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Android Development with Kotlin

Learn Android application development with the extensive features of

Kotlin
Marcin Moskala
Igor Wojda

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Android Development with Kotlin
Copyright © 2017 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in
critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy
of the information presented. However, the information contained in this book is
sold without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the authors, nor Packt
Publishing, and its dealers and distributors will be held liable for any damages
caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of

the companies and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of
capitals. However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this
information.

First published: August 2017

Production reference: 1280817

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place
35 Livery Street
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B3 2PB, UK.
ISBN 978-1-78712-368-7
www.packtpub.com
Credits

Authors
Copy Editor
Marcin Moskala
Safis Editing
Igor Wojda

Reviewers Project Coordinator

Mikhail Glukhikh Stepan Goncharov Vaidehi Sawant

Commissioning Editor Proofreader

Aaron Lazar Safis Editing

Acquisition Editor Indexer

Chaitanya Nair Francy Puthiry

Content Development Editor Graphics

Rohit Kumar Singh Abhinash Sahu

Technical Editor Production Coordinator

Pavan Ramchandani Nilesh Mohite

About the Authors
Marcin Moskala is an experienced Android developer who is always looking
for ways to improve. He has been passionate about Kotlin since its early beta
release. He writes articles for Trade press and speaks at programming
conferences.

Marcin is quite active in the programming and open source community and is
also passionate about cognitive and data science. You can visit his website (marcin
moskala.com), or follow him on GitHub (MarcinMoskala) and on Twitter
(@marcinmoskala).

I would like to thank my co-workers in Gamekit, Docplanner, and Apreel. I

especially want to thank my supervisors, who were not only supportive, but who
are also constant source of knowledge and inspiration: Mateusz Mikulski,
Krzyysztof Wolniak, Bartek Wilczynski and Rafal Trzeciak.
I would like to thank Marek Kaminski, Gleb Smirnov, Jacek Jablonski, and
Maciej Gorski for the corrections, and Dariusz Bacinski and James Shvarts for
reviewing the code of example application.
Also I would like to thank my family and my girlfriend, Maja Markiewicz for her
support, help, making an environment that is supporting passion and self-
realization.

Igor Wojda is an experienced engineer with over 11 years of experience in

software development. His adventure with Android started a few years ago, and
he is currently working as a senior Android developer in the healthcare industry.
Igor has been deeply interested in Kotlin development long before the 1.0
version was officially released, and he is an active member of the Kotlin
community. He enjoys sharing his passion for coding with developers.

To learn more about him, you can visit on Medium (@igorwojda) and follow him on
Twitter (@igorwojda).
I would also like to thank amazing team at Babylon, who are not only
professionals but also the inspiring and very helpful people, especially Mikolaj
Leszczynski, Sakis Kaliakoudas, Simon Attard, Balachandar Kolathur Mani,
Sergio Carabantes, Joao Alves, Tomas Navickas, Mario Sanoguera, Sebastien
Rouif.
I offer thanks to all the reviewers, especially technical reviewer Stepan
Goncharov, Mikhail Glukhikh and my colleagues who lived us feedback on the
drafts, especially Michał Jankowski.
I also thankful to my family for all of their love and support. I'd like to thank my
parents for allowing me to follow my ambitions throughout my childhood and for
all the education.
Thanks also go to JetBrains for creating this awesome language and to the
Kotlin community for sharing the knowledge, being helpful, open and inspiring.
This book could not be written without you!
I offer special thanks to my friends, especially Konrad Hamela, Marcin Sobolski,
Maciej Gierasimiuk, Rafal Cupial, Michal Mazur and Edyta Skiba for their
friendship, inspiration and continuous support. I value your advice immensely.
About the Reviewers
Mikhail Glukhikh has graduated from Ioffe Physical Technical School in 1995
and from Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University in 2001 with master
degree in informational technologies. During 2001-2004, he was PhD student in
the same university, and then he defended PhD thesis in 2007. The title of his
thesis is Synthesis method development of special-purpose informational and
control systems with structural redundancy.

Mikhail worked in Kodeks Software Development Center during 1999-2000,

and in Efremov Research Institute of Electrophysical Apparatus during 2001-
2002. Since 2002, he is a lead developer in Digitek Labs at computer system and
software engineering department. He was a senior lecturer of the department
from 2004 to 2007, from 2007 he is an associate professor. In 2013 he had one-
year stay in Clausthal University of Technology as an invited researcher. In
2014, he worked at SPb office of Intel corporation, since March 2015, he
participates in Kotlin language development at JetBrains company.

Mikhail is one of Digitek Aegis defect detection tool authors, also he is one of
Digitek RA tool authors. Nowadays primary R&D areas include code analysis,
code verification, code refactoring and code reliability estimation methods.
Before he had also interests in fault-tolerant system design and analysis and also
in high-productive digital signal processing complexes developing.

Stepan Goncharov is currently working at Grab as the engineering lead of the

Driver Android app. He is an organizer of Kotlin User Group Singapore who has
developed apps and games for Android since 2008. He is a Kotlin and RxJava
addict, and obsessed with elegant and functional style code. He is mainly
focused on mobile apps architecture.

Stepan is making a difference by spending more and more time contributing to

open-source projects. He is the reviewer of Learning RxJava, by Thomas Nield,
published by Packt.
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Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
assist the collector in the identification of their fossil remains; secondly, to
take a cursory survey of the geological distribution of fossil Birds, and
examine a few of the most interesting examples; and lastly, consider the
striking phenomena presented by the foot-prints of supposed Birds on the
strata of those ancient deposits which are comprised in the Trias or New
Red formation.
I. Osteological Characters.—The skull in adult birds OSTEOLOGY OF BIRD
presents this remarkable feature, that it is composed of but one bone
without any trace of suture: the osseous tissue is very compact; the bone
is white, and very smooth externally. The lower jaw is formed, as in
reptiles, of several bones, namely, articular, angular, supra-angular, and
dental; it is united to the skull by the intervention of a bone (os
quadratum), as in certain reptiles. Both jaws are destitute of teeth, and
are protected by dense horny sheaths, which form powerful dentary
organs. The vertebral column of the neck is exceedingly flexible, and is
composed of a greater number of bones than in any other living animals;
for the cervical vertebæ, which in the mammalia amount to seven, in
birds vary from ten to twenty-four, as in the Swan. To admit of this
extreme mobility of the neck without injury to the enclosed spinal cord,
the annular part, or neural arch, of each cervical vertebra is enlarged at
the extremities that form a junction with the corresponding bones; thus
presenting a modification of vertebral development directly the reverse of
that possessed by the extinct saurian of the Magnesian conglomerate (see
p. 714). The dorsal and sacra vertebral, on the contrary, are firmly
interlocked, and often anchylosed together, and constitute a strong,
inflexible pillar to afford a fixed point of support to the powerful
locomotive organs of flight. There are no lumbar, or rib-less vertebræ.
The sacrum often consists of eighteen, twenty, or more vertebræ,
anchylosed into a solid bone. In the young Ostrich the vertebræ may be
found separate and distinct; and the neural arch is shifted to the union of
two vertebræ, as in the Megalosaurus. The sacral spinal cord is almost as
large as the brain; to supply the large muscles. The foramina for the
passage of the nerves are double, one for the sensitive, and the other for
the motive root, which pass out separately and unite in. a ganglion
externally. The ribs are formed so as to combine strength with lightness in
the construction of the walls of the chest, for each rib has a recurrent
apophysis, or process, that extends backwards, and glides over the
contiguous bone; this is a very peculiar and obvious character.[719] The
ribs are united in front to the sternum by bony processes, analogous to
the costal-arcs of the Plesiosaurus. The pectoral arch is distinguished by
the prominent longitudinal keel or crest of the sternum; a structure
designed to give attachment to the powerful pectoral muscles which move
the wings, and which presents characteristic modifications in the different
orders; and by the peculiar bone, termed the furcula, or merry-thought,
which connects the clavicles. The clavicles are strongest and most open in
birds of strongest flight. The coracoids (in birds) relate to respiration, and
serve to admit of contraction and expansion of the sternum and
abdomen. The bones of the anterior extremities are modified to adapt
these instruments for the purposes of flight, and those of the fore-arm
(radius and ulna) are very long, and firmly united together; the ulna has a
row of slight eminences for the attachment of the quills of the secondary
feathers. The wrist, or carpus, is composed of but two bones, articulated
to the radius and ulna, and which admit only of a lateral movement, by
which the wings are folded close to the body. The bones of the hinder
extremities consist of the thigh or femur;[720] the leg-bones, tibia[721] and
fibula, the latter very small and anchylosed to the former; and of a single
shank-bone, which supplies the place of the tarsal and metatarsal bones
of other animals. This bone is articulated at its upper extremity to the
tibia, and terminates at the lower end in distinct processes, which
correspond in number with the toes; each process having a groove for the
pulley-like tendon that moves the corresponding toe. This construction is
peculiar to birds; for although in some quadrupeds, as the horse for
example, the metatarsus consists of but one piece, the tarsus is
composed of several bones.
[719] In very old crocodiles an analogous apophysis, which is
generally cartilaginous, is sometimes found, ossified (Owen).
[720] The acetabulum, or socket for the head of the thigh-bone, is
always perforated. The femur has a surface for the articulation of the
fibula; and by this character the femur of all birds may be
distinguished. There is always a patella.
[721] The lower end of the tibia is very like that of the femur.

The toes of birds present deviations equally recognisable; for the

number of the articulations (or phalangeal pieces of bone) in each toe is
different. Thus the thumb, or short toe, has two bones; the first toe on
the inner side three; the the middle toe four; and the outer toe five. In
general, three toes are directed forwards, and one backwards. In some
species, the thumb or opposable toe is altogether wanting; in others, as
in the swallow, it is directed forwards; in climbing birds, both the outer
and the back toe are situated behind. The position of the hind toe,
therefore, affords an important indication of the habits of the bird (see
Wond. p. 146, Lign. 23), and from a fragment of the lower extremity of
the shank or tarso-metatarsal bone, with any trace of this articulation, we
may determine whether the individual to which it belonged was a climber,
wader, &c. In the toes of Crocodiles alone, the number of joints is the
same as in birds; but in these reptiles, each toe is supported by a distinct
metatarsal bone. The osteological peculiarities above enumerated may
assist the collector in arriving at some general inferences as to the nature
of any fossil remains of birds.
II. Ornitholites, or Fossil Birds.—The fossil remains of birds FOSSIL BIRD
consist in general of their osseous skeletons, and of detached bones, and
rarely of the feathers and eggs.

Pleistocene Epoch.—Bones of the Dodo[722] (see Wond. p. 131), a bird

which appears to have become extinct by human agency within the last
two centuries, have been found, associated with the remains of a recent
species of Tortoise, beneath a bed of lava in the Isle of France. And in
some caverns in the island of Rodriguez, the bones of one or more large
birds allied to the Dodo have also been discovered.
[722] See Penny Cyclopædia, Art. Dodo, and the beautiful work on
the natural history of the Dodo and its Kindred, by the late lamented
Mr. Strickland and Dr. Melville, 4to.

Dinornis (fearfully great bird). Pict. Atlas, frontispiece, and p. 172—

Numerous bones of large extinct birds have been obtained in New
Zealand by Mr. Rule, the Rev. W. Williams, Col. Wakefield, Mr. Walter
Mantell, and others. These have been referred by Professor Owen to
tridactylous struthious birds (one of which was one-third larger than the
African ostrich), resembling the living Apteryx of New Zealand (Wond. p.
128, Petrif. p. 106) in the proportions of the tibia to the metatarsus, and
also in the rudimental state of the wings. The bones are found in the
recent alluvium, but probably in some cases at least they have been
washed by the streams from older alluvial deposits.
 An account of the history of the discovery of the gigantic Moa’s bones
in New Zealand (Wond. p. 129) is given in full in Petrif. p. 93, et seq.; and
the scientific description of the various parts of the skeleton of the
Dinornis and Palapteryx, chiefly collected from Professor Owen’s elaborate
and finely illustrated memoirs in the Transactions of the Zoological
Society, should be consulted, Petrif. p. 108, &c. Of Dinornis Professor
Owen discriminates seven or eight species; of Palapteryx, three species;
and indications of a species of a third associated genus, Aptornis.
Fragments of egg-shell accompany these interesting relics of birds
from New Zealand. From Madagascar also bird-bones and eggs have been
obtained in a fossil state, that indicate the original bird (Æpyornis) to have
been even of a greater size than the Dinornis.
Ornitholites of the Caverns.—Many limestone districts abound in fissures
and caves, which vary in extent from more superficial hollows to deep
excavations and caverns of considerable magnitude (Wond. p. 175, &c.)
Beneath the stalagmitic or sparry floors of some of these caverns, the
bones of extinct species of Cats, Bears, and Hyænas, occur in immense
quantities; but the full consideration of these phenomena will be reserved
for the next chapter. The skeletons and detached bones of several kinds
of Birds are often found imbedded with these remains; and under
circumstances which seem to indicate that they were brought into these
caverns as prey by the carnivora, with whose relics they are now
associated. Some examples show that the birds had fallen into the fissure;
others, that their bones had been transported to their present situation by
the action of water.
In the Cave of Kirkdale, in Yorkshire (Wond. p. 179), Dr. Buckland
found bones of the Raven, Lark, Pigeon, Duck, and others; and as almost
all the specimens were the remains of wing-bones, it is considered
probable that they are the relics of dead birds, which had been brought
into the cave by the hyænas, whose den it is supposed to have been for a
considerable period (Reliquiæ Diluvianæ, p. 34).
Similar remains have been discovered in the Kent’s Hole cavern, and in
that at Berry Head, Torbay; from the latter Professor Owen has obtained
the wing-bones of a Falcon (Brit. Fos. Mam. and Birds, p. 558).
 In France, the Lunel-Viel caverns have yielded a few bird-bones; and
many such remains occur in the caves of Brazil, described by M. Lund.
The so-called "bone-breccia" of the coasts and islands of the
Mediterranean (Wond. p. 185) contains frequent remains of birds: they
have been especially noticed at Cette, Nice, Sardinia, and Gibraltar.
In the deposits especially referred to the northern drift or Boulder-clay
period, fossil birds appear to be very rare, although the remains of
vertebrate terrestrial animals are locally abundant. Dr. Buckland states
that some bones, apparently of a species of goose, found at Lawford, with
the remains of Hyæna, Elephant, Rhinoceros, &c., is the only instance he
has met with of fossil birds in the drift of England (Reliq. Diluv. p. 27).
On the Continent, bird-bones have been found, at Quedlingbourg,
Meissen, and in the Lahn Valley, in deposits said to be of this age.
Ornitholites of the older Tertiary Deposits. (Lign. 246.)—The very rich
pliocene deposits at Œningen (p. 559) have afforded a few fragments of
birds’ bones.
Three or four species of Ornitholites (Duck, Heron, Flamingo, &c.), and
several examples of the eggs of birds, have been discovered in the
lacustrine strata of Auvergne. Birds’ bones also occur in the fresh-water
limestone near Issoire, in the Buy de Dôme, associated with the remains
of eocene mammalia. In Germany, bird-bones have been found in tertiary
deposits at Wiesbaden, Wiesnau, and Mornbach. In the Siwalik Hills the
remains of birds are associated with the fossil reptilia and mammalia, to
which reference has already been made (p. 731).
From the quarries of gypseous limestone of Montmartre, near Paris,
Baron Cuvier obtained many bones, and some connected portions of the
skeletons of several birds related to the Pelican, Sea-lark, Curlew,
Woodcock, Owl, Buzzard, and Quail.[723] In several of these examples
there are the imprints and remains of the quills and feathers; in some the
skeleton has perished, and a pellicle of dark-brown substance, with the
configuration of the original, alone remains (see Lign. 246). These
Ornitholites are associated with the bones of the Palæotheria, and other
extinct mammalia of the eocene period. Two or three Ornitholites have
been discovered at Montmartre, in which almost the entire skeleton is
preserved. In one example, described by Cuvier, the remains of a bird are
displayed in such a manner as to render it probable that the animal had
fallen on its belly, and become partially impacted in the surface of the soft
gypsum, which is now become solid stone; and that, previously to its
being completely enveloped, the principal part of its head and the left leg
were removed either by some voracious animal, or by the action of the
water. In addition to the other parts of the skeleton, the under side of the
bill is very distinctly impressed on the stone, and the left branch is entire;
there are also the remains of the cellular basis of the skull; and both the
wings are well preserved. Nine or ten species of fossil birds were
identified by Cuvier from the Paris eocene strata.
[723] Ossemens Fossiles, tom. iii. p. 302, plates lxxii.—lxxv.
FOSSIL VULTUR

Lign. 246. Fossil Bird. Eocene. Montmartre.

(Cuvier, Oss. Foss. vol. iii. p. 318, pl. lxxiii. fig.
2.)
The remains of this individual consist only of a
thin brown pellicle, indicating the form and
proportions of the head, body, and limbs.

Lithornis vulturinus. Geol. Trans. 2d series, vol. vi. p. 206, pl. xxi. figs. 5
and 6.—Under the name of Lithornis (petrified-bird), Professor Owen has
described the fossil remains of a bird, consisting of two most
characteristic bones,—the sternum and sacrum,—and fragments of other
bones, obtained from the London Clay of the Isle of Sheppey. These relics
present a close agreement with the corresponding bones of the Vulture
tribe, but indicate a smaller species of Vulture than any now known to
exist.
In his "History of British Fossil Mammalia and Birds," 1846, Professor
Owen has also described another sacrum from the Sheppey Clay, a
sternum from Primrose Hill, and the cranium of a bird, probably of the
Halcyonidæ family, from the same eocene deposit at Sheppey. This has
also yielded a portion of shank-bone, which, according to Mr. Bowerbank,
indicates a bird of the size of a full-grown albatross. Brit. Assoc. 1851.
Some few specimens of cylindrical bones from the Chalk and the
Wealden[724] have been previously referred to Birds, and described as
remains of species of that family. These fossils, however, have lately been
reexamined in comparison with more perfect bones of similar character;
and, with the exception of a few, the structure of which decidedly has the
characters belonging to bird’s bone, the result of this investigation has
assigned them to Pterodactyles.[725] The long thin cylindrical bones from
the Stonesfield Oolite are probably all Pterodactylian also, as suggested
by the late Mr. Miller.
[724] One fragment of a bone, apparently of an ulna, retained a
row of small eminences, probably the points of attachment for the
quills of the secondary feathers of the wings. This specimen would
appear to have a decided reference to ornithic structure, but it was
transferred to the British Museum, and is not now to be seen.
[725] See Quart. Geol. Journ. vol. ii. p. 96, &c.; and Owen’s
Monograph on Chalk Reptiles, 1851, p. 80, et seq. It is to be hoped
that the eminent microscopists, Mr. Bowerbank and Professor Quekett,
may be enabled before long to elucidate the intimate structure of
pterodactylian bone; which, although of an essentially reptilian type,
has characters of its own, offering some resemblances to bird-
structure, that have not yet been fully described. Some specimens of
bones from the Wealden (for instance, the specimen figured in Geol.
Trans. 2d ser. vol. v. pl. xiii. fig. 6, and Geol. Journ. vol. iv. pl. i. fig. 9,)
exhibit under the microscope an intimate structure resembling that
seen in bird-bone, in contradistinction to that characteristic of reptilian
bone. But until we are better acquainted with the microscopic structure
of the osseous tissue of the Pterosaurians, and are in possession of
more perfect specimens of bones, it cannot be satisfactorily
 determined to what extent the class of Birds existed in the country of
the Iguanodon.
ORNITHOIDICHNITE
III. Ornithoidichnites. (Bird-like foot-prints.) Ligns. 247,
248. Bd. pl. xxvi. a, xxvi.b.—The palæontological history of the class of
birds, as evidenced by the foregoing pages, is carried back but to a
comparatively recent era in the earth’s history: and indeed, in the present
state of our knowledge, it may be said that all positive evidence of the
former existence of this highly organized class of vertebrated animals is
confined to the Tertiary and Wealden deposits. A most interesting
discovery, however, by Dr. James Deane,[726] of Greenfield, U. S. seems
to prove that numerous bird-like bipeds, and some of gigantic size,
existed at the period when the Triassic or New Red strata were in the
progress of formation; that period, as the reader will remember, in which
the Labyrinthodonts and other extraordinary reptiles flourished. Rep. Brit.
Assoc. 1841, p. 230, note.
[726] See "Illustrations of Fossil Foot-prints of the Valley of the
Connecticut," 1849, 4to. with nine plates.

In certain localities of the New Red sandstone in the valley of the

Connecticut, numerous tridactyle markings had been occasionally
observed on the surfaces of the slabs of stone when split asunder, in like
manner as the ripple-marks appear on the successive layers of sandstone
in Corncockle Muir, Tilgate Forest, &c. Some remarkable distinct
impressions of this kind at Turner’s Falls (Massachusetts) happening to
attract the attention of Dr. Deane, that sagacious observer was struck
with their resemblance to the foot-marks left on the mud-banks of the
adjacent river by the aquatic birds which had recently frequented the
spot. The conviction that the imprints on the stone were referable to a
similar origin with those on the mud was so strongly impressed on his
mind, that he immediately collected a series of specimens, and
communicated his discovery and opinion to Professor E. Hitchcock, who
followed up the inquiry with a zeal and success that have led to the most
interesting results. No reasonable doubt now exists that the imprints in
question have been produced by the tracks of bipeds, impressed on the
stone when in a soft state. The announcement of this extraordinary
phenomenon was first made by Professor Hitchcock, in the American
Journal of Science (January, 1836); and that eminent geologist has
subsequently published full descriptions of the different species of
imprints which he has detected, with excellent lithographs, in his "Geology
of Massachusetts." (See Petrif. pp. 64-73.)
Three highly interesting specimens of the Ornithoidichnites of North
America, collected and developed by Dr. James Deane, have been lately
added to the collection of organic remains in the British Museum. They
exhibit several varieties of the foot-prints, and are in a very fine state of
preservation. The surface of the largest slab is eight feet by six, and bears
upwards of seventy distinct impressions, disposed in several tracks, as
shown in the Lign. 247. The direction and disposition of the foot-tracks
are rendered more distinct by the lines drawn from one imprint to another
in the consecutive series.
The principal tracks on this slab, Lign. 247, are as follow;

Fig. directed from below upwards, is a track consisting of six large

1 to 1,
footsteps.
2 to 2, from above downwards; a track of four foot-prints, disposed almost in
a right line, and very far apart.
3 to 3, a track of five foot-prints, from above downwards, of a large, heavy
animal, like fig. 1.
4 to 4, from above downwards, four foot-prints like fig. 2, disposed in a nearly
straight track, and far apart.
5, a track of five heavy foot-prints, directed obliquely upwards.
6 to 6, five foot-prints of a large biped, in a track from below upwards.
7, a series of five delicate foot-prints.
8 to 8, a track of eleven very small foot-prints, disposed in zigzag, and
extending obliquely from the right extremity to the upper edge of
the slab.
9 to 9, a track of four large and distant foot-prints, passing obliquely across
the stone from left to right.

I subjoin also a representation of one of the smaller foot-prints, of the

natural size, the surface of the stone being sprinkled also with
hemispherical markings produced by drops of rain. (Lign. 248.)
A Slab of New Red Sandstone (eight feet by six), from Turner’s Falls,
Massachusetts, United States, covered with numerous Foot-marks of
Bipeds; indicating the Tracks of ten or twelve individuals, of various sizes.
Discovered by Dr. James Deane, of Greenfield, Massachusetts. This
Specimen is now in the British Museum.—(From the American Journal of
Science, vol. xlvi. p. 73.)

Lign. 247. Ornithoidichnites, or Imprints of theFootsteps of Bipeds with Bird-like Feet, on

Sandstone.
To face p. 770.
Click on image to view larger sized.

The above will suffice to give the reader a general idea ORNITHOIDICHNITE
of the nature of these extraordinary impressions. A few shapeless
fragments of bones are the only vestiges of the skeletons of any animals,
with the exception of fishes, that have been found in the strata which
have furnished the slabs of Ornithoidichnites. Some Coprolites also have
been discovered.
 Lign. 248. Bird-like Footprint, and
impressions of Rain-drops, on Sandstone
(nat.). New Red Formation; Massachusetts.
[Amer. Journ. of Science, (1843,) vol. xlvi.
p. 73.]

The enormous size of some of the foot-marks is calculated to excite

great surprise. I have in my possession (through the kindness of Dr.
Deane) imprints that prove the size of the foot to have been fifteen inches
in length, and ten inches in width, exclusive of the hind claw, which is
present in some species, and is here two inches long. The foot-prints of
this biped when in a consecutive series of five or six, are from four to six
feet apart; which, of course, must have been the length of the stride; the
longest stride was probably made by the animal when running; the
shortest, when walking at a moderate pace. These footsteps indicate
proportions so far exceeding those of all known living bipeds,—for the
foot of the African ostrich is but ten inches long,—that the geologist may
be pardoned for having hesitated to adopt the opinions of the American
savans, in the absence of any relics of the osseous structure of the
supposed birds; although sanctioned by the high authority of Dr.
Buckland, who, from the first, concurred in the views of Professor
Hitchcock (Bd. ii. p. 39): but this objection has been in a great measure
removed by the discovery of the remains of the gigantic Moa or Dinornis
of New Zealand, with feet equal in magnitude to the largest of the
Connecticut foot-prints. See p. 763, and Pict. Atlas, frontispiece. Professor
Hitchcock is of opinion that upwards of forty species of these biped foot-
prints may be distinguished. Foot-prints referable to chelonians,
batrachians, and lizards are associated with the above.[727]
[727] Trans. Amer. Phil. Soc. n. s. vol. x. pt. ii. p. 312.

In the New Red Sandstone of Stourton Hill, near Liverpool, Mr.

Cunningham has observed tridactylous, webbed foot-prints,[728] 21/2
inches long, which he refers to a bird; Mr. Hawkshaw also noticed some
bird-like tracks at Lymm; and Professor Harkness met with a trace of a
biped at Weston Point, near Runcorn. These appear to be the only
indications of ornithoidichnites in the Trias of England; and these are very
obscure.
[728] These are accompanied by cheirotherian prints, and by the
cast of an impression quite similar to that made on the sands of the
sea-beach of to day, by the Medusa (sea-nettle or jelly-fish) left by the
reflux of the tide and exposed to a few hours of sunshine. Mr.
Cunningham and Mr. Pidgeon have furnished a figure of this interesting
impression of the "jelly-fish," which has left "the solid memorial of its
evanescent existence en the ancient strand" of the Triassic sea,
showing that the physical conditions of land, water, and atmosphere
were the same then as those that now obtain.—Liverpool Lit. Phil. Soc.
Proc. 1848, p. 128, fig. 1. A similar imprint on a Jurassic rock in
Germany is referred to at p. 280.

In the Wealden of Hastings and the Isle of Wight, the natural casts of
large tridactylous foot-prints have been observed by Mr. Taggart and Mr.
Beckles (see Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. vol. ii. p. 267, vol. vii. p. 117, vol.
viii. p. 396, and Geol. Isle of Wight, p. 328), but as yet no solution of the
mystery at present enwrapping these gigantic, tridactylous, biped (?)
ichnolites has presented itself: we only know that the creature that left
them traversed the borders of the mighty river which floated down the
bulky carcases of the Hylæosaur and Iguanodon.
On Collecting the Fossil Remains of Birds.— ON COLLECTING FOSSIL BIRD
Notwithstanding the extreme rarity of fossils of this class, the student
should not be discouraged in his search for the remains of Birds in the
secondary rocks. That far more instructive specimens than any that have
fallen under my observation may be discovered in the Wealden strata by
diligent research, there can be no reasonable doubt. It is also very
probable that the Stonesfield slate, which abounds in remains of
terrestrial plants and animals, will be found to contain Ornitholites. It is
important for the collector to bear in mind, that when only a fragment of
the shaft of a bone remains imbedded in the stone, if the imprint of the
other portions be preserved, he may obtain a knowledge of the form of
the extremities; in the same manner as the external markings of the
surface of a shell may be ascertained, when the shell itself is lost or
destroyed, and a smooth stony cast of the internal cavity only is left. The
same remark will apply to the bones of reptiles and other animals; for
example, a perfect leg-bone may be imbedded in a block of limestone;
but, when exposed by breaking the stone, a portion of the shaft may
alone remain attached, and both extremities be shattered to pieces by the
concussion of the blow; yet, if the impression remains, the entire form of
the original may be determined.
The foot-prints, not only of birds, but of reptiles and other animals,
should be diligently sought for on the surfaces of laminated strata of sand
and clay, and especially where the presence of ripple-marks, and the
impressions of rain-drops, indicate that the beds were deposited in
shallow water. The forest-marble flags at Castle Comb, north of Bath, the
Stonesfield slates, and the sandstones around Horsham (in Sussex), and
particularly at Stammerham (see Geol. S. E. p. 213), are often rippled,
and it is therefore probable that the foot-prints of some of the Oolitic and
Wealden quadrupeds and bipeds, if such existed, will sooner or later be
discovered.
 CHAPTER XIX.
FOSSIL MAMMALIA.
The remains of Mammalia discovered in a fossil state include an
immense number of species, and furnish examples of almost every living
genus, and of numerous genera, and even orders, of which no existing
species are known. Yet amidst the vast accumulations of the skeletons of
the higher orders of vertebrata contained in the tertiary deposits, and in
the superficial drift, belonging to species which have successively
appeared on the surface of our planet, flourished for indefinite periods of
time, and then become annihilated, no vestiges of Man, or of his works,
have been detected. Human skeletons, naturally imbedded, have hitherto
only been observed in the silt of modern alluvial plains,[729] in peat-bogs
(Wond. p. 64), and in conglomerates of recent date, such as are in the
progress of formation on the sea-shores, particularly where the water is
loaded with the detritus of shells and corals, and the waves transport the
calcareous matter along the margins of creeks and bays, or deposit it in
the shallows along the coast (see Wond. p. 87, and Petrif. p. 483).
[729] There seems, however, reason to believe that the human
skulls and bones found with elephantine and other remains in the Alps
of Swabia, are of contemporaneous origin with these extinct mammals.
(See Literary Gazette, 1853, p. 1027.)

The geological distribution of fossil mammalia,[730]—the occurrence of

the entire carcases of extinct species of Elephant and Rhinoceros in blocks
of ice (Wond. p. 151),—of recent species in the superficial alluvial clay
and silt,—of recent and extinct forms in the Drift or Pleistocene deposits
(Wond. p. 147),—of the gradual preponderance of unknown species and
genera, in proportion as we carry back our retrospect to the most ancient
Tertiary strata (Wond. p. 254), —the sudden disappearance of all vestiges
of the entire Class of Mammalia, with the last bed of the Eocene deposits,
—with the exception of a few minute jaws in one set of beds of the Oolite
in England (Wond. p. 510), and of a few teeth in the Trias (?) of Germany,
[731] the sole records of the existence of any of the highest types of
animal organization throughout the vast periods of the secondary
formations—are so fully treated of in the Wonders of Geology, that I need
not dwell upon the subject in the present volumes. Neither is it desirable
to enter at large upon this department of Palæontology, for it were vain to
attempt the elucidation of the anatomical characters of but one extinct
species of Mammalia, without giving details of structure, that could only
be successfully demonstrated in a work expressly devoted to the subject.
Referring, therefore, to Cuvier’s Ossemens Fossiles, and to Professor
Owen’s "History of the British Fossil Mammalia," 8vo. 1846, I must limit
my remarks on the Fossil Mammalia to a brief summary of modern
discoveries, with suggestions for the identification and collection of some
of the most interesting or prevalent remains.
 [730] For a notice of the distribution of mammalian remains in the
Upper Tertiaries of Europe, see Phillips’s Geology, 1853, vol. i. p. 45, &c.
[731] For an account of these teeth of small insectivorous mammals
from the "bone-bed" of Würtemberg, which has an analogous position at
the top of the Trias with the "bone-bed" of Axmouth and Aust Cliff, see Ly.
p. xiv. figs. 529-531.

The fossil remains of Mammalia will be considered under the following

heads:—

I.Cetacea, or animals of the Whale tribe.

II. Ruminantia; including the Camel, Giraffe, Deer, Sheep, Ox, &c.
III.Pachydermata; comprising the Proboscideans, as the Elephant, and the
ordinary Pachyderms, as the Rhinoceros, Horse, Swine, &c.
IV. Edentata: animals without teeth, or with only molars, as the Ant-eater,
Sloth, Megatherium, Mylodon, &c.
V. Rodentia, or Gnawers; as the Hare, Beaver, Rat, &c.
VI. Marsupialia; animals with an abdominal pouch, as the Kangaroo,
Opossum, &c.
VII. Carnivora; including the Bats, Moles, and the carnivorous tribes in
general.
VIII. Quadrumana; Apes and Monkeys.
IX. Bimana; or Man.
FOSSIL WHALE
I. Fossil Cetacea.[732]—The Cetaceans, although popularly
termed fishes, are as perfect air-breathing vertebrated animals, as the
terrestrial mammalia, and, like them, give suck to their young. Instead of
fore-feet or arms, they have a pair of fins or paddles, but are destitute of
hinder extremities, the place of the latter organs being supplied by a powerful
cartilaginous horizontal fin, appended to the tail. The Cetaceans, therefore,
differ in this respect from the fossil marine reptiles, the Ichthyosaurus and
Plesiosaurus (see p. 662), which have two pairs of paddles. This order, as is
well known, comprises the most colossal forms of animal existence,—the
Whales. Some are herbivorous, others carnivorous; many have powerful
teeth; others are edentulous, the jaw being furnished with a series of
elongate plates of the substance familiarly known by the name of whale-bone.
[732] Cetacea: an order of aquatic mammalia, comprising the W hales,
Narwhals, Porpoises, Dolphins, and Dugongs.

The fossil remains of Cetaceans have, for the most part, been observed in
alluvial silt and beds of drift, in valleys still traversed by rivers; but many
examples have been discovered in elevated sea-beaches, proving that,
although, geologically speaking, these beds are of modern origin, yet great
changes in the relative level of the land and sea must have taken place since
these remains were imbedded. Thus, on the banks of the river Forth, near
Alloa, in Scotland, the skeleton of a Whale (Balænoptera), seventy-two feet
long, was discovered imbedded in clay, twenty feet above the highest tide.
[733] Cuvier mentions the discovery of bones of a Lamantin at Angers; of a
Dolphin, and Rorqual, in Lombardy; and of a Grampus, in the pliocene of the
Sub-Apennines.[734]
[733] Dr. Fleming’s British Animals, p. 39.
[734] For notices and descriptions of Cetacean remains found in
England, see Owen’s Brit. Foss. Mammalia, p. 516, et seq.

Otolithes of Cetaceans.—Petro-tympanic bones of several large whales have

been found in great numbers in the red Crag of Felixstow; among them is one
of the genus Physeter, or Sperm-Whale.[735]
[735] Proc. Geol. Soc. for 1845, p. 41; and Brit. Foss. Mam. p. 526, &c.

Brighton Fossil Whale.—An interesting discovery of the anterior half of one

side of the lower jaw of a Whale, undoubtedly coeval with the extinct
Mammoth (Elephas primigenius), was made in 1828 in the Cliff, east of Kemp
Town, Brighton, under the following circumstances. On the face of the Cliff, in
the ancient shingle which lies immediately upon the chalk and is surmounted
by beds of calcareous rubble, containing bones and teeth of Elephants, to the
height of one hundred and twenty feet, some fishermen had observed a huge
bone, that had been laid bare by an unusually high tide and now projected
two or three feet beyond the face of the Cliff. Unable to remove it, they broke
off the extremity, a fragment of which was sent to me. Upon repairing to the
spot a few days afterwards, I found that the fishermen had renewed their
attack, and demolished a considerable portion of the bone in ineffectual
attempts to dislodge it from its bed; and had desisted only from the
apprehension of being buried beneath the overhanging cliff, which is
composed of loosely aggregated materials. Unfortunately, the bone extended
directly into the cliff, and it required several hours of labour, not unattended
with danger, before an excavation was made sufficiently large to expose the
entire specimen. It proved to be the anterior nine feet of the left branch of
the lower jaw of a whale-bone Whale (Balæna mysticetus). It was of a light
fawn colour externally, but the internal coarse osseous structure was
delicately white; it was extremely brittle, and, upon attempting to move it,
broke into a thousand pieces. Time would not permit of the application of a
coating of plaster of Paris, for ere we had completed our task the tide was
rapidly approaching, or this interesting relic might have been extracted entire.
This portion of lower jaw, before it was mutilated by the fishermen, was
twelve feet long, and thirty-six inches in circumference at the largest
extremity. It must have belonged to a Whale from sixty to seventy feet in
length.[736]
[736] The fragments of this jaw that were preserved are now exhibited
in the British Museum, in Room V.

In the fluviatile silt of the valley of the Ouse, near Lewes (Wond. p. 63),
the skull of a Porpoise and a portion of the cranium, with the socket of the
long straight tooth, of a Narwhal (Monodon monoceros), were found twelve
feet beneath the surface of the soil.
The bones of an herbivorous Cetacean, the Manatus, a genus now peculiar
to the torrid zone, have been found in the eocene strata in various parts of
France, associated with those of the Palæotheria and other extinct mammalia
of the Paris basin.

Zeuglodon cetoides. Lign. 249.[737]—The remains of a very ZEUGLODO

remarkable Cetacean, of an extinct genus, were first made known by Dr.
Harlan, of Philadelphia, who obtained a considerable portion of the jaws with
teeth, vertebræ, and other bones of an animal of enormous size, from
Alabama and Arkansas, United States. These relics were discovered in tertiary
(eocene) limestone, associated with a marine shelly conglomerate, from a cliff
near the bed of the river Owachita. When first observed, the bones extended
along the face of the rock, with intervals between them, to the extent of one
hundred feet, and the animal to which they belonged must have exceeded
seventy feet in length. Dr. Harlan ascribed these bones to an unknown reptile,
which he called Basilosaurus (king of the lizards); but a more correct
investigation, by Professor Owen, proved their cetacean character, and the
peculiar form of the worn molar teeth suggested the name of Zeuglodon
(yoke-tooth).
[737] Owen, Geol. Trans. 2d ser. vol. vi. p. 69, &c., plates vii. viii. ix.;
Harlan’s Medical and Physical Researches, p. 337, &c.; Gibbes, Journ. Acad.
Nat. Sc. Philadelphia, 2d ser. 1847, vol. i. pp. 5 and 16; Bulkley, Silliman's
Journal, vol. xliv. p. 409; Carus, Nova Acta Cur. Nat. vol. xxii. pt. ii. 1848.
 Lign. 249. Zeuglodon cetoides.
Portion of the Jaw, with Teeth, and a Vertebra.
Eocene. Alabama, United Slates.
Fig. 1. Portion of the Upper Jaw, with three teeth: 1/8
— nat.
a. The exposed fang of a tooth.
2. Transverse section of the base of the crown of
— a tooth, showing the deep constriction in the
middle: 1/4 nat.
3.
A caudal vertebra: 1/12 nat.
—

Lign. 250. Teeth of Zeuglodon: 1/2 nat.

Eocene. France and N. America.
Fig. 1. Upper tooth of Z. squalodon; from near
— Bordeaux.
 2. Molar tooth of Z. cetoides; from Alabama,
— United States.
3.
Canine tooth of Z. cetoides.
—

The teeth (Lign. 250) are of two kinds, some having but one fang, and
others two, implanted in separate sockets and placed obliquely in the jaw;
they are of a compressed, conical form, with an obtuse apex, the crown being
deeply conjugate, or contracted in the middle, as shown in the transverse
section, Lign. 249, fig. 2. They are devoid of enamel, but the dentine is
coated with cement, and their structure is decidedly mammalian; and a
microscopical examination, Professor Owen states, incontestably proves their
cetacean character. The longitudinal diameter of the middle tooth is three
inches.
The vertebræ resemble those of the large cetacean known by the name of
Hyperoodon; a caudal vertebra is figured Lign. 249, fig. 3. The original animal
was related to the Dugong and Cacholot, and appears to have held an
intermediate place between the latter and the herbivorous species.
FOSSIL RUMINANT

Lign. 251. Teeth Ruminant. Pleistocene.

of a
Gibraltar.
Imbedded in a mass of the "osseous breccia."

II. Fossil Ruminants. (Owen’s Brit. Foss. Mam. p. 444, et seq.)—The fossil
bones of animals of this order are very numerous in the alluvial deposits, in
caves, and in pleistocene deposits, in almost every part of the world. They are
generally associated with the remains of the next group. The skulls of Oxen,
and horns and bones of the Bison and Auroch, have been found in North Cliff,
Yorkshire, at Walton in Essex, and other parts of England. The fossil oxen
appear to have been one-third larger than the recent species; and the horns
are relatively more massive than in the domestic race; some of the horns
measure four feet across, at the widest expansion. In the immense
accumulations of large mammalia in the tertiary beds of the Sub-Himalayan or
Siwalik range, numerous remains of oxen occur. The teeth of one species are
often found in the Elephant-bed at Brighton.
Of the Deer family the relics of several kinds have been discovered in Drift
and Caverns. The cave of Kirkdale alone contained the remains of three
species.[738] The bones of a species that cannot be distinguished from the
common Bed Deer are found in the modern shell-marls of Scotland,
associated with the remains of oxen, horse, boar, dog, wolf, and beaver. The
bones and antlers of the Reindeer have been found at Brentford and other
places (Brit. Foss. Mam. p. 479; and Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1851. Sect. p. 69). The
ossiferous caverns, which contain bones of Carnivora, also yield those of
Deer; as the caves of Kirkdale and Banwell, &c. in England, and the
celebrated caverns of Muggendorf, on the Continent. A species of Musk-deer
has been found at Epplesheim; and bones of deer are associated with those
of the Dinotherium, in Rhenish Hesse, in late Tertiary deposits. The teeth and
a lower jaw, with other bones, of a species of deer, were obtained from the
Brighton Elephant bed (Wond. p. 114).
[738] The Rev. Dr. Buckland’s Reliquiæ Diluvianæ; or, Observations on
the Organic Remains found in Caves, Fissures, and Gravel; 1 vol. 4to.
1823, pl. viii. and ix.

The most celebrated fossil animal of this family is the Gigantic Stag or
Deer of Ireland (see Petrif. p. 455; Wond. p. 132), whose bones and antlers
are found in immense quantities in superficial marl, in Ireland, in the Isle of
Man, and occasionally in England. (Geol. Journ. vol. iv. p. 42.) A skeleton that
was found, almost entire, in marl abounding in fresh-water shells, at the
depth of twenty feet, is six feet high, nine feet long, and nine and a half feet
in height, to the top of the right horn. Some antlers are so large, that the
interspace from one point to the other exceeds twelve feet.[739]
[739] See Pict. Atlas, pl. lxxi.; a good figure of the skeleton of the fossil
Irish Deer is given in the Penny Cyclopædia, vol. viii. p. 364; for a detailed
account of this gigantic animal, see Owen’s Foss. Brit. Mammalia, p. 444,
and Charlesworth’s Journal, p. 87.

The Giraffe, the tallest of known quadrupeds, and now restricted to the
deserts of Africa, was once a native of Europe and Asia, for fossil bones of a
species of this remarkable ruminant have been found at Issoudun, in France,
and in the Siwalik mountains, with several varieties of Elk and Deer.
Of the Camel, the only ruminant with incisor teeth in the upper jaw, a
gigantic species has been discovered by Dr. Falconer and Captain Cautley, in
the Siwalik range.

Lign. 252. Bones of the Feet of Horse, Deer, and Anoplotherium.

Fig. 1.
Fore-foot of the Horse.
—
2. — Deer.
3. — Anoplotherium gracile.
m, m. Metacarpal bones ("canon-bone" in the Horse.)
s, in fig. 1, the "splint-bone," or rudimentary
metacarpal.
p, p. First or proximal phalangeal-bones ("pastern" in the
Horse).
2 2 Second phalangeals ("coronet" or "crown-bone" in
p ,p .
the Horse).
u, u. Unguals, or bones of the hoof ("coffin-bone" in the
Horse).

In this category we must notice another most interesting discovery of the

indefatigable and eminent naturalists above mentioned, namely, the
Sivatherium (see Wond. p. 163), an extinct animal, which forms, as it were, a
link between the ruminants and the large pachydermata. The skull has four
persistent horns, and was furnished with a nasal proboscis. The living creature
must have resembled an immense Antelope or Gnu, with a short thick head
and an elevated cranium, crested with two pairs of horns. A splendid
specimen of the skull of the Sivatherium has been placed in the
palæontological collection of the British Museum by Dr. Falconer (Petrif. p.
456, Lign. 98).

III. Pachydermata.[740]—The fossil remains of this order of ELEPHANT. MASTODO

mammalia are most abundant, and belong to numerous species, comprising
many extinct genera of a highly interesting character. See Pictet’s
Paléontologie, new edit. 1853, vol. i. p. 127, et seq.
[740] See Owen on the Classification of the Pachydermata, Quart. Geol.
Journ. vol. iv. p. 127, &c.

Lign. 253. Elephas Ganesa.

Front view of the Cranium and
Tusks.
(The original is 14 feet long.)

Fossil Elephants and Mastodons. Lign. 253, 254, 258-260. Owen’s Hist. Brit.
Foss. Mam. p. 217, &c.; Wond. pp. 147, 157.—The bones, teeth, and tusks of
Elephants, equal in magnitude to, and distinct from the existing African and
Asiatic species, are scattered throughout the superficial alluvial and
pleistocene accumulations of Europe.
 Lign. 254. Mastodon giganteus.
Unworn Molar Tooth: 1/3 nat. size.
Upper Tertiary. Banks of the Hudson, N.
America.

The fossil bones and teeth (Pict. Atlas, pl. lxxi. lxxiv.) of these gigantic
animals are so abundant, that examples may be found in all the provincial,
and in most private collections; and the British Museum possesses an
unrivalled series of specimens of both groups of these colossal herbivorous
mammalia, namely, the Elephants properly so called and the Mastodons
(Petrif. pp. 463, 471). It contains an invaluable series of specimens from the
Siwalik hills, presented by Capt. Cautley and Dr. Falconer (Petrif. p. 469);
amongst which are remains in which the dental organs present every
modification of structure, from that of the mastoid tubercles of the tooth of
the Mastodon, to the vertical laminæ of cement, enamel, and dentine of the
Elephant. The Museum also possesses the entire skeleton of the Mastodon
(Petrif. Lign. 107) formerly exhibited by M. Koch, as well as the fine suite of
jaws and teeth obtained by the same indefatigable collector. This collection
demonstrates that all the bones and teeth, apparently of several species, and,
as some have supposed, of distinct genera, belong but to the one grand
Mastodon—the M. giganteus of Cuvier; it also clearly proves that the young
mastodon had a pair of tusks placed horizontally in the lower jaw; and that
but one of these tusks became developed in the adult, and that only in the
male.[741]
[741] This remarkable circumstance, in the infancy of palæontological
science, gave rise to a very venial error; it was made to constitute the
character of a new genus, to which the name Tetracaulodon was applied.

It is therefore unnecessary to enlarge upon this subject, for an inspection

of a few specimens will afford the student a clearer insight into the structure
of the skeletons and teeth of these animals than any description. The form of
the teeth, and the disposition of the dental elements, are illustrated in Wond.
p. 143, and Ly. p. 159.
Dinotherium. Petrif. p. 474; Wond. p. 173; Bd. i. p. 135, pl. ii.—At DINOTHERIU
Epplesheim, forty miles north-east of Darmstadt, in beds of sand and marl of
the median Tertiary formations, the jaws, teeth, skull, and other remains of
the Dinothere, one of the most gigantic of terrestrial mammalians, have been
discovered; they are preserved in the museum at Darmstadt. The length of
the largest species is estimated at eighteen feet. The teeth had previously
been found in France, Bavaria, and Austria; and, from their close analogy to
those of the Tapir, were described by Cuvier as belonging to an extinct
colossal animal of that genus. But subsequent discoveries have shown that
the Dinotherium was probably a proboscideal animal, and had two large
curved tusks directed downwards in the anterior extremity of the lower jaw.
[742]

[742] There are some fine specimens, and good models of the
Darmstadt specimens, in the British Museum (Petrif. p. 474).

Lign. 255. Anoplotherium Commune.

Eocene Tertiary. Montmartre.
Restored outline of the animal; after Cuvier.
(The original was about the size of an Ass.)

Cuvierian Pachyderms. Lign. 255, 256. Owen’s Brit. Foss. CUVIERIAN PACHYDERM
Mam. p. 299, &c.; Wond. p. 254; Bd. i. p. 81; Petrif. p. 475.—A large
proportion of the numerous bones and teeth which are found in the Tertiary
gypseous deposits at Montmartre, near Paris, are referable to the several
extinct genera of Pachydermata, which the genius of Cuvier first made known.
The Palæotheria and Anoplotheria must be familiar to the intelligent reader,
for the restored outlines of several species are appended to almost every work
that treats of the ancient inhabitants of our globe. The details of their
anatomical characters are given at length in Oss. Foss. tom. iii., illustrated
with numerous plates.
The Palæotheria (Brit. Foss. Mam. p. 316, et seq.) resembled the Tapirs in
their head and short proboscis, while their molar teeth approached those of
the Rhinoceros, and their feet were divided into three toes, instead of four, as
in the Tapirs. Upwards of eleven species have been discovered, varying from
the size of the Rhinoceros to that of the Hog. Their remains are extensively
diffused in the Upper Eocene strata in various parts of France; and have been
found in the Isle of Wight.
The Lophiodon (crested-tooth), a genus distinguished from the former by
the characters of the teeth, which more nearly resemble those of the Tapirs,
comprehends twelve species, all found in the fresh-water Tertiary marls of
France. A canine tooth of a species of Lophiodon was found in the London
Clay, in sinking a well on Sydenham Common, near the railway.[743]
[743] See Mr. Douglas Allport’s interesting History of Camberwell, p. 17,
and Owen’s Brit. Foss. Mam. p. 306.

The Anoplotheria have two characters not observed in any other animal,
namely feet with two toes (see Lign. 252), the metacarpal and metatarsal
bones of which do not unite into a single piece, as is the case in the
ruminants; and teeth placed in a continued series without any interval
between them (Petrif. Lign. 111); man alone has the teeth arranged in the
same manner. I subjoin figures of molar teeth of Palæotherium and
Anoplotherium (Lign. 256).
 Lign. 256. Teeth of Palæotherium and
Anoplotherium.
Upper Eocene. Isle of Wight and Montmartre.
Fig. 1. Upper molar tooth (external surface) of
— Palæotherium magnum. Binstead.
2.
Lower molar of Palæotherium magnum.
—
3. Grinding surface of first upper molar of
— Anoplotherium secundarium. Binstead.
4. Inner side view of right upper canine of
— Anoplotherium commune.
5. Upper molar of Anoplotherium commune.
— Montmartre.
6.
Lower molar of the same animal.
—

There are also sub-genera, as for example, Xiphodon and Dichobune,

characterized by peculiarities of dental and osteological structure; and
Anthracotherium (so named from two species having been found in a bed of
Anthracite or Lignite, near Savone), a genus intermediate between the
Palæotheria and Hogs. The skeletons of these remarkable animals are
imbedded with the remains of carnivora, marsupialia, bats, birds, crocodiles,
tortoises, and fishes.
In England, no remains of the extinct Pachydermata of the Paris Tertiary
strata were discovered until a few years since, and they are still exceedingly
rare. There have been found in the fresh-water limestone at Binstead, near
Ryde, and at Seafield, Isle of Wight, (see Geol. I. Wight, 1854, Prefat. Note,)
teeth and portions of the jaws of two species of Anoplotherium, four of
Palæotherium, and one of Chæropotamus, an animal allied to the Hog Tribe
(Geol. Trans. 2d ser. vol. vi. pl. iv.; and Brit. Foss. Mam. p. 413, &c.).
The Hyopotamus (Lign. 257) is a genus of Anthracotherioid pachyderms,
two species of which have been determined by Prof. Owen (Quart. Geol.
Journ. vol. iv. p. 103, &c.), from specimens of teeth found in the upper eocene
of the north-west coast of the Isle of Wight, by the Marchioness of Hastings.
The Palæotherium, Dichobune, Dichodon, Paloplotherium, and others
occur in the upper eocene fresh-water deposits of Hordwell Cliff (see
Charlesworth’s Journal, No. 1, p. 5, and pl. ii.; Quart. Geol. Journ. vol. iv. p.
17, and pl. iii.; and Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1851, sect. p. 67).
Two species of a new genus, intermediate between the Hog and the
Hyrax, named by Professor Owen Hyracotherium, have been discovered in the
eocene sands at Kyson, in Suffolk, and in the London Clay of the cliffs at
Studd Hill, about a mile to the west of Herne Bay.[744] The latter specimen
consists of a mutilated skull, about the size of that of a Hare, with the molar
teeth perfect.
[744] Geol. Trans. 2d ser. vol. vi. pl. xxi. p. 203; and Brit. Foss. Mam. p.
419, &c.

The Paloplotherium, an allied genus, from Hordwell Cliff, is described in

Geol. Journ. vol. iv. p. 103.
The other large fossil Pachyderms, belonging to the two existing genera of
Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus, are found very extensively distributed in
alluvial debris, in the ossiferous breccia of caverns, and in other pleistocene
deposits; and their remains are frequently dug up in the superficial marls,
clays, gravel, and sand of England. As the teeth of these animals will
occasionally be met with by the collector, a brief explanation of their form and
structure may be useful.
 Lign. 257. Hyopotamus.
Incisor Teeth: nat. size. Upper Eocene. Isle of Wight.
Fig. 1.
Inner surface of an incisor of Hyopotamus.
—
3.
Lateral view of an upper incisor of Hyopotamus.
—
4.
Outer aspect of the crown of the same tooth.
—
5.
Inner aspect of ditto.
—
2. Lateral view of the upper incisor of recent Hog (Sus
— scrofa).
(These figures are from plate vii. Quart. Geol. Journ. vol. iv.;
but the drawings have been accidentally reversed.)

Teeth of Mammalia.[745]—The organization of the teeth in the TEETH OF MAMMALI

herbivorous mammalia essentially consists in the adaptation of the three
elements of dental structure to the peculiar conditions required by the habits
and economy of the different species. Thus, in the Elephant (Lign. 259, 260),
Horse (Lign. 263), &c., the dentine, cement, and enamel are disposed in
vertical plates more or less inflected, the enamel and cement penetrating the
body of the tooth, and embracing corresponding processes of dentine; an
arrangement by which a grinding surface, composed of three substances of
unequal densities, is produced and maintained in every state of detrition
(Owen). But these teeth do not possess the symmetrical and complicated
structure observable in those of many of the reptiles and fishes we have
previously investigated. In the carnivorous mammalia, the enamel constitutes
an external shell or case, investing the body of dentine and presenting sharp
cusps or trenchant ridges, adapted for the laceration of flesh, as in the Tiger,
or modified so as to form instruments for snapping and crushing bones, as in
the teeth of the Hyæna. In the Mastodon, the crown of the tooth, when first
emerged from the gum, presents a series of strong conical eminences (Lign.
254), that become worn down by use, at first into disks (Ly. p. 157), which,
by further detrition, coalesce. The tooth of the Elephant (Lign. 259 and 260),
on the contrary, consists of vertical plates of dentine, with an immediate
investment of enamel, over which there is an external layer of cement that
binds together the entire series of plates, often amounting to twenty or more;
the horizontal surface produced by the detrition of such a structure, gives rise
to the well-known grinding surface of the molars of the elephant (Lign. 259,
260; Wond. pp. 143 and 160; Ly. p. 159; Owens Brit. Foss. Mam. figs. 88-90,
&c.). Detached plates of the teeth of Elephants, particularly of those which
belong to the back part of the posterior grinder, and have not come into use,
are puzzling to the inexperienced collector of fossil remains; and the first
indication I obtained of the existence of the remains of fossil Elephants in
Brighton Cliffs (Wond. p. 150), was from a mass of this kind, dug up in sinking
a well in Dorset Gardens, and sent to me as a "petrified cauliflower."
[745] For the minute structure of the dental organs, the modes of
dentition prevalent in the mammalia, and the homologies of the teeth, we
must refer to Prof. Owen’s often-quoted works, the matchless
Odontography, and the lucid and compendious Article on Teeth, in the
Cyclopædia of Anatomy and Physiology.

Lign. 258. Lign. 259.

Tooth of Mastodon Tooth of Elephas
1
1 primigenius: /6 nat.
elephantoides: /6 nat.

size. size.
Upper Tertiary. Ava, Upper Tertiary. Big-
Burmah. bone-lick. N. America.
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