Young's double slit
experiment and expression for fringe width (No derivation final expression
only), coherent sources and sustained interference of light, diffraction due to
a single slit, width of central maxima (qualitative treatment only).
Unit VII: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 08 Periods

Chapter–11: Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

Dual nature of radiation, Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's

observations; Einstein's photoelectric equation-particle nature of light.

Experimental study of photoelectric effect, Matter waves-wave nature of particles,

de-Broglie relation.
Unit VIII: Atoms and Nuclei 15 Periods

Chapter–12: Atoms

Alpha-particle scattering experiment; Rutherford's model of atom; Bohr model

of hydrogen atom, Expression for radius of nth possible orbit, velocity and
energy of electron in nth orbit, hydrogen line spectra (qualitative treatment
only).

Chapter–13: Nuclei

Composition and size of nucleus, nuclear force

Mass-energy relation, mass defect; binding energy per nucleon and its
variation with mass number; nuclear fission, nuclear fusion.

Unit IX: Electronic Devices 10 Periods

Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics: Materials, Devices and Simple Circuits

Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators (qualitative
ideas only) Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors- p and n type, p-n
junction, Semiconductor diode - I-V characteristics in forward and reverse
bias, application of junction diode -diode as a rectifier
 CBSE QUESTION PAPER DESIGN-2024-25

(Classes XI-XII)
Particulars Academic Session 2023-24 Academic Session 2024-25
Composition • Competency Focused Questions in the • Competency Focused Questions in the
of question form of MCQs/ Case Based Questions, form of MCQs/ Case Based Questions,
paper for Source-based IntegratedQuestions or Source-based IntegratedQuestions or
year-end
any other type = 40% any other type = 50%
examination/
Board • Select response type questions • Select response type questions
Examination (MCQ) = 20% (MCQ) = 20%
(Theory) • Constructed response questions • Constructed response questions
(Short Answer Questions/Long (Short Answer Questions/Long
Answer type Questions, as per Answer type Questions, as per
existing pattern) = 40% existing pattern) = 30%
 UNIT-I ELECTROSTATICS
CHAPTER 1 -ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS
Gist:
1 Charge :
Charge is an intrinsic property of elementary particles of matter which gives rise to
electric force between various objects.

2 Two types of charges: Positive and negative.

3 Transference of electrons is the cause of frictional electricity.

4 Basic properties of electric charge :

i) Additivity of charges: Total charge is the algebraic sum of individual charges.

ii) Conservation of charges: The total charge of an isolated system is always
conserved.
iii) Quantization of charges : Charge of an object is always in the form of integral
multiple of electronic charge and never its fraction

5 Coulomb’s Law
It states that the electrostatic force of interaction or repulsion acting between two
stationary point charges is given by

6 Dielectric constant
The ratio of force between two charges in vacuum to the force acting between when
they are shifted in a medium is called relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the
medium. where is also called the relative permittivity and is the permittivity of medium.

7 Electrostatic force due to continuous charge distribution:

1
 i) linear charge distribution( λ ): = Charge/Length =C/m
ii) Surface charge distribution(σ): σ= Charge/Area = C/m2
iii) Volume charge distribution(ρ) : ρ = Charge/ Volume = C/m3

Electric Field Lines Electric field lines are a way of pictorially mapping the electric
field around a configuration of charge(s). These lines start on positive charge and
end on negative charge. The tangent on these lines at any point gives the direction
of field at that point.

Properties:
1. Field lines from a positive charge to negative charge
2. Direction of filed lines shown by the tangent to the field lines.
3. Electric field lines emerge normal from positive charge and terminate at
negative charge.
4. They never intersect each other.
This can be explained by method of contradiction at two field lines E1 & E2
interest at P as shown in the figure. Then there may be two tangents at E1 and
E2. Which is not possible. Since one and only one tangent can be drawn.
Therefore, our assumption is wrong.
5. Electric field contract in length which shows that opposite charges attract.
6. Electric field lines exert lateral pressure which shows that like charges repel.
N is a point which shows field intensity is zero called neutral point.

2
 7. Closer field lines indicate the stronger region and rarer field lines shows
weaker region.
8. Single positive charge radiates field lines radially outward (q > 0).
9. Single negative charge radiates field lines radially inward (q < 0).

8 Electric Field Intensity The electric field intensity at any point due to source
charge is defined as the force experienced per unit positive test charge placed at
that point without disturbing the source charge. It is expressed as

3
MIND MAP

4
 UNIT-I ELECTROSTATICS
CH:2 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE
GIST

Electric potential, Potential difference, electric potential due to a point charge, a dipole
and system of charges, equipotential surfaces, electric potential energy of a system
of two point in charges and of electric dipole in an electrostatic field.
Conductors and insulators, free charges and bound charges inside a conductor.
Dielectrics and electric polarization, capacitors and capacitance, combination of
capacitors in series and in parallel, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and
without dielectric medium between the plates; energy stored in a capacitor (no
derivation formulae only.

MIND MAPS

16
IMPORTANT POINTS
➢ Work done by an electrostatic force in moving a charge from one point to another
depends only on the initial & final position and not on the path followed by the charged
particle.

➢ Work done by the electrostatic force in moving a charge in closed path is zero

➢ The potential due to a dipole depends not just on r but also in the angle between
the position vector (𝑟 ) and dipole moment vector (𝑃⃗ ).

➢ The electric dipole potential falls off as 1/ 𝑟2 not as 1/𝑟 characteristic of the
potential due to a single charge .

➢ No work is done in moving a test charge over an equipotential surface.

➢ electric field is always normal to the equipotential surface at every point .

➢ No two equipotential surface can intersect each other.

➢ Electric field is in the direction in which the potential decreases steepest.

Its magnitude is given by the change in the magnitude of potential per unit
displacement normal to the equipotential surfaces at the point.

➢ On equatorial points of dipole , V=0 but E ≠ 0

➢ Inside a charged spherical shell , E=0 but V ≠ 0

. ➢ Net electric charge in the interior of a conductor is zero.

17
➢ Insertion of a dielectric reduces the electric field between the plates of a capacitor

➢ In a series combination of capacitor, the charges on each capacitor are same but
the potential difference across any capacitor is inversely proportional to its
capacitance.
➢ In a parallel combination of capacitors, the potential difference across each
capacitor is same but the charged stored in any capacitor is proportional to its
capacitance.

➢ When charges are shared between any two bodies, their potential become equal.
The charges acquired are in the ratio of their capacities. No charges is lost, but
some loss of energy does occur.

➢ The capacitance of a capacitor depends neither on Q nor on V. It depends upon

the shape and size of the conductor.

➢ The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can withstand without break-
down (of its insulating property) is called its dielectric strength; for air it is about
3 × 106 Vm–1 . For a separation between conductors of the order of 1 cm or so, this
field corresponds to a potential difference of 3 × 10 4 V between the conductors.
Thus, for a capacitor to store a large amount of charge without leaking, its
capacitance should be high enough so that the potential difference and hence the
electric field do not exceed the break-down limits. Put differently, there is a limit to
the amount of charge that can be stored on a given capacitor without significant
leaking. In practice, a farad is a very big unit.

GRAPHS

3.Graph between E & C 4.Graph of E & V verses distance r

for a point charge

18
 FORMULAE WITH NOTATIONS AND SYMBOLS
*Potential difference : work done / charge =W/q
*Electric potential due to point charge q at a distance r from it :
V =Kq /r(1 /4π∈0 = K )
* Electric potential at a point due to N point charges:
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞3 𝑞𝑛
𝑉= ( + + +−−−−−−+ )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 𝑟𝑛

*Electric potential at a point due to a dipole:

1 𝑝 cos 𝜃
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2
1 2 q 𝑞
*Potential Energy of a system of two-point charges: U = 4πє 𝑟 0

1 q 𝑞2 q1 𝑞3 q2 𝑞3
*Potential Energy of a system of three-point charges:U = 4πє [ 𝑟1 + + ]
0 12 𝑟13 𝑟23

*Potential energy of a single charge in an external Field: U (r) = q V (r)

* Potential energy of two charges in an external Field
1 q1 𝑞2
U (r) = q1V (r1) +q1V (r1) + 4πє
0 𝑟12

*Electric Potential Energy of an electric dipole

U= pE(cos 𝜃1 - cos 𝜃2)

⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸⃗
If 𝜃1= 90o and 𝜃2= 𝜃 then U= -pEcos 𝜃= -𝑝.
Units: Charge- coulomb, Electric dipole moment- coulomb metre (Cm)
Distance- metre ,
Energy- joule or electron volt (eV) (1eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J)
𝑄
Capacitance: Ratio of charge & potential difference. (It is Scalar) 𝐶 = 𝑉 .
SI.unit :farad (F)
𝜖 𝐴
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with no medium between plates :C 0= C = 0𝑑

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium of dielectric

constant K thickness t in between :
𝜖0 𝐴
Cm= 𝑡
(𝑑−𝑡+ )
𝐾
𝜀0 𝐴 𝜖0 𝐴
If t = 0 then C0= If t = d then Cm= K Cm = KC0
𝑑 𝑑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
*Combination of capacitors: (i) Capacitors in series: 𝑪 = 𝑪 + 𝑪 + 𝑪
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

(ii) Capacitors in parallel :C =∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝑪𝒊

19
 𝟏 𝟏 𝑸𝟐
*Energy stored in capacitors: U= 𝟐 𝑪𝑽𝟐 =𝟐 𝑸𝑽 = 𝟐𝑪

𝟏 𝝈𝟐
*Energy density :Ud = 𝟐ϵ0 E2 = 𝟐𝝐
𝟎

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium of dielectric

constant K thickness t in between :
𝜖0 𝐴
Cm= 𝑡
(𝑑−𝑡+ )
𝐾
𝜀0 𝐴 𝜖0 𝐴
If t = 0 then C0= If t = d then Cm= K
𝑑 𝑑
⇒ Cm = KC0
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
*Combination of capacitors: (i) Capacitors in series: 𝑪 = 𝑪 + 𝑪 + 𝑪
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

(ii) Capacitors in parallel :C =∑𝒏𝒊=𝟏 𝑪𝒊

𝟏 𝟏 𝑸𝟐
*Energy stored in capacitors: U= 𝟐 𝑪𝑽𝟐 =𝟐 𝑸𝑽 = 𝟐𝑪

𝟏 𝝈𝟐
*Energy density :Ud = 𝟐ϵ0 E2 = 𝟐𝝐
𝟎

*Introducing dielectric slab between the plates of the charged conductor with:
PROPERTY BATTERY CONNECTED BATTERY DISCONNECTED
Charge KQ0 Q0
Potential difference V0 V0/K
Electric Field E0 E0/K
Capacitance KC0 KC0
Energy 𝟏 11
K 𝟐ϵ0E2(Energy is supplied ϵ0E2 (Energy used for
𝐾2
by battery) polarization)
*On connecting two charged capacitors:
𝐶1 𝑉1 +𝐶2 𝑉2
(a) Common Potential : V= 𝑉1 +𝑉2

1 𝐶 ×𝐶
(b)Loss of energy : ΔU = 2 (𝐶 1+𝐶 ) (V1 – V2)2
1 2

********

20
 UNIT II CURRENT ELECTRICITY
CH-3 CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Gist of the chapter
Electric Current: rate of flow of electric charge
𝑑𝑞
Instantaneous current: 𝐼 = SI unit: ampere, scalar quantity
𝑑𝑡

Current carriers (mobile charge carriers): The charged particles whose drift in a
definite direction constitutes the electric current are called current carriers.

Conventional current in a metallic conductor: In metallic conductors, negatively

charged particles, namely electrons, drift under the influence of applied potential
difference. This constitutes an electron current.

The direction of drift of positive charges is the direction of current. This current is
called conventional current. The direction of conventional current is opposite to that
of drift of electrons.

Current Density (𝑱): it is amount of charge flowing per second per unit area
normal to flow of charge. It is a vector quantity having the same
direction as that of the motion of the positive charge.
𝐼
𝑗=𝐴

In general , 𝐼 = 𝐽. 𝐴

SI unit of current density = Am2

Drift velocity: the average velocity gained by the free

electrons of a conductor in the opposite direction of the
externally applied electric field

Relaxation time: the average time that elapses between

two successive collisions of an electron is called relaxation time.

Relation between drift velocity and electric field: Drift velocity of electron is given
𝑒𝐸⃗ 𝜏
by 𝑣𝑑 = −
⃗⃗⃗⃗ Where 𝑒 = charge on electron, m = mass of electron, 𝜏 =
𝑚

𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑥𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒, 𝐸⃗ = electric field

36
Relation between drift velocity and current:
𝐼
𝑣𝑑 = 𝐴𝑛𝑒 where I = current, A = Cross-section area of conductor, e = charge on
electron

Mobility(𝝁): the mobility of charge carrier is given by

𝑣𝑑
𝜇=
𝐸
𝑒𝐸⃗ 𝜏 𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝜏
As drift velocity, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣𝑑 = − ∴𝜇= = SI unit of mobility = m2V-1s-1
𝑚 𝐸 𝑚

Ohm’s law: the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied across its ends, provided the temperature and other
physical conditions remain unchanged.

𝑉 𝛼 𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝑉 = 𝑅 Where R = Resistance of the conductor.

Resistance: it is the property by virtue of which a conductor opposes the flow of

𝑉
charge through it.𝑅 = SI Unit: 1 ohm(Ω) = 1VA-1
𝐼

Cause of resistance: Collisions are the basic cause of resistance

Symbol of resistor:

Factor affecting the resistance:

𝑙
𝑅 = 𝜌 𝐴 where 𝜌 = specific resistance or resistivity of a conductor.
𝑚
resistivity of a conductor is given by 𝜌 = 𝑛𝑒 2𝜏 SI unit of resistivity: ohm meter(Ω𝑚)

Resistivity of conductor depends only nature of material

1
Conductance: G = 𝑅 SI unit of conductance ohm-1or mho or siemens(S)

1
Conductivity: σ = ρ SI unit of conductivity is ohm-1 m-1 or Sm-1

Vector form of ohm’s law: 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸⃗

Limitations of Ohm's Law

1. Ohm’s law is applicable only to metallic conductors at moderate temperatures
and moderate potential differences.
2. Ohm’s law cannot be applied
• to conductors maintained at very high temperatures or very low temperatures.
• to semiconductors and semi conducting devices.
• to conductors across which very high pd or very low pd is applied.

37
V-I characteristics
• The variation of current (I) with voltage (V) at various temperatures for any
device is called its V-I characteristics.
• For an ohmic device, V-I characteristic is linear.

• For a non-ohmic device, the V-I characteristic curve is non-linear.

V-I characteristic of some non-ohmic devices

V-I characteristic of Ohmic device – Metal conductor

Effect of temperature on resistance

• The resistivity 𝜌 of a material depends on its temperature. For a small variation
of temperature,
𝜌 = 𝜌0 (1 + 𝛼 (𝑇 − 𝑇0 ), where 𝛼 = temperature coefficient of resistance of the
material.
• The resistance of a conductor at absolute temperature T is given by the
relation𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼(𝑇 − 𝑇0 ),
−1
• SI unit of 𝛼 = ℃
Distinctive values of 𝜶 for metal, alloys and semiconductor:
1) For metals, 𝛼 is positive i.e., resistance of metals increases with the
increase in temperature.

Variation of resistivity of copper variation of resistivity of nichrome with

temperature. with temperature

2) For alloy like constantan and manganin, the temperature coefficient of

resistance is very small. So, they are used for making standard resistor.

38
 3) For semiconductor and insulator 𝛼 is negative i.e. their resistance decreases
with the increases in temperature

Resistivity of a semiconductor decreases rapidly with temperature.

EMF and internal resistance of a cell
Electromotive force: The work done by the source in taking a unit positive charge from
its lower potential to higher potential.
𝑤
𝐸=
𝑞
SI unit: volt
Internal resistance: the resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to the flow of
current between its electrodes is called internal resistance
Terminal potential difference: the potential drop across the terminals of a cell when
a current is being drawn from it is terminal potential(V).
Relation between emf, internal resistance and terminal potential.
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼𝑟
Special cases
1) When cell is on open circuit: I = 0
V=E
Difference between emf and terminal voltage
EMF Terminal Voltage
1. It is the potential difference 1. It is the potential difference
between two terminals of the cell between two terminals when a
when no current drawn from it. current passes through it
2. It is a cause 2. It is an effect
3. SI unit Volt 3. SI unit Volt

Grouping of a cell
Cell in series

39
 𝐸𝑒𝑞 = 𝐸1 + 𝐸2

𝑟𝑒𝑞 = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2

Cell in parallel

𝐸1 𝑟2 + 𝐸2 𝑟1
𝐸𝑒𝑞 =
𝑟1 + 𝑟2
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝑟𝑒𝑞 =
𝑟1 + 𝑟2

Electric Power: it is the rate at which an electric appliance convert electric energy into
other forms of energy.
𝑊 𝑉2
P= 𝑡
= 𝑉𝐼 = 𝐼 2 𝑅 = 𝑅
SI unit of power: Watt

Electric energy: it is the total work done in maintaining an electric current for a given
time.
𝑉2
𝑊 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 = 𝑡 Commercial unit: 1 𝐾𝑊ℎ = 3.6 × 106 𝐽
𝑅

High voltage power transmission: suppose power P is delivered to a load R via

transmission cables of resistance 𝑅𝑡 . If V is the voltage across load R and I the current
through it, then P = VI The power wasted in transmission cables
𝑝2 𝑅𝑡
𝑃⃗𝑡 = 𝐼 2 𝑅𝑡 =
𝑉2
1
𝑃⃗𝑡 ∝
𝑉2
Kirchhoff’s first law or junction law(KCL): In an electric circuit, the algebraic sum
of currents at any junction is zero.
Σ𝐼 = 0
Sign convention for applying junction rule:1.The current
flowing towards the junction are taken as positive.

2.The current flowing away from the junction are taken as

negative.

Σ𝐼 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼3 − 𝐼2 − 𝐼4 = 0 or 𝐼1 + 𝐼3 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼4

40
Kirchhoff’s second law or loop law: the
algebraic sum of the emf’s in any loop of a circuit
is equal to the sum of the products of currents and
resistance in it.
ΣE = ΣIR
Wheatstone bridge: it is an arrangement of four
resistance used to determine one of these
resistance quickly and accurately in terms of the
remaining three resistance
When no current flows through the galvanometer.
The bridge is then said to be balanced . in the
balanced condition,
𝑃⃗ 𝑅
=
𝑄 𝑠

41
Mind Map

42
 UNIT III MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM
CH 4– MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM
GIST OF LESSON
1. Magnetic field- A magnetic field is associated with an electric current flowing
through a metallic wire. This is called the magnetic effect of current. On the
other hand, a stationary electron produces an electric field only.
2. SI Unit of Magnetic field-
The SI unit of magnetic field is Wm-2 or T (tesla). The strength of magnetic field
is called one tesla, if a charge of one coulomb, when moving with a velocity of
1 ms-1 along a direction perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field
experiences a force of one newton.
3. 1 tesla (T) = 1 weber meter-2 (Wbm-2 ) = 1 newton ampere-1 meter-1 (NA-1 m -1)
4. CGS units of magnetic field is called gauss or oersted.
5. 1 gauss = 10-4 tesla.
6. Right hand thumb rule- Hold a conductor is Right Hand in such a way that
thumb indicates the direction of current and curled finger encircling the
conductor will give the direction of magnetic field lines.
7. Biot- Savart law- It states that the magnetic field strength B produced due to a
current element (of current I and length dl) at a point having position vector r
relative to current element is-

where µ0 is the permeability of free space,

θ is the angle between current element and position
vector r as shown in the figure.
The direction of magnetic field B is perpendicular to
the plane containing Idl and r
The value of µ0 = 4π ×10–7 Wb/A-m.
8. Magnetic field due to a current carrying circular loop –
(a) The magnetic field due to current carrying circular coil of N-turns, radius a,
carrying current I at a distance x from the centre of coil is –

(b) The magnetic field due to current carrying circular coil is along the axis. At
center, x=0

69
The direction of the magnetic field at the center is perpendicular to the plane of the
coil.
9. Ampere's circuital law- It states that the line integral of magnetic field B along
a closed boundary of an open surface is equal to µ0-times the current (I) passing
through the open surface with closed boundary.

10. Magnetic field due to infinitely long straight wire using Ampere's law- According
to Ampere’s circuital law.

11. Straight solenoid- At the axis of a long solenoid, carrying current I

B=μ0 nI , where n = N/L = number of turns per unit length.
Tip - When we look at any end of the coil carrying current, If the current is in
anticlockwise direction then that end of the coil behaves like north pole, and If
the current is in clockwise direction then that end of the coil behaves like the
south pole.
12. Force on a current-carrying conductor in a uniform magnetic field B
Magnitude of force is F = IlBsinө.
Direction of force is normal to and given by Fleming’s Left Hand Rule. If ө =
0 (i.e. is parallel to B), then the magnetic force is zero.

13. Force on a moving charge in uniform magnetic field-The force on a charged

particle moving with velocity in a uniform magnetic field is given by F =
qvBsinө.
14. . The direction of this force is perpendicular to both v and B ,
When v is parallel to B ,ie ө=0, then F=0
When v is perpendicular to B , ie ө=90, then F is maximum, i.e., F=qvB

Lorentz force -The total force on a charged particle moving in simultaneous

electric field and magnetic field is given by F= qvB + qE
This is called the Lorentz force equation.
15. The direction of this force is determined by using Fleming’s left hand rule
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule- Stretch the left hand such that the fore-finger, the
central finger and thumb are mutually perpendicular to each
other. When the fore-finger points in the direction of the
magnetic field and the central finger points in the direction of
current then thumb gives the direction of the force acting on
the conductor.
16. Force between two parallel current-carrying
conductors- Two parallel current carrying conductors

70
 attract while antiparallel current carrying conductors repel. The magnetic force
per unit length on either current carrying conductor at separation a is given by

Its unit is newton/meter (N/m)

17. Definition of ampere: - 1 ampere is the current which when flowing in each of
the two parallel wires in vacuum separated by 1 m from each other exert a force
of 2x 10-7N/m on each other.
18. Torque experienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic field-
𝜏 =M x B
If the angle between the normal to the coil and the direction of the
magnetic field, then Φ + θ = 90° i.e. θ = 90° - Φ
𝜏 = I A B cos (90° - Φ) ‫ = ז‬N I A B sin Φ
Hence,

The unit of magnetic moment in SI system is Am2.

The torque is maximum when the coil is parallel to the magnetic field and zero
when the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field.
19. Potential energy of a current loop in a magnetic field- When a current loop
of magnetic moment M is placed in a magnetic field, then potential energy of
magnetic dipole is U=MB cos ө
(i) When ө=0, U = - MB (minimum or stable equilibrium position)
(ii) When ө=180, U = +MB (maximum or unstable equilibrium position)
(iii) When ө=90, potential energy is zero
20. Moving coil galvanometer- A moving coil
galvanometer is a device used to detect flow
of current in a circuit. A moving coil
galvanometer consists of a rectangular coil
placed in a uniform radial magnetic field
produced by cylindrical pole pieces.
Torque on coil due to current 𝜏 = NIBA
where N is the number of turns, A is the
area of coil.
If k is torsional rigidity of material of suspension wire, then for deflection θ,
torque 𝜏. For equilibrium NIAB = k
Clearly, deflection in galvanometer is directly proportional to current, so the
scale of galvanometer is linear.

71
 Use of radial magnetic field- The angle between the normal of the plane of loop
and magnetic field θ = 90o,
𝜏 ∝ I, when radial magnetic field is used the deflection
of coil is proportional to the current flowing through it. Hence a linear scale is
used to determine the deflection of coil.
Uses of galvanometer: (i) Used to detect electric current is a circuit. (ii) Used
to convert the ammeter by putting a low resistor. (iii) Used to convert voltmeter
by putting a high resistor. (iv) Used as ohmmeter by making special
arrangement
21. Current sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection of coil per unit current flowing
 NAB
in it. Current Sensitivity, S = I = .
K
22. Voltage sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection of coil per unit potential
 NAB
difference across its ends. Voltage Sensitivity, SV = V = ,where G is the
GK
resistance of galvanometer.
23. Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter: - A galvanometer may be
converted into ammeter by using very small resistance in parallel with the
galvanometer coil. The small resistance connected in parallel is called a shunt.
If G is resistance of galvanometer, Ig is current in galvanometer for full scale
deflection, then for conversion of galvanometer into ammeter of range I ampere,
the shunt is given by

24. Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter: - A galvanometer may be

converted into voltmeter by connecting high resistance (R) in series with the
coil of the galvanometer. If V volt is the range of voltmeter formed, then series
resistance is given by

_________________________________________________________

72
MIND MAP

73
 UNIT III MAGNETIC EFFECTS OF CURRENT AND MAGNETISM
CH–5: Magnetism and Matter

Gist of the chapter

• A magnet is a substance or object that produces a magnetic field.

• These days magnets have a lot of applications in areas such as electrical
devices, motors, fans, power generation, etc.
• All magnets exhibit magnetic force around them which is represented
in magnetic field lines.
• These lines start from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole.
• The earth itself exhibits magnetic field lines around making it act like a magnet.

The properties of magnetic lines of force are as follows:

• Magnetic field lines emerge from the north pole and merge at the south pole.
• As the distance between the poles increases, the density of magnetic lines
decreases.
• The direction of field lines inside the magnet is from the South Pole to the North
Pole.
• Magnetic lines do not intersect with each other.
• The strength of the magnetic lines is the same throughout and is proportional
to how close are the lines.

Magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet

Coulomb's Law of Magnetic Force

According to Coulomb’s law of magnetic force,

the force between two magnetic poles of strengths qm1 and
qm2 lying at a distance r is directly proportional to the
product of the pole strengths and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between their centers.
A magnetic dipole is a magnetic north pole and a
magnetic south pole separated by a small distance.
Magnetic dipole moments have dimensions of current
times area or energy divided by magnetic flux density.

m = 𝑞𝑚 × 2𝑙 direction south to north pole of magnet.

Magnetic field intensity due to bar magnet

Case 1: on a point on axial line

90
Case 2: on a point on equatorial line

Gauss Law of Magnetism essentially states that the flux through a closed surface/loop
is zero.

torque on a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) in a uniform magnetic field

91
Magnetic Properties of Materials
Substances can be divided into three groups based on their magnetic properties i.e.
diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic. They can be classified based on their
magnetic susceptibility.
Diamagnetic Materials
• The materials that develop temporary magnetization in the opposite direction
to that of the magnetic field in which they are placed are known as Diamagnetic
materials.
• In simple words, they are repelled by magnets.
• Their magnetic susceptibility is small and negative.
• Examples of diamagnetic materials are Bismuth, Copper, Zinc, Lead, etc
Paramagnetic Materials
The materials that develop temporary magnetization in the same direction as that of
the magnetic field in which they are placed are known as Paramagnetic materials.
• They are slightly attracted by magnets.
• They have positive but very low susceptibility.
• Examples of Paramagnetic materials are Aluminium, Sodium, Calcium, etc
Ferromagnetic Materials
The materials that develop temporary but strong magnetization in the same direction
to that of the magnetic field in which they are placed are known as Ferromagnetic
materials.
• They are strongly attracted by magnets.
• They have positive and high susceptibility.
• Examples of Ferromagnetic materials are Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, Haematite, etc

92
Effect of temperature on magnetic properties

https://www.britannica.com/video/185491/dependence-properties-temperature
According to Curie's Law, the magnetization in a paramagnetic material is directly
proportional to the applied magnetic field. If the object is heated, the magnetization is
viewed to be inversely proportional to the temperature

The Curie temperature (TC) of a ferroelectric material is the temperature at which the
material undergoes the phase transition from a low-temperature ferroelectric phase to
a high-temperature parmagnetic phase upon heating.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=haVX24hOwQI

93
CONCEPT MAP/MIND MAP

94
 UNIT IV ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING CURRENTS
CH 6 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Syllabus:
Faraday's laws, induced EMF and current; Lenz's Law, Self and mutual induction.

GIST

1. Faraday's Laws of Electromagnetic Induction:

Faraday's laws describe how a changing magnetic field can produce an electric current
in a conductor.

• First Law: Any change in the magnetic field within a closed loop induces an
electromotive force (EMF) in the wire.
• Second Law: The induced EMF is equal to the negative rate of change of the
magnetic flux through the loop. Mathematically, it is expressed as:

2. Induced EMF and Current:

• When a conductor experiences a change in magnetic flux, an EMF is induced,

generating a current if the conductor forms a closed circuit.
• The direction of the induced current is such that it opposes the change in
magnetic flux (Lenz's Law).

3. Lenz's Law:

Lenz's Law provides the direction of the induced current and EMF. It states that the
direction of the induced EMF and current will be such that it opposes the change in
magnetic flux that produced it. This law is a manifestation of the conservation of
energy.

Mathematically, Lenz's Law is represented by the negative sign in Faraday's law:

4. Self-Induction:

Self-induction is the phenomenon where a change in the current flowing through a coil
induces an EMF in the same coil.

108
 • Inductance (L): The property of a coil that quantifies self-induction. The

induced EMF is given by: .

5. Mutual Induction:

Mutual induction occurs when a change in current in one coil induces an EMF in a
nearby coil.

• Mutual Inductance (M): The property quantifying the induced EMF in one coil
due to the rate of change of current in another coil. The induced EMF in coil 2
due to the change in current in coil 1 is:

where M is the mutual inductance, I1 is the current in coil

1, and E2 is the induced EMF in coil 2.

Summary

Electromagnetic induction is the process of generating an electric current by changing

the magnetic field. Faraday's laws quantify this induction, stating that a changing
magnetic flux induces an EMF. Lenz's law provides the direction of the induced EMF
and current, ensuring it opposes the change in magnetic flux. Self-induction describes
the induction of EMF in the same coil due to changes in its own current, while mutual
induction describes the induction of EMF in one coil due to changes in current in
another coil. These principles are foundational for many electrical technologies,
including transformers and electric generators.

CONCEPT MAP:

109
 UNIT IV ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION AND ALTERNATING
CURRENT
CH 7 ALTERNATING CURRENTS
GIST OF CHAPTER:
Alternating currents, peak and RMS value of alternating current/voltage,
reactance and impedance, LCR series circuit (phasors only), resonance, power
in AC circuits, power factor, wattless current, Transformer, AC generator.
Alternating currents: Alternating current
(AC) is an electric current that
periodically reverses direction and
changes its magnitude continuously with
time.
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Direct current: flows with a constant magnitude and in same fixed direction.
Advantages of AC over 1) Easily and efficiently converted from one voltage
DC: to the other by means of transformers.
2) Transmitted economically over long distances.
Average value of AC over a one complete 𝑞
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = = 0
cycle 𝑡
Average value of AC over half of 2𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣 = 𝜋 = 0.637𝐼𝑚 (𝐼𝑚 = peak value)
cycle
RMS value: To measure AC/AV heating effect of current is used which is
independent of the direction.
RMS value also known as Effective or Virtual value.
Relation between RMS value and peak 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
value √2 √2

AC voltage applied to a Resistor:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅 (By Kirchhoff’s loop rule)
𝑉𝑚
𝑖= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑅
𝑉
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 (where 𝑖𝑚 = 𝑅𝑚 )

Voltage and current are in phase.

AC voltage applied to an Inductor:

121
 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑖
𝑉 − 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 = 0 (using Kirchhoff’s
rule)
𝑑𝑖 𝑉 𝑉𝑚
= = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝐿
𝑑𝑖 𝑉𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝐿
𝑉𝑚
𝑖=− 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + 𝐶
𝜔𝐿
𝜋 𝑉𝑚
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 − 2 ) (𝑖𝑚 = 𝜔𝐿 )
Inductive reactance, 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿
Current lags behind the voltage in
𝜋
phase by 2 rad.
OR
Voltage leads the current in phase
𝜋
by 2 rad.

AC voltage applied to a capacitor:

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑞
𝑉=
𝐶
𝑞
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 =
𝐶
𝑑𝑞 𝑑
𝑖= = (𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + )
1⁄ 2
𝜔𝐶
𝜋
= 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑡 + )
2
1
Capacitive reactance, 𝑋𝐶 = 𝜔𝐶
Current leads the voltage in
𝜋
phase by 2 rad.
OR
Voltage lags behind the current
𝜋
in phase by 2 rad.

122
LCR Series Circuit and Impedance:
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Resistor, inductor and capacitor are in series,
the ac current in each element is same at any
time, having the same amplitude and phase.
𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
i) In resistive circuit voltage and current are in
the same phase.
ii) In the inductive circuit, Current lags behind
𝜋
the voltage in phase by 2 rad
iii) In the capacitive circuit, Current leads the
𝜋
voltage in phase by 2 rad.
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿 + 𝑉𝐶
𝑉𝑚 = |𝑉| = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿 )2
𝑉𝑚 = √(𝑖𝑚 𝑅)2 + (𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐶 − 𝑖𝑚 𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑉𝑚 = 𝑖𝑚 √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑉
Impendance, 𝑍 = 𝑖 𝑚 = √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑚

𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 i) If XC > XL, ∅ is positive and the circuit is

𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ =
𝑅 predominantly capacitive.
OR Consequently, the current in the circuit
𝑉𝐶𝑚 − 𝑉𝐿𝑚 leads the source voltage.
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ =
𝑉𝑅𝑚 ii) If XC < XL, ∅ is negative and the circuit is
predominantly inductive.
Consequently, the current in the circuit
lags the source voltage.

Resonance and Resonant frequency:

Resonance: When natural frequency of Resonant Frequency:
the series LCR circuit becomes equal to If 𝜔 is varied, then at a particular
frequency of ac source and current frequency 𝜔0 , XC = XL, and the
becomes the maximum then the impedance is minimum. This
phenomenon is called resonance. frequency is called the resonant
𝑍
Maximum Current at resonance, 𝑖𝑚 = 𝑅 frequency
1
Minimum impedance at resonance, XC=XL, 𝜔 𝐶 = 𝜔0 𝐿
0
Zmin=R 1
When XC=XL, current has its maximum 𝜔0 =
√𝐿𝐶
value and impedance has minimum 𝜔0 1
value. 𝜗0 = =
2𝜋 2𝜋√𝐿𝐶

123
Power in AC circuit: The Power Factor:
We know that, an AC voltage 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 applied to a series LCR circuit drives a
current in the circuit given by 𝐼 = 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑).
Instantaneous Power = Instantaneous Voltage X Instantaneous Current
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑃
P = VI = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 X 𝐼𝑚 sin (𝜔𝑡 + Power Factor = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅= 𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉 𝑎𝑣𝑖
𝜑) 0 0
𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑟𝑚𝑠

𝑉𝑚 𝑖𝑚 (i) If ∅ = 0 , cos 0 = 1, then R=Z (pure

𝑃⃗ = [𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ − 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜔𝑡 + ∅)] Resistance)
2
𝑉𝑚 𝑖𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝑖𝑚 (ii) If ∅ = 900 , cos 900 = 0, then P=0 (pure
𝑃⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ inductive or capacitive)
2 √2 √2 The average power consumed over a cycle is
𝑃⃗ = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
zero and current is called wattless current.
True power = virtual power X
𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝑃⃗ = 𝐼 2 𝑍𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
If circuit has all the three element R, L and C then
𝑅 𝑅
Power factor = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑍 = 2 2
√(𝑅) +(𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )

Transformer:
Let Np and Ns be the number
of turns in the primary and
secondary of the transformer.
The voltage induced in the
secondary is
𝑑∅
𝜀𝑆 = −𝑁𝑆
𝑑𝑡
alternating flux f also induces
an emf, called back emf in the
primary
𝑑∅
𝜀𝑃 = −𝑁𝑃
𝑑𝑡
𝜀𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝐼𝑃
= =
𝜀𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑆
It is a device for covert an AC at low to high voltage Energy Loss:
or vice versa. (i) Copper loss
Principal: works on Mutual induction. (ii) Eddy current loss
A transformer consists of two coils of insulated (iii) Flux leakage
copper wire having different number of turns and (iv) Humming loss
wound on the same soft iron core. The coil to which (v) Hysteresis loss
electric energy is supplied is called the primary and
the coil from which energy is drawn is called the Efficiency of transformer,
secondary. 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂= × 100%
To prevent energy losses due to eddy currents, a 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
laminated core is used.
Types:
Step up Step down
𝑁𝑆 > 𝑁𝑃 , 𝜀𝑆 > 𝜀𝑃 , 𝑖𝑆 < 𝑖𝑃 𝑁𝑆 < 𝑁𝑃 , 𝜀𝑆 < 𝜀𝑃 , 𝑖𝑆 > 𝑖𝑃

124
AC Generator:
It is a device which converts mechanical energy into an electrical energy and
generates alternating current.
Principle: Works on principle of electro-magnetic induction.
Construction:
1. Armature coil
2. Filed magnet
3. Slip rings
4. Brushes

Theory:
When the armature coil rotates
between the pole pieces of field
magnet, the effective area of the coil
is A cos θ,
The flux at any time is,
∅=𝐵 ⃗ . 𝐴=NBA cos θ=NBA cosωt
The induced emf is,
𝑑∅ 𝑑(𝑁𝐵𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡)
𝜀=− =−
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑉 = 𝜀 = −𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

Formulae:
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝜗𝑡 𝑃⃗ = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅
𝑅 𝑅
𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 = 𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜋𝜗𝑡 Power factor = 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅ = 𝑍 =
√(𝑅)2 +(𝑋𝐶 −𝑋𝐿 )2
𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝜀𝑆 𝑁𝑆 𝐼𝑃
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = = =
√2 √2 𝜀𝑃 𝑁𝑃 𝐼𝑆
𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂= × 100%
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
1 𝑉 = 𝜔 = −𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑋𝐶 =
𝜔𝐶
𝑉𝑚
𝑍= = √(𝑅)2 + (𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿 )2
𝑖𝑚
𝑋𝐶 − 𝑋𝐿
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ =
𝑅

125
MIND MAP

126
 UNIT V ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
CH–8: Electromagnetic Waves

GIST OF CHAPTER
Basic idea of displacement current, Electromagnetic waves, their characteristics,
their transverse nature (qualitative idea only). Electromagnetic spectrum (radio
waves, microwaves, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays) including
elementary facts about their uses.

CONTENT/ CONCEPTS-
Basic idea of displacement current
Conduction Current (ic)- Conduction current is the current, which arises due to flow
of electrons through the connecting wires in an electric circuit. Displacement current
(id)-Displacement current is the current, which arises due to time rate of change of
electric flux ( E).
Flaw in Ampere’s circuital law
Modified Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral of magnetic field B over
a closed boundary of an open surface is equal to, times the sum of the conduction
current (Ic) and the displacement current (Id) threading the surface.
Maxwell’s Equations: - Following four equations, which describe the laws of
electromagnetism, are called Maxwell‟s equations
(i) ∮EdS . = q/∈ 0 (Gauss‟s law in electrostatics)
(ii) ∮EdS . =0 (Gauss‟s law in magnetism)
(iii) ∮EdS . = d∅/𝑑𝑡 (Faraday‟s law of electromagnetic induction)
(iv) ∮EdS . =𝜇0 (Ic+Id)( (Ampere-Maxwell‟s circuital law)
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM:
Type of Radiation Frequency Range (Hz) Wavelength Range

Gamma-rays 1020 – 1024 < 10-12 m

X-rays 1017 – 1020 1 nm – 1 pm

Ultraviolet 1015 – 1017 400 nm – 1 nm

Visible 4 x 1014 – 7.5 x 1014 750 nm – 400 nm

Near-infrared 1 x 1014 – 4 x1014 2.5 μm – 750 nm

Infrared 1013 – 1014 25 μm – 2.5 μm

Microwaves 3 x 1011 – 1013 1 mm – 25 μm

Radio waves < 3 x 1011 > 1 mm

142
 MIND MAP ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE

L1 - MCQs

Q1. Which of the following is false for electromagnetic waves?

(a) transverse (b) non-mechanical waves
(c) longitudinal (d) produced by accelerating charges
Q2. If the magnetic monopole exists, then which of the Maxwell’s equation to be
modified?
(a) ∮E.dS= q/ ∈o (b) ∮ B.dS =0 (c)∮E.dl = - d∅B /dt (d) ∮ E.dl = μo(Ic+Id)
Q3. Which of the following is NOT true for electromagnetic waves?
(a) They transport energy
(b) They have momentum
(c) They travel at different speeds in air depending on their frequency

143
 UNIT- VI OPTICS
CH-9 RAY OPTICS & OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
GIST
Ray Optics: Reflection of light, spherical mirrors, mirror formula, refraction of light,
total internal reflection and optical fibers, refraction at spherical surfaces, lenses, thin
lens formula, lens maker‟s formula, magnification, power of a lens, combination of thin
lenses in contact, refraction of light through a prism.
Optical instruments: Microscopes and astronomical telescopes (reflecting and
refracting) and their magnifying powers.
Reflection of Light
Reflection. When light travelling in a medium strikes a reflecting surface, it goes back
into the same medium obeying certain
laws. This phenomenon is known as reflection of light.
Laws of reflection. 1. The incident ray, the normal to the reflecting surface at the
point of incidence and the reflected ray all lie in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence (i) is always equal to the angle of reflection (r).
Spherical mirror. The portion of a reflecting surface, which forms part of a sphere, is
called a spherical mirror.
Concave spherical mirror. A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is towards
the centre of the sphere, of which the mirror forms a part is called concave spherical
mirror.
Convex spherical mirror. A spherical mirror, whose reflecting surface is away from
the centre of the sphere of which the mirror forms a part is called convex spherical
mirror.
Relation between f and R: f =R/2
According to new cartesian sign conventions, both f and R, are taken as negative for
a concave mirror and positive for a convex mirror.
1 1 1
Mirror formula + =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓

where u and v denote the object and image distances from the pole of the mirror.
According to new cartesian sign conventions, the distances of the real objects and real
images (both lie in front of the mirror) are taken as negative, while those of virtual
objects and virtual images (both lie behind the mirror) are taken as positive.
Linear magnification. The ratio of the size of the image (formed by the mirror) to the
size of the object is called linear magnification produced by the mirror.
𝐼 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
Mathematically- m = = −𝑢 = =
𝑂 𝑓−𝑢 𝑓

153
According to new cartesian sign conventions, when the image formed is real
(inverted), the magnification produced by the mirror is negative and when the image
formed is virtual (erect), the magnification produced by the mirror is positive.
Spherical aberration. The inability of a spherical mirror of large aperture to bring all
the rays in a wide beam of light falling on it to focus at a single point is called spherical
aberration.
2. Refraction of Light
Refraction. The phenomenon of change in the path of light as it goes from one
medium to another is called refraction.
Laws of refraction.
1. The incident ray, the normal to the refracting surface at the point of incidence and
the refracted ray all lie in the same plane.
2. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction
is constant for any two- given media. It is called Snell's law.
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖
Mathematically- = 𝜇𝑏𝑎
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟

Absolute refractive index (𝜇). The absolute refractive index of a medium is defined
as ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum (c) to the velocity of light in that medium(v).
Real and apparent depth. When an object is placed in an optically denser medium,
the apparent depth of the object is always less than its real depth.
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ
Mathematically-: 1. = 𝜇𝑏𝑎
𝐴𝑝𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ

1
2. Normal shift d= t (1 − )
𝜇𝑏𝑎

Total internal reflection. The phenomenon of reflection of light that takes place when
a ray of light travelling in a denser medium gets incident at the interface of the two
media at an angle greater than the critical angle for that pair of media.
1
Mathematically 𝜇𝑏𝑎 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝐶

𝜇𝑏𝑎 is refractive index of the denser medium £ w.r.t. the rarer medium a and C is the
critical angle.
Spherical refracting surface. The portion of a refracting medium, whose curved
surface forms the part of a sphere, is called spherical refracting surface.
When object is situated in the rarer medium, the relation is as follows
𝜇1 𝜋2 𝜇2 −𝜇1
- + =
𝑢 𝑣 𝑅

When the object is situated in denser medium, the relation is as follows

𝜇2 𝜇1 𝜇1 −𝜇2
- 𝑢
+ 𝑣
= 𝑅

𝜇2 −𝜇1
Power of spherical refracting surface: P= Here, R is measured in metre.
𝑅

154
Lens maker's formula. The relation connecting the focal length of the lens with the
radii of curvature of its two surfaces and the refractive index of the material of the lens
is called lens maker's formula.
1 1 1
Mathematically- = (𝜇 − 1) (𝑅 − )
𝑓 1 𝑅2

The focal length of a convex lens is taken as positive, while that of concave lens
is taken as negative.
Lens formula/equation. The relation between the focal
length, the object and image distances is called lens
equation.
1 1 1
Mathematically- − =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑓

Linear magnification. The ratio of the size of the image

(formed by the lens) to the size of the object is called
linear magnification produced by the lens.
𝐼 𝑣 𝑓 𝑓−𝑣
Mathematically- m = = −𝑢 = =
𝑂 𝑓+ 𝑢 𝑓

Power of a lens. It is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens in metre.
1 1 1
Mathematically P = 𝑓 = (𝜇 − 1) (𝑅 − )
1 𝑅2

Two thin lenses placed in contact. When two lenses of focal lengths 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are
placed in contact, the focal
1 1 1
length of the combination is given by = +
𝑓 𝑓1 𝑓2

Power of the equivalent lens: P =P1 +P2

Magnification produced by equivalent lens: m =
𝑚1 𝑥 𝑚2
Spherical aberration. The inability of a lens of large
aperture to bring all the rays in a wide beam of light falling
on it to focus at a single point is called spherical aberration.
DISPERSION OF LIGHT
``Refraction through a prism. A prism is the portion of a transparent refracting medium
bound by two plane surfaces meeting each other along a straight edge.
When a ray of light is incident on one face of a prism having angle of prism equal to A
at an angle of incidence i, it suffers successive refractions at the two surfaces (angles
of refraction at the two surfaces are r, and ry respectively) and then emerges out of it
making an angle of emergence equal to e. Due to refraction at the two surfaces, the
incident ray deviates from its path through an angle 6, called angle of deviation
Mathematically-
𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝐴+ 𝛿𝑚
)
1. A = 𝑟1 + 𝑟2 2. A + δ = I + e 3. 𝜇 = 𝐴
2
(when the prism is placed in
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
minimum deviation position) 4, 𝛿 =A (𝜇 -1) (when angle of prism is small)

155
Dispersion. The phenomenon of splitting up of white light into its constituent colours
is called dispersion.
Spectrum. The band of seven colours obtained on the screen is called spectrum.
Pure spectrum. A spectrum, in which the constituent colours have sharp boundaries
and are distinctly visible, is called the pure spectrum.
Chromatic aberration. The inability of a lens to bring the light of different colours to
focus at a single point is called chromatic aberration.
Rayleigh’s law of scattering. It states that the intensity of the light of wavelength A
1
in the scattered light varies inversely as the fourth power of its wavelength. I = 𝜆4

Simple microscope. A convex lens of small focal length is called a simple microscope
or a magnifying glass. The magnifying power of a
microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended
by the image at the eye to the angle subtended by the
object seen directly, when both lie at the least distance
of distinct vision.
𝐷
M=1+ 𝑓

Compound microscope. A
compound microscope is a two-
lens system (object lens and eye
lens of focal lengths f, and f,). Its
magnifying power is very large, as
compared to the simple
microscope.
𝑣𝑜 𝐷
Mathematically- M = (1 + )=
𝑢𝑜 𝑓𝑒
𝐿𝑜 𝐷
- (1 + )
𝑓𝑜 𝑓𝑒

Astronomical telescope. It is a two-lens system and is used to observe distant

heavenly objects. It is called refracting type astronomical telescope.
Normal adjustment. When the final image is formed at infinity, the telescope is said to
𝑓𝑜
be in normal adjustment. M = - 𝑓𝑒

When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinct vision, magnifying
𝑓 𝑓𝑒
power of the telescope, M = - 𝑓𝑜 (1 + )
𝑒 𝐷

156
CONCEPT MAP

157
 UNIT VI-OPTICS
CH10: WAVE OPTICS

GIST OF THE CHAPTER:

1. Wave Nature of Light: Huygen’s Theory

There are some phenomena like interference, diffraction and polarisation which could
not be explained by Newton’s corpuscular theory. These were explained by wave
theory first proposed by Huygen.
The assumptions of Huygen’s wave theory are: (i) A source sends waves in all
possible directions.The locus of particles of a medium vibrating in the same phase is
called a wavefront. For a point source, the wavefront is spherical; while for a line
source the wavefront is cylindrical. A distant wavefront is plane. (ii) Each point of a
wavefront acts as a source of secondary wavelets. The envelope of all wavelets at a
given instant gives the position of a new wavefront.

2. Wavefront
A wavefront is defined as the locus of all the particles which are vibrating in the same
phase. The perpendicular line drawn at any point on the wavefront represents the
direction of propagation of the wave at that point and is called the ‘ray’.
Types of Wavefronts: The wavefronts can be of different shapes. In general, we
experience three types of wavefronts.
(i) Spherical Wavefront: If the waves in a medium are originating from a point source,
then they propagate in all directions. If we draw a spherical surface centred at point-
source, then all the particles of the medium lying on that spherical surface will be in
the same phase, because the disturbance starting from the source will reach all these
points simultaneously. Hence in this case, the wavefront will be spherical and the rays
will be the radial lines.
(ii) Cylindrical Wavefront: If the waves in a medium are originating from a line source,
then they too propagate in all directions. In this case the locus of particles vibrating in
the same phase will be a cylindrical surface. Hence in this case the wavefront will be
cylindrical.
(iii) Plane Wavefront: At large distance from the source, the radii of spherical or
cylindrical wavefront will be too large and a small part of the wavefront will appear to
be plane. At infinite distance from the source, the wavefronts are always plane and
the rays are parallel straight lines.
3. Coherent and Incoherent Sources of Light The sources of light emitting waves
of same frequency having zero or constant initial phase difference are called coherent
sources.The sources of light emitting waves with a random phase difference are called
incoherent sources.For interference phenomenon, the sources must be coherent.
Methods of Producing Coherent Sources: Two independent sources can never be
coherent sources. There are two broad ways of producing coherent sources for the
same source.

177
(i) By division of wavefront: In this method the wavefront (which is the locus of points
of same phase) is divided into two parts. The examples are Young’s double slit and
Fresnel’s biprism.
(ii) By division of amplitude: In this method the amplitude of a wave is divided into
two parts by successive reflections, e.g., Lloyd’s single mirror method.
4. Interference of Light
Interference is the phenomenon of superposition of two light waves of same frequency
and constantphase different travelling in same direction. The positions of maximum
intensity are called maxima, while those of minimum intensity are called minima.
𝒏𝑫𝝀 𝟏 𝑫𝝀
𝒙𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒂 = 𝒙𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒂 = (𝒏 − )
𝒅 𝟐 𝒅
𝜆𝐷 𝛽 𝜆
Linear Fringe width= β = angular fringe width=𝐷 = 𝑑
𝑑

Condition for sustained interference

(i) The two sources of light must be coherent which means the two light waves emitted
by them must have a constant phase difference or in the same phase.
(ii) The two sources must emit light of the same wavelength but the amplitudes
between them should differ as little as possible. The emitted waves should be
preferably of the same amplitude to get completely dark fringes.
(iii) The two sources should be very narrow. Otherwise with the increase of slit width,
the coherence property will be lost. Hence, no interference pattern will be obtained.
(iv) The two sources must lie very close to each other. Otherwise overlapping of bright
and dark points will hinder interference.
5. Diffraction of Light
The bending of light from the corner of small obstacles or apertures is called diffraction
of light.
2𝜆𝐷 2𝜆
Linear central maxima= 2y= 𝑎
angular central maxima= 𝑎
Difference between Diffraction and Interference
Interference Diffraction
Interference may be defined as waves Diffraction, on the other hand, can be
emerging from two different sources, termed as secondary waves that
producing different wavefronts. emerge from the different parts of the
same wave.
The contrast between maxima and The contrast between maxima and
minima is very good. minima is poor.
The width of the fringes in interference The width of the fringes is not equal in
is equal. diffraction.

178
CONCEPT MAP/MIND MAP:

179
 UNIT VII-DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER
CH–11: DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER

GIST OF CHAPTER
Dual nature of radiation, Photoelectric effect, Hertz and Lenard's observations; Einstein's
photoelectric equation-particle nature of light. Experimental study of photoelectric
effect, Matter waves-wave nature of particles, de-Broglie relation.
DEFINITION & CONCEPTS: -
Free electrons: - In metals, the electrons in the outer shell of the atoms are loosely
bound. They move about freely throughout the lattice of positive ions. Such loosely
bound electrons are called free electrons.
Work function of a metal. The minimum energy, which must be supplied to the electron
so that it can just come out of a metal surface, is called the work function of the metal. It
is denoted by W0.
Work function depends on (i) nature of the metal (ii) the conditions of its surface.
Electron emission: - The phenomenon of ejecting out the electron from metal surface
is called electron emission.
PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION/ EFFECT: -.
The phenomenon of ejection of electrons from a metal surface, when light of sufficiently
high frequency falls on it, is known as photoelectric effect.
The electrons so emitted are called photoelectrons

192
Hertz’s observation: -While demonstrating the existence of electromagnetic waves, Hertz
found that high voltage sparks passed across the metal electrodes of the detector loop more
easily when the cathode was illuminated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp. The uv light falling
on metal surface caused the emission of negatively charged particles (electrons) into
surrounding space and enhance the high voltage sparks.

Hallwachs and Lenard Observation: - It was observed that if the frequency of incident
light is less than certain minimum value (Threshold frequency) emission of photo electrons
do not takes place.

Threshold frequency. The minimum frequency (𝑣𝑶), which the incident light must possess
so as to eject photoelectrons from a metal surface, is called threshold frequency of the
metal.
Mathematically- Work function W = h𝑣𝑶
Laws of photoelectric effect.

1. Photoelectric emission takes place from a metal surface, when the frequency of incident
light is above its threshold frequency.

2. The photoelectric emission starts as soon as the light is incident on the metal surface.

3. The maximum kinetic energy with which an electron is emitted from a metal surface is
independent of the intensity of light and depends upon its frequency.

4. The number of photoelectrons emitted is independent of the frequency of the incident

light and depends only upon its intensity.

The Effect of Intensity:-

The number of electrons emitted per second is observed to be directly proportional to the intensity
of light.
This happens above the threshold frequency.
Below this threshold frequency there is no
photocurrent at all, howsoever high the
intensityof light is.

The graph between the photoelectric current

straight line when the frequency of light used
is value.

193
 The Effect of the Potential:-

The photoelectric current increases with increase in

accelerating (positive) potential of collector plate.
For a certain positive potential of plate A, the
photoelectric current becomes maximum and
constant or saturates. This maximum value of the
photoelectric current is called saturation current.
Saturation current corresponds to the case when all
the photoelectrons emitted by the emitter plate C
reach the collector plate A.
Saturation current increases with increase in intensity of incident radiation. The
photoelectric current decreases with negative potential of collector plate.

STOPPING POTENTIAL (𝑉0):-

At certain negative potential of the collector plate the photocurrent becomes zero. This negative
potential is called STOPPING POTENTIAL (𝑉0).
The stopping potential is measure of maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron.

1/2 mv2max = eVo

Where 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝗑 is the maximum velocity with which the photoelectrons are emitted

Effect of intensity of incident radiation on stopping potential

❖ Stopping potential does not change on changing the intensity of incident radiation.
❖ The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron thus does not depend on intensity
of incident radiation.

194
EFFECT OF FREQUENCY:

❖ Saturation Photocurrent does

not change on changing
frequency of incident radiation.
❖ The rate of emission of
photoelectron does not depend
on frequency of incident
radiation.

Effect of frequency on stopping potential

❖ Stopping potential increases on increasing frequency of incident radiation.
maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron thus depends on frequency of incident
radiation

Graph between stopping potential and frequency

❖ Graph between stopping potential and frequency of incident radiation is always a
straight line.
❖ Slope of this graph is constant and its
ℎ
value is .
𝑒
❖ Thus maximum kinetic
energy of photoelectron vary
linearly with frequency of
incident radiation.
❖ There exists a certain minimum
cut- off frequency 𝑣𝑜 for which
the stopping potential is zero.

EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC THEORY

Electromagnetic Radiation energy is built up of discrete units PHOTONS – the so

called quanta of energy of radiation
In interaction of Electromagnetic Radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made
up of particles called photons.

Photo electric emission: Each Photon of incident radiation interacts with a single
electron and if energy of photon (ℎ𝑣) is equal to or greater than work function, the electron
is emitted.

195
 When light of frequency ν is incident on a metal surface, whose work function is W
then the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons is given by

ℎ𝑣=1/2 mv2max ɸ𝑜 ⇒ 1/2 mv2max = ℎ (𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑜)

This is called EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION. It can explain the laws of

photoelectric emission.
Properties of Photon:-
(i) In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made of particles like
photons.
(ii) Each photon has energy (E= ℎ𝑣) and momentum (p=ℎ𝑣/c)
(iii) All photons of a particular frequency 𝑣 or wavelength have same energy (E= ℎ𝑣=h c/
𝝀) and same momentum (p=ℎ𝑣/c= h/ 𝝀) irrespective of intensity of radiations.
(iv) Velocity of photon in different media is different due to change in its wave length.
(v) Rest mass of photon is zero.
(vi) During collision of photon and electron energy and momentum are conserved.
If stopping potential is 𝑉𝑜 then, 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝐾𝐸 𝑜f 𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛 = 𝑒 𝑉𝑜

⇒ 𝑒 𝑉𝑜 = ℎ𝑣 − ɸ𝑜 = ℎ (𝑣 − 𝑣 𝑜)

This explains why the 𝑉𝑜versus 𝑣 curve is a straight line with slope = (h/e), independent of the
nature of the material.

DE-BROGLIE HYPOTHESIS.
Both radiation and matter have dual nature. A moving particle of momentum p is associated
with a wave called de-Broglie wave of wavelength.

196
MIND MAP

198
****************

199
 UNIT VIII ATOMS AND NUCLEI
CHAPTER 12-ATOMS
Gist
- Early atomic models and their limitations. Thomson’s model of atom
-Rutherford’s alpha ray scattering experiment
-Rutherford’s model of atom .
- Bohr’s model of the atom and its postulates.
- Hydrogen atom spectrum and energy level transitions.

1. Introduction to Atomic Models

- Dalton’s Atomic Theory: Early concept

of the atom as an indivisible particle.

- Discovery of Electrons and Nucleus :

Introduction to the electron discovered by
J.J. Thomson and the nucleus
discovered by Rutherford through the
gold foil experiment.

2. Rutherford’s Model of the Atom

- Description of the gold foil experiment.

Setup of the Gold Foil Experiment

Apparatus - A source of alpha particles (helium nuclei), a thin sheet of gold foil, a
fluorescent screen, and a detector.

Alpha Particles : High-energy particles emitted from a radioactive source, typically

radium or polonium.

214
Gold Foil : Extremely thin sheet of gold, only a few atoms thick.

- Detection Screen : Circular screen coated with zinc sulfide that fluoresces when struck
by alpha particles.

Procedure

1. Alpha Particle Emission: The alpha particles were directed at the thin gold foil.

2. Observation: The particles that passed through or were deflected by the foil struck the
fluorescent screen, producing tiny flashes of light (scintillations).

3. Detection: A microscope was used to observe and count the scintillations at various
angles relative to the incident beam.

Observations

1. Most Particles Passed Through:The majority of the alpha particles went straight
through the gold foil with little to no deflection, suggesting that most of the atom is empty
space.

2. Some Particles Deflected : A small number of alpha particles were deflected at small
angles, indicating the presence of a positive charge within the atom that repelled the
positively charged alpha particles.

3. Very Few Particles Reflected : A very small fraction of the particles (about 1 in 8000)
bounced back at angles greater than 90 degrees, indicating a very dense, positively
charged core within the atom.

Conclusions

1. Existence of Nucleus : The large deflections and reflections of alpha particles could
only be explained if the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom were
concentrated in a small, dense region at the center of the atom. This region was named
the nucleus.

2. Atomic Model : Rutherford proposed a new model of the atom, where the atom consists
of a small, dense nucleus containing protons (and later, neutrons) surrounded by
electrons that orbit the nucleus, much like planets orbit the sun.

3. Empty Spacen: The fact that most alpha particles passed through the foil without
deflection indicated that the majority of the atom’s volume is empty space.

Significance

- Disproval of Thomson’s Model : The experiment disproved J.J. Thomson’s plum

pudding model, which suggested that electrons were uniformly distributed within a
positively charged “soup.”

215
- Foundation for Modern Atomic Theory : The discovery of the nucleus paved the way
for the development of the Bohr model and subsequent quantum mechanical models of
the atom.

The gold foil experiment was crucial in advancing our understanding of atomic structure,
leading to the realization that atoms have a tiny, dense nucleus surrounded by electrons,
fundamentally changing the way we understand matter at a microscopic level.

- Rutherford’s nuclear model: Electrons orbit a dense, positively charged nucleus.

- Limitations: Stability of atoms and spectrum of hydrogen couldn't be explained.

3. Bohr’s Model of the Atom

- Postulates of Bohr’s theory: Quantized electron orbits, stationary states, and energy
levels.

- Energy quantization: Electrons can only occupy certain discrete orbits.

- Explanation of hydrogen spectrum: Emission and absorption spectra explained using

the concept of electronic transitions between quantized orbits.

4. Spectral Series

- Lyman Series: Transitions to n=1 (ultraviolet region).

- Balmer Series: Transitions to n=2 (visible region).

- Paschen, Brackett, and Pfund Series : Transitions to n=3, 4, and 5 (infrared region).

216
5. Success and Limitations of Bohr’s Model

- Success in explaining the hydrogen atom spectrum and its limitations.

- Failure to explain spectra of multi-electron atoms and finer spectral details (Zeeman
effect and Stark effect).
Formulae :

1.Magnitude of force of α particle:

2.Total energy of the electron

3.Angular Momentum

4.Frequency of emitted photon

5.Radius of nth possible orbit

6.Energy of an electron
7.Difference in energy levels

8.The energy of an electron in Bohr’s orbit of hydrogen atom is given by the expression

Since Z = 1 for hydrogen En = -13.6/n2 eV

217
MIND MAP /CONCEPT MAP

218
 UNIT VIII ATOMS AND NUCLEI

Chapter–13: Nuclei
Gist of chapter

• Composition and size of nucleus

1)Nuclei are made up of proton and neutron. The number of protons in a nucleus
(called the atomic number or proton number) is represented by the symbol Z. The
number of neutrons (neutron number) is represented by N. The total number of neutrons
and protons in a nucleus is called it's mass number A so A = Z + N.
2) Neutrons and proton, when described collectively are called nucleons. A single
nuclear species having specific values of both Z and N is called a nuclide.
3) Nuclides are represented as Z X A ; where X denotes the chemical symbol of the
element.
4) Isotopes : The atoms of element having same atomic number but different mass
number are called isotopes. All isotopes have the same chemical properties. The
isotopes of some elements are the following
1
1H , 1 H 2 , 1 H 3 8 O 16 , 8 O 17 , 8 O 18 2 He
3
, 2 He 4 17 Cl 35 , 17 Cl
37
92 U
235
, 92 U
238

5) Isobars : The nuclei which have the same mass number (A) but different atomic
number (Z) Arecalled isobars. Isobars occupy different positions in periodic table so all
isobars have Different chemical properties. Some of the examples of isobars are
3 3 14
1H and 2 He , 6C and 7 N 14 , 8 O 17 and 9F
17

• Nuclear Force
(1) Nuclear forces are short range forces. These do not exist at large distances
greater
than 10–15m.
(2) Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature.
(3) These are attractive force and causes stability of the nucleus.
(4) These forces are charge independent.
(5) Nuclear forces are non-central force.

• POTENTIAL ENERGY CURVE

1) shows how the potential energy of two molecules and
the force between them changes with their separation.

2) The force at any point is found from taking the gradient of

the potential energy curve, in other words
F = -dV/dr, where V is the potential energy.

• Size of Nucleus
Nuclear radius : Experimental results indicates that the nuclear radius is
proportional to A1/3, where A is the mass number of nucleus i.e. R  A 1 / 3 
R = R0 A1 / 3 , where R0 = 1.2  10–15m = 1.2 fm.

• Mass-energy relation
E=mc2 E= energy, m=mass, c=speed of light

228
 • Mass defect (m) : It is found that the mass of a nucleus is always less than
the sum of masses of it's constituent nucleons in free state. This difference in
masses is called mass defect. Hence mass defect
m = Sum of masses of nucleons – Mass of nucleus
   
= Zm p + ( A − Z)m n − M = Zm p + Zm e + ( A − Z)m z − M '

where mp = Mass of proton, mn = Mass of each neutron, me = Mass of each

electron
M = Mass of nucleus,Z = Atomic number, A = Mass number, M = Mass of atom
as a whole.
• Binding energy (B.E.)
The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the energy equivalent to the mass
defect of the nucleus.
If m is mass defect then according to Einstein's mass energy relation
Binding energy = m c2= [{mpZ + mn(A – Z)} – M]c2
If m is measured in amu then B.E = mamu = [{mpZ + mn(A – Z)} – M] amu = m
931 MeV
• Binding energy per nucleon : The average energy required to release a
nucleon from the nucleus is called binding energy per nucleon.
Binding energy per nucleon
Total bind ing energy m  931 MeV
= =
Mass number (i.e. total number A Nucleon
of nucleons)

• Binding Energy Curve

It is the graph between binding energy per nucleon and total number of nucleons
(i.e. mass number A)
56
26Fe
Binding energy per

8.0 He
nucleon (MeV)

6.0
4.0 Li

2.0
H2
0
5056 10 15 20
0 number
Mass 0 0
A
Fig. 26.17

(1) Some nuclei with mass number A< 20 have large binding energy per nucleon than
their neighbour nuclei. For example 2 He 4 , 4 Be 8 , 6 C 12 , 8 O 16 and 10 Ne 20 . These nuclei are more
stable than their neighbours.
(2) The binding energy per nucleon is maximum for nuclei of mass number A = 56
( 26 Fe 56 ) . It's value
is 8.8 MeV per nucleon.
(2) For nuclei having A> 56, binding energy per nucleon gradually decreases for
uranium (A = 238), the value of binding energy per nucleon drops to 7.5 MeV.
• Nuclear Fission
(1) The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two lighter nuclei of comparable
masses (after bombardment with a energetic particle) with liberation of energy is called
nuclear fission.

229
 Fission
fragm

235U
Fissio Neutr
Neutr
n

Fission reaction of U235

92 U
235
+ 0 n1 → 92 U
236
→ 56 Ba
141
+ 36 Kr
92
+ 3 0 n1 + Q
(unstable nucleus)

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/PressurizedWaterReactor.gif
• Nuclear Fusion
P n P
(1) In nuclear fusion two or more than P 3He 4He P
2
P H
two lighter nuclei combine to form a P P n P P P
n n n n n
single heavy nucleus. The mass of P
P P P
single nucleus so formed is less than  e  +

P
the sum of the masses of parent nuclei. This
difference in mass results in the release of tremendous amount of energy
Fission
fragment

Mind map
235U
Neutrons
Fission
Neutrons
fragment

Fig. 26.18

230
 Unit IX: Electronic Devices
Chapter–14: Semiconductor Electronics: Materials,
Devices and Simple Circuits

GIST OF THE CHAPTER:

Energy bands in conductors, semiconductors and insulators (qualitative ideas only)
Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors- p and n type, p-n junction Semiconductor
diode - I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias, application of junction diode
-diode as a rectifier.
Energy bands in solids:
⮚ Due to influence of high electric field between the core of the atoms and the
shared electrons, energy levels are split-up or spread-out forming energy
bands.
⮚ The energy band formed by a series of levels containing valance electrons
is called valance band and the lowest unfilled energy level just above the
valance band is called conduction band.
⮚ Filled energy levels are separated from the band of unfilled energy levels by
an energy gap called forbidden gap or energy gap or band gap.

Energy band diagram for, Conductors Semiconductors and Insulators

Conductors (Metals):The conduction band and valance band partly overlap each
other and there is no forbidden energy gap in between.Large number of electrons
are available for electrical conduction , hence the resistance is low of such
materials.Even if a small electric field is applied across the metal, these free
electrons start moving.Hence metals behave as a conductor.
Semiconductors: The conduction and valance bands are separated by the small
energy gap ( 1 eV) called forbidden energy gap. The valence band is completely
filled, while the conduction band is empty at zero kelvin. The electrons cross from
valence band to conduction band even when a small amount of energy is supplied.
The semiconductor acquires a small conductivity at room temperature.
Insulators: Electrons, however heated, cannot practically jump to conduction band
from valence band due to a large energy gap (>3 eV). Therefore, conduction is not
possible in insulators.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS:
Intrinsic Semiconductor is a pure semiconductor.

238
The energy gap in Si is 1.1 eV and in Ge is 0.74 eV.
Si: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6,3s2, 3p2. (Atomic No. is 14)
Ge: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6,3s2, 3p6, 3d10, 4s2, 4p2. (Atomic No. is 32)
Both Si and Ge have four valance electrons. The four
valance electrons form four covalent bonds by sharing
the electrons with neighbouring four atoms.
In intrinsic semiconductor, the number of thermally
generated electrons always equals the number of holes.
So, if ni and pi are the concentration of electrons and
holes respectively, then ni = pi. The quantity ni or pi is
referred to as the „intrinsic carrier concentration‟.
At 0 K, a semiconductor is an insulator i.e., it possesses
zero conductivity. When temperature is increased, a few covalent bonds break up
and release the electrons. These electrons move to conduction band leaving behind
equal number of holes in valence band. The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor
is due to both electrons and holes.
DOPING:
Doping a Semiconductor: Doping is the process of deliberate addition of a very small
amount of impurity (1% of crystal atoms) into an intrinsic semiconductor.
The impurity atoms are called dopants.
The semiconductor containing impurity is known as „Extrinsic semiconductor’.
Doping of a semiconductor increases its electrical conductivity to a great extent.
The pentavalent impurity atoms are called donor atoms, while the trivalent impurity
atoms are called acceptor atoms
Extrinsic semiconductor.
A semiconductor doped with a suitable impurity (pentavalent or trivalent), so as to
possess conductivity much higher than the semiconductor in pure form is called an
extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types:
1) n-type semiconductor
2) p-type semiconductor
1.n-type semiconductor:
When a pentavalent impurity, such as arsenic or antimony or phosphorus is added
to a pure semiconductor, the four of the five valance electrons of the impurity atoms
form covalent bonds by sharing the electrons with the adjoining four silicon atoms,
while the fifth electron is very loosely bound with the parent impurity atom and is
comparatively free to move.
The number of free electrons become more than the holes in the semiconductor and
such an extrinsic semiconductor is called n-type semiconductor. In other words, in a
n-type semiconductor, electrons are majority carriers and holes are minority carriers.
2)p-type semiconductor:
When a trivalent impurity, such as indium or gallium or boron is added to a pure
semiconductor, three valance electrons of the impurity atoms form covalent bonds
by sharing the electrons with the adjoining three silicon atoms.

239
Due to the deficiency of an electron, there is one incomplete covalent bond. The
vacancy that exists with the fourth covalent bond with fourth Si atom constitutes a
hole.
The semiconductor becomes deficient in electrons i.e. number of holes become more
than the number of electrons. Such a semiconductor is called p-type
semiconductor. It has holes as majority carriers and electrons as minority carriers.
Electrical conductivity of a semiconductor:
The conductivity of a semiconductor is determined by the mobility (µ) of both
electrons and holes and their concentration. Mathematically- σ = e (neμe + nhμh)
P-N JUNCTION.

The device obtained by bringing a p-type semiconductor crystal into close contact
with n-type semiconductor crystal is called a p-n junction. It conducts in one
direction only. It is also called a junction diode
Depletion layer.
It is a thin layer formed between the p and n-sections and devoid of holes and
electrons. Its width is about 10-8 m. A potential difference of about 0.7 V is
produced across the junction, which gives rise to a very high electric field (= 106
V/ m).
Potential Barrier:
The difference in potential between p and n regions across the junction makes it
difficult for the holes and electrons to move across the junction. This acts as a barrier
and hence called „potential barrier‟ .Potential barrier for Si is nearly 0.7 V and for
Ge is 0.3 V. The potential barrier opposes the motion of the majority carriers.

Forward biasing:
The p-n junction is said to be forward biased, when the positive terminal of the
external battery is connected to p-section and the negative terminal to n-section
of the junction diode.
P-N JUNCTION.
The device obtained by bringing a p-type semiconductor crystal into close contact
with n-type semiconductor crystal is called a p-n junction. It conducts in one
direction only. It is also called a junction diode
Depletion layer. It is a thin layer formed between the p and n-sections and devoid
of holes and electrons. Its width is about 10-8 m. A potential difference of about
0.7 V is produced across the junction, which gives rise to a very high electric field
(= 106 V/ m).
240
 Potential Barrier: The difference in potential between p and n regions across the
junction makes it difficult for the holes and electrons to move across the junction.
This acts as a barrier and hence called „potential barrier‟.Potential barrier for Si is
nearly 0.7 V and for Ge is 0.3 V.The potential barrier opposes the motion of the
majority carriers.
Forward biasing:
The p-n junction is said to be forward biased, when the positive terminal of the external
battery is connected to p-section and the negative terminal to n-section of the
junction diode.

Reverse biasing: The p-n junction is said to be reverse biased, when the positive
terminal of the battery is connected to n-section and the negative terminal to p-
section of the junction diode.

Junction diode as rectifier:

Because of its unidirectional conduction property, the p-n junction is said to convert an
a,c. voltage into d. c, voltage, It is, then, said to be acting as a rectifier.
1. Half wave rectifier: A rectifier, which rectifies only one half of each a.c. input supply
cycle, is called a half wave rectifier. A half wave rectifier gives discontinuous and
pulsating d.c. output. As alternative half cycles of the a.c. input supply go waste, its
efficiency is very low.

241
2. Full wave rectifier: A rectifier which rectifies both halves of each a.c. input cycle is
called a full wave rectifier. The output of a full wave rectifier is continuous but
pulsating in nature. However, it can be made smooth by using a filter circuit.

TABLES
1) DIFFERENCE BETWEEN INTRINSIC AND EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS

S.NO INRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR

1 Pure form of semiconductor. Impure form of semiconductor.

2 Conductivity is low Conductivity is higher than

intrinsic semiconductor.
3 The no of holes is equal to In n-type, the no. of electrons is
no of free electrons greater than that of the holes and
in p-type, the no. holes is greater
than that of the electrons.
4 The conduction The conduction depends on the
depends on concentration of doped impurity
temperature. and temperature.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HALF WAVE AND FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

S.NO HALF WAVE RECTIFIER FULL WAVE RECTIFIER

1 Only half cycle of AC is Both cycles of AC are rectified.

rectified.
2 Requires only one diode Requires two diodes.
3 The output frequency is equal The output frequency is double of
to input supply frequency. (F) the input supply frequency. (2F)
4 The electric current A continuous electric current
through the load is not flow through the load.
continuous

242
 SEMICONDCTOR ELECTRONICS: MATERIALS DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS

CONDUCTORS
Eg=0 INSULATORS
Charge carrier density: very SOLIDS Eg > 3 eV
high (for electrons)

SEMICONDUCTORS
ENERGY BANDS Eg < 3 eV Eg=0.72 eV
for Ge & Eg=1.1 eV for Si

CONDUCTIO PURE/INTRINSIC
N BAND: VALANCE
ni=ne=nh
HIGHER BAND
ex. Si, Ge
ENERGY COMPLET
BAND ELY
ABOVE IMPURE/EXTRINSIC
VALANCE P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:
FORBIDDEN BAND
BAND OBTAINED BY ADDING IMPURITY
ENERGY GAP BETWENN V.B.
FROM III-A GROUP in Si or Ge ex.
Al,B
SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE: • Electrons are majority carriers

SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE AS N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR:

RECTIFIER: OBTAINED BY ADDING IMPURITY
FORWAR REVERSE FROM III-A GROUP in Si or Ge ex.
D BIASED: P,As,Sb
BIASED: N side to • Electrons are majority carriers
P side to + terminal RECTIFIER: CONVERT AC TO DC
+ terminal P-side to
N-side to –ve FULL WAVE RECTIFIER:
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER:

243