Chapter 45

Reproduction
 Sexual and asexual reproduction are both
common among animals

• Asexual reproduction involves the formation of individuals

whose genes all come from one parent.
• There is no fusion of sperm and egg.
• Sexual reproduction is the formation of offspring by the fusion of
haploid gametes.
• Ovum: female gamete - usually large and nonmotile.
• Sperm: male gamete - usually small and motile.
• Sexual reproduction increases genetic variation among offspring.
 Diverse mechanisms of asexual reproduction to
produce identical offspring rapidly

• Invertebrates:
• Fission: asexual reproduction in which a parent
separates into two or more approximately equal sized
individuals.
• Budding: asexual reproduction in which new
individuals split off from existing ones.
 • Fragmentation: the breaking of the body into several pieces,
some or all of which develop into complete adults.
• Requires regeneration of lost body parts.
• Advantages of asexual reproduction:
• Can reproduce without needing to find a mate
• Can have numerous offspring in a short period of time
• In stable environments, allows for the perpetuation of
successful genotypes.
 Reproductive cycles and patterns vary
extensively among mammals
• Reproductive cycles are controlled by both environmental and
hormonal cues.
• Animals may be solely asexual or sexual.
• Or they may alternate between the two modes depending on
environmental conditions.
• Daphnia reproduce by parthenogenesis (孤雌⽣殖) under
favorable conditions and sexually during times of
environmental stress.
• Sexual reproduction in sessile or burrowing
animals or parasites with difficulty encountering a
member of the opposite sex
• Hermaphroditism (兩性體): one individual is functional
as both a male and a female.
• Some self-fertilize.
• Most mate with another member of the same
species.
• Each individual receives and donates sperm.
• Results in twice as many offspring as would occur if
only one set of eggs were fertilized.
 • Sequential hermaphroditism: an individual
reverses its sex during its lifetime.
• Protogynous: female first sequential
hermaphroditism.
• Protandrous: male first sequential
hermaphroditism.

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 Internal and external fertilization both depend on
mechanisms ensuring that mature sperm encounter
fertile eggs of the same species

• Internal fertilization requires cooperative behavior that

leads to copulation (Sexual intercourse).
• External fertilization requires a moist habitat that will
protect a developing egg from desiccation and heat stress.
• Specific mating behaviors assure that sperm and egg
will be in the same place at the same time.
Ensuring the survival of offspring
1. Giant water bugs
2. Relative few offspring but
much greater parental
protection
3. After internal fertilization,
female glues fertilized eggs
to the back of the male
 An example of insect reproductive
anatomy
Accessory 1 Testis
gland

1. Sperm form in testis—through sperm

2 Vas deferens duct (Vas deferens)—stored in
4 Ejaculatory
3 Seminal seminal vesicle—ejaculation with
duct
5 Penis and
vesicle fluid from accessory gland (some
(a) Male fruit fly claspers have claspers to grasp the female)
1 Ovary
2. Eggs developed in the ovary—travel
to uterus via oviduct—after mating—
sperm stored in spermatheca—use
2 Oviduct
Spermatheca stored sperms for fertilization
Accessory Uterus
gland 3 Vulva
(b) Female fruit fly
 • The externally fertilized eggs of fishes and
amphibians are surrounded by a gelatinous coat.
• The internally fertilized amniote eggs of birds,
reptiles, and monotremes are protected by calcium
and protein shells.
• In mammals the embryo is retained within the
females reproductive tract.

Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 Reproductive Anatomy of the
Human Female
• External reproductive structures consists of two sets
of labia surrounding the clitoris and vaginal
opening.
• Internal reproductive organs consist of a pair of
gonads and a system of ducts and chambers.
• The role of the ducts and chambers is to conduct
the gametes and house the embryo and fetus.
• Ovaries are the female gonads.
• Located in the abdominal cavity.
• Flanking, and attached by mesentery to, the uterus.
• Each ovary is enclosed in a tough protective capsule.
• Each ovary contains follicles.
• Each follicle consists of one egg cell surrounded by one or
more layers of follicle cells.
• Follicles produce the primary female sex hormones:
estrogens.
• Follicle cells nourish and protect the developing egg cell.
• A woman is born with about 400,000 follicles.
• Only several hundred of which will release eggs during a
female’s reproductive years
• Usually one follicle matures and releases its egg during
each menstrual cycle.
• After ovulation the remaining follicular tissue
develops into the corpus luteum.
• Secretes estrogens and progesterone.
• Maintain the uterine
lining during pregnancy.
• If pregnancy does not
occur the corpus luteum
disintegrates.
• At ovulation the egg is released into the abdominal
cavity near the opening of the oviduct.
• The cilia-lined funnel-like opening of the oviduct
draws in the egg.
• Cilia convey the egg through the oviduct to the
uterus.
• Endometrium: highly vascularized inner lining
of the uterus.
• The neck of the uterus, the cervix, opens into
the vagina.
• Vagina: a thin-walled chamber; birth canal;
repository for sperm during copulation.
• The vaginal opening:
• Until ruptured is partially covered by the hymen.
• The vaginal and urethral openings are located within
the vestibule(⼩室).
• The vestibule is surrounded by the labia minora.
• The labia majora enclose and protect the labia
minor and vestibule.
• The clitoris is found at the front edge of the
vestibule.
• Its structure is similar to that of the penis.
• During sexual arousal:
• The clitoris, vagina, and labia engorge with blood and
enlarge.
• Bartholin’s glands: near the vaginal opening, secreting
lubricating fluid during sexual arousal
• Clitoris: shaft, glans and prepuce
Reproductive anatomy of the human male

1. Reproductive Anatomy of the Human Male.

• The scrotum and the penis are the external
components of the reproductive system.
• The internal reproductive organs consist of gonads,
accessory sex glands, and ducts.
 Testes are the male gonads
• Consists of many highly coiled seminiferous tubules
surrounded by layers of connective tissue.
• Sperm form in seminiferous tubules(曲細精管).
• Leydig cells(睪丸間質細胞), scattered between seminiferous
tubules produce androgens.
• Testes are located in the scrotum, outside the body cavity.
• From the seminiferous tubules sperm pass to the coiled
tubules of the epididymis.
• It takes about 20 days for sperm to pass through the tubules
of the epididymis.
• In the epididymis sperm become motile and gain the ability
to fertilize.
• Ejaculation propels sperm from the epididymis to the vas
deferens.
• The vas deferens run from the scrotum and behind the
urinary bladder.
• Here each vas deferens joins with a duct from the
seminal vesicle to form an ejaculatory duct.
• The ejaculatory ducts open into the urethra.
• The urethra drains both the excretory and reproductive
systems.
 Semen

• Accessory sex glands add secretions to semen.

• A pair of seminal vesicle contribute about 60% of total
semen volume.
• Seminal fluid is thick, yellowish, and alkaline.
• It contains mucus, fructose, a coagulating enzyme,
ascorbic acid, and prostaglandins.
 Prostate gland
• The prostate gland secretes directly into the urethra.
• Prostatic fluid is thin and milky.
• This fluid contains anticoagulant enzymes and
citrate.
• Prostate problems are common in males over 40.
• Benign prostate enlargement occurs in virtually all
males over 70.
• Prostate cancer is one of the most common cancers in
men.
 Bulbourethral glands
• The bulbourethral glands: a pair of small glands along the
urethra below the prostate.
• Prior to ejaculation they secrete a clear mucus that
neutralizes any acidic urine remaining in the urethra.
• Bulbourethral fluid also carries some sperm released before
ejaculation.(helping lubricate the urethra and sperm move
out)
• This is one of the reasons why the withdrawal method of
birth control has a high failure rate.
• A male usually ejaculates about 2 – 5 mL of semen each milliliter
containing about 50 – 130 million sperm.
 Ejaculation
•The penis is composed of three layers of spongy erectile tissue.
•During sexual arousal the erectile tissue fills with blood from arteries.
•The resultant increased pressure seals off the veins that drain the penis.
•The engorgement of the penis with blood causes an erection.
•An erection is essential to the insertion of the penis into the vagina.
•Impotence can result from the consumption of alcohol and other drugs,
and emotional, nervous system, or circulatory problems.
•Treatment includes drugs and penile implant devices.
•Viagra® acts by promoting the action of nitric oxide.
 Two stages of ejaculation
1. AT the peak of sexual arousal:
Muscles in epididymis, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, vas
deferens contract
A sphincter muscle at the base of the bladder contracts,
preventing urine into urethra
Another sphincter contract closing the entrance between
urethra and penis
2. In the second stage: ejaculation, sphincter at the base of
penis relaxes, semen into the penis
A series of strong muscle contractions around the base of the
penis and urethra expel the semen out of body
How hormones control sperm
production by testes?
1. The hypothalamus secrets a releasing
hormone
2. Stimulation of anterior pituitary to
release FSH and LH
3. FSH promotes sperm production by
testes
4. LH promotes androgen production,
mainly testosterone
5. Androgen mediates a negative-
feedback mechanism
The formation of sperm and ova require meiosis

Spermatogenesis : the formation of sperm cells, takes

about 65-75 days
Sperms develop in the testes in coiled tubes
(seminiferous tubules).
 Epididymis Seminiferous Key
tubule
Diploid (2n)
Haploid (n)

Lumen

Testis

Spermatogonium精原細胞
Sertoli cell
nucleus Primary
spermatocyte初級精母細胞

Secondary
spermatocyte

Spermatids精子細胞

Lumen of
seminiferous Sperm cell
tubule
 Primordial germ cell in embryo
Mitotic divisions
Spermatogonial stem cell 2n Key
Diploid (2n)
Mitotic divisions Haploid (n)
Spermatogonium 2n

Mitotic divisions

Primary spermatocyte 2n

Meiosis I

Secondary spermatocyte n n

Meiosis II

Early spermatid n n n n

Differentiation
Sperm cell n n n n
Oogenesis is the production of ova
from oogonia
• Differs from spermatogenesis in three major ways:
• At birth an ovary contains all of the primary oocytes
it will ever have.
• Unequal cytokinesis during meiosis results in the
formation of a single large secondary oocyte and
three small polar bodies.
• The polar bodies degenerate.
• Oogenesis has long “resting” periods.
• LH triggers ovulation
 Primordial germ cell Ovary
Mitotic divisions
Follicle
2n Oogonium卵原細胞
Primary oocyte
within follicle
Mitotic divisions

Primary oocyte卵母細胞
2n (present at birth), arrested Growing
IN EMBRYO in prophase of meiosis I follicle

STARTING AT Completion of meiosis I

PUBERTY and onset of meiosis II
n
n Secondary oocyte,
First arrested at metaphase
polar of meiosis II
body Mature follicle
Ovulation, sperm entry
Ruptured
follicle

Completion of meiosis II
Second Ovulated
polar n secondary oocyte
body
n Fertilized egg

Corpus luteum

Degenerating
corpus luteum
Differences between spermatogenesis
and oogenesis
1. One ovum from oogenesis and 4
sperms from spermatogenesis
2. An ovary at birth contains all the
primary oocytes, testes produces
new spermatocytes
3. Oogenesis is not completed without
sperm stimulation.
4. Sperm stimulates 2nd oocyte to
complete the meiosis II
 STARTING AT
IN EMBRYO PUBERTY

Primary
oocyte
within
follicle

Corpus luteum
Growing Mature follicle
follicle
Ruptured
follicle Degenerating
corpus luteum

Ovulated
secondary oocyte
 Hormonal control of the male
reproductive system
Hypothalamus

GnRH

Anterior pituitary

FSH LH
feedback

feedback
Negative

Negative
Sertoli cells Leydig cells

Inhibin Testosterone

Spermatogenesis

TESTIS
 The Female Pattern
• A cyclic pattern of hormone secretion and reproductive events.

• Humans and many other primates have menstrual cycles.

• If pregnancy does not occur the endometrium is shed through

the cervix and vagina: menstruation.

• Other mammals have estrous cycles(動情週期).

• If pregnancy does not occur the endometrium is reabsorbed by

the uterus.

• Associated with more pronounced behavioral cycles than are

menstrual cycles.
The Reproductive Cycle of the Human
Female
• Menstrual cycle: changes that occur in the uterus.
• Day 1: the first day of menstruation.
a. Menstrual flow phase.
• Menstrual bleeding.
• Usually lasts for a few days.
b. Proliferative phase.
• Regeneration and thickening of the endometrium.
• About 1 – 2 weeks in duration.
• c. Secretory phase.
Continued endometrial thickening, increased vascularization of the
endometrium, endometrium develops glands that secrete a
glycogen-rich fluid, and a duration of about 2 weeks.
 Ovarian cycle
• Follicular phase.
• Several ovarian follicles begin to grow.
• The developing egg enlarges.
• Coat of follicle cells thickens.
• Usually only one follicle continues to develop, the
others disintegrate.
• The follicular phase ends with ovulation.
• Follicle and adjacent wall of the ovary rupture
• Secondary oocyte is released.
• Luteal phase.
• Follicular tissue remaining in the ovary develops
into the corpus luteum.
• Secretes estrogens and progesterone.
• Hormonal coordination of the menstrual and ovarian
cycles involves five hormones.
• Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) secreted
by the hypothalamus.
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) secreted by the
anterior pituitary.
• Luteinizing hormone (LH) secreted by the anterior
pituitary.
• Estrogens secreted by the ovaries.
• Progesterone黃體激素secreted by the ovaries.
 The human sexual response occurs in
four phases
1. Excitement phase: sexual passion builds, the penis and
clitoris become erect, the testes, labia, and nipple may
swell
2. Plateau phase: increases in breathing and heart rates
3. Orgasm: rhythmic contractions of the reproductive
structures, extreme pleasure for both, ejaculation by the
male
4. Resolution phase: the structure returns to normal size
STDs: sexually
transmissible diseases

Gonorrhea: 淋病
Syphilis:梅毒
• Sperm structure:
• Haploid nucleus.
• Tipped with an acrosome.
• Contains enzymes that help
the sperm penetrate to the
egg.
• A large number
of mitochondria
provide ATP to
power the
flagellum.
原腸形成

原腸或胚囊之消化道

原腸胚
Notochord: from mesoderm above the archenteron
Somites: blocks of mesoderm that will give rise to segmental structure
Coelom or body cavity: the mesoderm next to the somites is
developing a hollow space
Changes in cell shape, cell migration, and programmed
cell death give form to the developing animal

Changes in cell shape in neural tube

formation
1. Neural tube is covered by an outer
layer of ectoderm
2. The neural tube is destined to
become the brain and spinal cord
3. Cell migration
4. Programmed cell death or apoptosis
Programmed cell death or apoptosis
 Embryonic induction initiates organ formation
1. The eye begins to take shape an out growth of the developing brain
(optic vesicle) and cells on the body surface (the lens ectoderm)
2. Earlier induction, some of the cells in optic vesicle and lens ectoderm
undergo shape changes and inward, forming optic cup, which become the
retina (視網膜), and the optic stalk (will be optic nerve)
3. Cells of optic cup induce the lens ectoderm to start forming the lens of eyes
4. Cells of the developing lens induce development of the cornea (角膜)
The embryo and placenta take shape during the first month of pregnancy
1. Pregnancy: gestation, carrying of developing young within the female
reproductive tract, last about 266 days (38 weeks)
2. Blastocyte: a fluid-filled cavity, and an outer layer of cells called trophoblast.
3. Trophoblast secrets enzyme to let blastocyst to implant in the endometrium
4. Placenta: formed by trophoblast cells partly for nourishment and oxygen to the
embryo
Blastocyst:
6 days after
conception
Extraembryonic membrane: develop as attachments to
the embryo and help support it, produced by yellow cells,
purple cells and some trophoblast cells.
Embryonic layers and extraembryonic membranes starting
to form (9 days)
1. Amnion form purple cells; yolk sac from yellow cells;
chorion partly from trophoblast
2. Have three layers: ectoderm (blue), endoderm (yellow),
and mesoderm (pink)
Three-layered embryo and four extraembryonic membranes (16 days)
1. The fourth membrane, allantois, developing as an extension of the yolk
sac.
Embryo develop from the three layers
1. Ectoderm: the outer part of the embryo’s skin, continuous with amnion
2. Digestive tract is from the endoderm layer, continuous with yolk sac
 Placenta formed (31 days)
1. Amnion has grown to enclose the embryo, and amniotic cavity is filled with fluid to
protect the embryo
2. The yolk sac contains no yolk, but produces first blood cells and first germ cells,
for gamete-forming cells in the gonads
3. The allantois, remain small in mammals, and form a part of umbilical cord
4. The chorion from trophoblast and mesoderm cells of yolk cells, and becomes part
of the placenta
5. HCG releases from the cells in chorion, maintaining the corpus luteum at first 3 M

6.The placenta: No direct interaction

between mother’s and baby’s blood
 Childbirth is hormonally induced and
occurs in three stages
1. Labor: a series of strong rhythmic contractions of the
uterus.
2. Hormones play key roles in inducing labor
3. Estrogen: reaches a high level in mother ’s blood, and
increasing oxytocin receptors on the uterus
4. Oxytocin: a powerful stimulant for the smooth muscles
in the wall of the uterus to contract, and make PGs to
induce contraction more
5. A positive-feed back control.
The three stages of labor
1. Dilation, the time from the onset of
labor until cervix reaches full dilation
about 10 cm
2. From full dilation called expulsion
stage. Uterine contraction lasting
about 1 min/each, occur every 2-3
mins
3. The final stage, the delivery of the
placenta usually within 15 mins after
birth of the baby