Efficiency of Cow Bone Ash (CBA) In Mitigating Alkali Silica Reaction

(ASR) Based On Accelerated Mortar Bar Test (AMBT) In Concrete

Pavements
A. Adanikin1, F. A. Falade2, A. O. Olutaiwo3
1 - Dept. of Civil Engineering, Elizade University, Ilara-Mokin, Ondo State, Nigeria.
2,3 - Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Nigeria.
Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Nigerian roads which are predominantly flexible pavements are in a deteriorated state and requires
frequent maintenance before the expiration of their design life. Rigid/Concrete pavements serves as a better
alternative to flexible pavements on the long term considering their ability to contain higher traffic load,
constructed over a weak subgrade, requiring little maintenance and many much benefits. Concrete pavements
however are susceptible to Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR) which compromises the strength and morphological
properties of the pavement. This has necessitated studies on the use of supplementary cementitious materials
(SCMs) to reduce the effect of ASR and enhance the properties of the concrete pavement. The efficiency of SCMs
such as Cow Bone Ash (CBA) to partially replace cement and mitigate the effect of ASR in concrete is researched in
this study. This will help reduce the menace of greenhouse gas emission that results from the production of
cement required for concrete pavement construction. Concrete bars of known dimensions were constructed with
th th
partial replacement of cement by CBA (0%-30%). The expansion of the concrete bars was measured on the 7 , 14
th
and 28 day of immersion in 1M NaOH. The concrete bars expansion values are then compared to VicRoads 610
and ASTM C1260 standards to determine the concrete reactivity classification. The study revealed that at above
15% CBA replacement levels, cow bone ash is efficient for use in rigid pavements for mitigating the effects of Alkali
Silica Reaction. The regression analysis of concrete cubes expansion against percentage of CBA replacement
indicates a high level of relationship between both variables. This indicates that the higher the level of CBA
addition, the lower the level of concrete expansion and lower level of ASR attack in the Portland cement/rigid
pavement. Recommendations on how ASR can be mitigated in new and existing structures are highlighted.

Keywords: Cow Bone Ash (CBA), Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR), Accelerated Mortar Bar Test (AMBT), Concrete
Pavements

1.0 INTRODUCTION
The recent move by the Nigerian government to embrace the construction of roads using
concrete pavement necessitates the studies about the defects that limit the efficiency of
concrete pavements and how to mitigate them. A report by World Health Organization (WHO)
in 2015 stated that Nigerian roads are the most dangerous in Africa stating that it has a 33.7%
fatality per hundred thousand road users yearly and that road accidents is the third leading
cause of death in Nigeria (Iroegbu, 2015). Though other factors such as the recklessness of
drivers, poor maintenance of vehicles and the highly deteriorated roads with several bad spots
account for these, the use of asphalt roads which is less durable compared to concrete roads
contributes to road failure. Due to rigidity and high tensile strength, concrete pavements tends
to distribute traffic load over a relatively wide area of sub-grade and the major portion of
structural capacity is supplied by the concrete slab itself (Anastasios & Ioannides, 2015).
Concrete pavements are used for heavier loads and can be constructed over relatively poor
sub-grade (Sanjeev, 2012).

1
For concrete pavements to achieve the thirty plus + (30+) year service life defined by American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) for road pavements, the
characterization of the long-term resistance of the concrete to sulfate attack, aggregate
reactions, corrosion, and freeze-thaw action is essential. A major cause of road deterioration in
concrete pavements is Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) that causes expansive swelling and cracks,
which expand over time leading to the pavements damage. Several studies have revealed the
damaging effects of ASR in concrete pavements. Pereira (2014) revealed that Alkali-Silica
reactions are expansive in nature and occur in most Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) and it
fracture aggregates and surrounding paste resulting in the concretes cracking, popouts and
spalling. Mikata et al., (2012) found that at least 30 cases of fractured bars have been
discovered in structures also damaged by ASR and they found that when stirrup fracture is
combined with corrosion of the reinforcement, the risk of decreased structural performance is
increased. Pyy et al., (2012) found that cracks which originate from ASR are a consequence of
swelling from the uptake of water by ASR gel. This cracking is characterized by a network of fine
cracks joined up in polygonal shapes and confined by larger cracks in a pattern that resembles
the limits in a map and is named ‘map cracking’. Also, Blight and Alexander (2011) indicated
that mechanical properties are degraded when concrete suffers from ASR.
Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) such as CBA can be used to improve concrete
performance in its fresh and hardened state as they contribute to the properties of the
concrete through hydraulic or pozzolanic activity. They are primarily used for improving the
concretes workability, durability and strength. These SCMs materials allow the concrete
producer to design and modify the concrete mixture to suit the desired application. Concrete
mixtures with high portland cement contents are susceptible to cracking and increased heat
generation. These effects can be controlled to a certain degree by using supplementary
cementitious materials such as CBA. Studies such as Eme and Ekwulo (2018) revealed that
applications of crushed glass in replacing fine aggregates in concrete is limited due to the
damaging expansion in the concrete caused by alkali-silica reaction (ASR) between high-alkali
pore water in cement paste and reactive silica in the waste glasses. Dickson (2015) stated that
all of the Class C fly ash sources tested improved the behavior of the cementitious system,
except Muskogee fly ash used at a 20 percent replacement rate and therefore recommended
Class C fly ash to mitigate ASR. Adams (2012) posited that supplementary cementitious
materials (SCMs) can effectively mitigate ASR in concrete made with Recycled Concrete
Aggregate (RCA). A 40% replacement of Portland cement with class F fly ash was able to reduce
expansions to below 0.10% in the AMBT for concrete containing 100% of a highly reactive
recycled concrete aggregate. In addition, the blend of Portland cement with a class F fly ash
(metakaolin) was most effective for both RCAs tested in the study and higher levels of
mitigation may be required for some RCAs, compared to the level required to mitigate ASR in
concrete made with their original natural aggregates, depending on the age and composition of
the RCA. Martin et al. (2012) reported a compressive strength gain of 70% for laboratory
cylinders that expanded 0.20% from ASR, which they attributed to a “self-healing” effect from
continued hydration of cement in the moist storage conditions. Corresponding cylinders
affected by Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF) experienced a similar decrease in compressive
strength at much higher expansions (approximately 1.5%); they suggested that the rate of DEF

2
expansion exceeded the rate at which the concrete could heal itself. Okeyinka et al., (2018)
stated that the durability performance of CBA under aggressive condition has been analyzed to
be more effective at 10% replacement ratio. Adanikin et al., (2019) using electrical resistivity
test concluded that ASR and reinforcement corrosion can be effectively controlled between
15% and 20% cement replacement by CBA in concrete/rigid pavements.
Cow bones are readily available as wastes in Nigeria with Lagos alone accounting for more than
6000 slaughtered cattle per day and Nigeria as a whole slaughtering about 90000 cows daily
with the country producing 13.8 million cattle yearly (Eze, 2017). This indicates the availability
of the cow bones in commercial quantity. Bones generally takes time to decay, which could be
millions of years and if not properly disposed off, defaces the environment. Bones have been
confirmed as a pozzolanic in nature by researchers such as Falade et al., (2012) thereby making
it fit for use in Alkali-Silica Reaction studies. The Accelerated Mortar Bar Test (AMBT) helps to
determine the susceptibility of aggregates to alkali attack that leads to expansive reactions and
deterioration in concrete. The test also shows a good agreement between supplementary
cementitious materials (SCM’s) and aggregates by demonstrating a reasonable correlation
between the 2-year expansion test (ASTM C1293, 2018) and the 14-day expansion of
accelerated mortar bar test ASTM C1260 (2009) making it widely acceptable. This study
therefore investigated the application of accelerated mortar bar test in determining the effect
of ASR on concrete pavements on addition of CBA at varying percentage replacements; ranging
from 0% to 30% over a 28 days’ experimental plan.
2.0 MATERIALS AND METHOD USED
Cow bones used in this study were collected as refuse from abattoirs in Akure, Ondo State,
Nigeria where cows are being slaughtered for consumption. The cow bones were sun dried in
open air and burnt to ash in an electric furnace (Carbolite GPC 12/65) at 750°C for 90 minutes.
The clinker was grinded to fine powder and passed through the 150μm sieve. The sharp sand
and granite used were obtained from Akure, Ondo State. Nigeria. The cement used was
Dangote 3X 42.5R from Dangote Portland Cement Company distributors in Ondo State. The
testing program conducted on the materials (cement, sand, coarse aggregate and cow bone
ash) includes determination of their physical and chemical properties in their natural state by
carrying out sieve analysis test, chemical analysis and specific gravity. The proportioning of the
concrete components including water was done according to Road Note 4 methodology. The
concrete is then modified with partial substitution of cement with 0%-30% variation of the
selected pozzolan (Cow Bone Ash) and accelerated mortar bar test (7th, 14th and 28th day).

2.1 Accelerated Mortar Bar Test

The accelerated mortar bar test is predicated on the basis that ASR causes expansion in
concrete and this expansion can be used as a measure of the effect of CBA in suppressing ASR.
Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) is used in preparing the solution for concrete immersion. Sodium
Chloride is used in the accelerated ageing of the concrete sample because it is an activator of
alkali which then accelerates the ASR reaction in the concrete.
Molar mass of elemental composition of NaOH (Na – 22.989, O – 15.999, H – 1.008) is
calculated as shown in equation 1 and One Molar (1 M) of reagent is added to 2.5 liters of
water to determine the required molar mass of NaOH as shown in equation 2.

3
NaOH = 22.989 + 15.999 + 1.008 = 40 1
Molar Mass of NaOH = 40 * 1M * 2.5 (l) = 100g of NaOH 2
Weight of the samples before and after immersion, the density and change length before and
after immersion in concrete were also recorded and this is shown in Table 1. The expansion of
the concrete cubes which is an indication of the suppressing effect of Alkali Silica Reaction is
calculated by the formula as shown in equation 3:
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿)−𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑎𝑎𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝐿𝐿𝑜𝑜)
Concrete expansion = 3
𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿ℎ 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐿𝐿 𝑎𝑎𝑜𝑜𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝑎𝑎 𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿𝑇𝑇𝐿𝐿 (𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿)
Concrete bars with expansion values greater than the standard are considered deleterious
materials and shows high level of ASR attack. Concrete bars with expansion values equal to the
standard are considered slowly reactive to ASR attack. Subsequently, concretes bars with
expansion values less than the expansion values are considered free from ASR attack.

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The result assessment is made by measuring the increase in length of representative mortar
bars containing with and without CBA, during storage under prescribed test conditions of high
temperature. Table 1 shows the changes in weight of the concrete cubes samples before and
after immersion in 100g of NaOH at 80oC for 28 days.

Table 1: Accelerated Mortar Bar Test Result Readings

CBA Replacement (%) Weight of Sample Before Weight of Sample After Immersion
Immersion (g) (g)
0 410 454
5 510 530
10 404 424
15 458 488
20 418 490
30 342 372

Table 2 and 3 shows the obtained and standard specification and classification for ASR
expansion in concrete. Figures 1, 2 and 3 shows the changes in expansion of the concrete
cubes samples before and after immersion in 100g of NaOH at 80oC at the 7th, 14th and 28th
days.

Table 2: Concrete Cubes Expansion Result

CBA Replacement (%) Concrete Cubes Expansion
7th Day 14th Day 28th Day
0 0.050 0.610 0.072
5 0.030 0.034 0.041
10 0.022 0.030 0.034
15 0.013 0.015 0.018
20 0.015 0.017 0.018
30 0.006 0.009 0.013

4
Table 3: Standard Concrete Reactivity Classification
Mortar Bar Expansion (%) in 1M NaOH (80%) Classification
VicRoads Standard Specification Section 610 ASTM C1260 ASTM C 1293
10 Days 21 Days 14 Days 28 Days
< 0.010* < 0.010* < 0.020 < 0.040 Non-reactive
= 0.010* = 0.010* = 0.020 = 0.040 Slowly
reactive
> 0.010* > 0.010* > 0.020 > 0.040 Reactive
*0.015% for naturally occurring fine aggregate

0.06 Concrete Cube

Expansion (7th
0.05 Day)
Concrete Expansion Values

0.04 VicRoads 610

Standard
0.03
ASTM C1260
0.02 Standard

0.01
y = -0.0013x + 0.0402 ASTM C1293
R² = 0.8219 Standard
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
CBA Replacement (%)

Figure 1: Graph of Concrete Cubes Expansion at the 7th Day

5
 0.07 Concrete Cube
Expansion
0.06 (14th Day)
Concrete Expansion Values

VicRoads 610
0.05 Standard

0.04
ASTM C1260
0.03 Standard

0.02
ASTM C1293
Standard
0.01
y = -0.0016x + 0.0487
R² = 0.7983
0 Linear
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 (Concrete Cube
CBA Replacement (%) Expansion
(14th Day))

Figure 2: Graph of Concrete Cubes Expansion at the 14th Day

0.08 Concrete Cube
Expansion
0.07 (28th Day)
Concrete Expansion Values

0.06 VicRoads 610

Standard
0.05

0.04 ASTM C1260

Standard
0.03
ASTM C1293
0.02
Standard
0.01 y = -0.0018x + 0.0566
R² = 0.7739 Linear
0
(Concrete Cube
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 Expansion
CBA Replacement (%) (28th Day))

Figure 3: Graph of Concrete Cubes Expansion at the 28th Day

Findings of the study as shown in Table 2 reveals that the expansion of the concrete cube is
0.050, 0.030, 0.022, 0.013, 0.015 and 0.006 at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 30% CBA
replacement levels respectively on the 7th day. The regression relationship y = -0.0013x +
0.0402, shows a R2 value of 0.8219. Concrete cube expansion values of 0.610, 0.034, 0.030,
0.015, 0.017 and 0.009 at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 30% CBA replacement levels respectively
on the 14th day. The regression relationship y = -0.0016x + 0.0487, shows a R2 value of 0.7983.
For the 28th day, the concrete expansion values are 0.072, 0.041, 0.034, 0.018, 0.018 and 0.013
at 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 30% CBA replacement levels respectively. The regression
relationship y = -0.0018x + 0.0566, shows a R2 value of 0.7739. This indicates a high level of
relationship between the CBA addition and concrete expansion.

6
According to the VicRoads standard specification, concrete cubes with expansion values greater
than or equals 0.015 (expansion ≥ 0.015) are considered non- reactive, those with expansion
values equals to 0.015 considered slowly reactive and expansion values greater than 0.015
indicates highly reactive concrete. The study reveals that at the 7th day, only the 30% CBA
addition concrete bars indicates a non-reactive effect of ASR while the 15% and 30% CBA
replacement levels shows a slowly reactive ASR effect. At the 14th and 28th days only the 30%
CBA replacement shows a non-reactive concrete bar.
According to the ASTM C1260 which indicates that concrete with greater than 0.02 signifies
deleterious materials and highly prone to ASR attack and concretes with expansion values less
than 0.02 (expansion < 0.02) are considered free from ASR attack. The study revealed that on
the 7th, 14th and 28th days, concrete bars at 15%, 20% and 30% are free from ASR attack. The
ASTM C1293 shows that concrete bars of 0.04 (expansion > 0.04) are considered deleterious
materials and shows high level of ASR attack and concretes with expansion values less than 0.02
(expansion < 0.04) are considered free from ASR attack. The study shows that at the 7th day, the
concrete bars at 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 30% CBA replacement levels are non-reactive/non-
delirious. The 14th and 28th day results shows that the 0% and 5% concrete bars will be reactive
to ASR effect which allows for concrete deterioration.
Table 4 and Figure 4 shows the average concrete cubes expansion results for the experimental
days.

Table 4: Average Concrete Cubes Expansion Result

CBA Replacement (%) Average Concrere Cube Expansion
0 0.061
5 0.035
10 0.029
15 0.015
20 0.016
30 0.009

7
 0.07
Average Concrere
0.06 Cube Expansion
Concrete Expansion Values

0.05 VicRoads 610

Standard
0.04
ASTM C1260
0.03 Standard

0.02
ASTM C1293
Standard
0.01
y = -0.0016x + 0.0485
R² = 0.799 Linear (Average
0
Concrere Cube
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Expansion)
Average CBA Replacement (%)

Figure 4: Graph of Average Concrete Cubes Expansion

The average concrete bar expansion is adjudged based on the ASTM C1260 standard
considering its value range between the VicRoads and the ASTM C1293 standards. The study
revealed that concrete bars with 0%, 5% and 10% CBA replacement had expansion values of
0.061, 0.035 and 0.029. These values are higher than the 0.02 specification. Concrete
pavements made from these CBA (0%, 5%, 10%) replacement levels will be delirious concrete
and thereby not good to be used in concrete pavement construction as Alkali-Silica Reaction
(ASR) is bound to happen especially at the 0% CBA replacement sample.

The study also indicated that concrete bars with 15%, 20% and 30% CBA replacement had
expansion values of 0.015, 0.016 and 0.009. These values are lower than the 0.02 specification.
Concrete pavements made from these CBA (15%, 20%, 30%) replacement levels are therefore
less likely to be susceptible/reactive to ASR. This shows that the 15%, 20% and 30% CBA
replacement samples will be good for use in concrete pavements. The study also reveals that
the higher the addition of CBA into the concrete samples, the effect of ASR are reduced in the
Portland cement/rigid pavements. This is further revealed in Figure 4 where the regression
analysis of concrete cubes expansion against % of CBA replacement indicates a high level of
relationship between both variables with 79.9% level of relation. This indicates that the higher
the level of CBA addition, the lower the level of concrete expansion and lower level of ASR
attack in the concrete pavement.
4.0 Conclusion
Roads are highly important infrastructures that are essential for the social and economic
growth of any country. Nigerian road pavements however are in such a deplorable state.
Majority of Nigerian road pavements are flexible pavements and they are unable to be in good
state before their design life elapses and requires frequent maintenance. Rigid pavements
though more expensive at initial construction, are able to withstand higher traffic loads,
requires lower maintenance and helps in fuel savings for vehicles. Alkali silica reaction however

8
limits the durability and functionality of the concrete. The experimental study employed
accelerated mortar bar test (AMBT) to determine the effect of cow bone ash in mitigating ASR
in concrete pavements. The study revealed that the addition of cow bone ash as a
supplementary cementitious material in concrete pavements helps in mitigating the effect of
ASR in concrete pavements. At 15% - 30% CBA replacement the study revealed that the
pavement is less likely to be susceptible/reactive to ASR. The analysis of concrete cubes
expansion against percentage (%) of CBA replacement indicates a high level of relationship
between both variables with 79.9% level of relation. The use of CBA will also lead to reduction
in cement production and requirement for concrete pavements constructions. This will
therefore help reduce Carbon dioxide (CO2) and greenhouse gas emission as a result of de-
carbonation of limestone in the kiln during manufacture of cement and the combustion of fossil
fuel.
Recommendations on how ASR can be mitigated in new and existing structures includes crack
filling, restraining or stress relieving actions on the concrete pavement. Crack filling can be for
aesthetic purposes, but also works as a sealant for external moisture or chloride ions.
Restraining the structure or structural elements is in order to prevent further expansion, or to
strengthen or stabilize the structural element. Treating the cause of ASR is the most long-lasting
solution but can be time-consuming or difficult to implement on an existing construction. In
order to make the chemical expanding reaction to stop, it is necessary to remove one of the
driving factors of the reaction, i.e. alkali, silica or water. Chemical treatments or injections, such
as use of lithium compounds, can alter the chemical balance in the concrete and this will help
to decrease the supply of water in the concrete pavement by controlling the moisture levels
and acting as sealants, cladding for the concrete pavement. Substituting a portion of cement
with a pozzolan such as cow bone ash (CBA) in concrete mix, reduces the formation of the
alkali-silica gel that expands and causes deterioration. The fly ash reacts with calcium hydroxide
to produce calcium-silicate hydrates and calcium-aluminate hydrates, rendering less calcium
hydroxide for ASR. In proper proportions, this reaction with pozzolans (CBA) reduces the
permeability and improves the long-term strength of the concrete pavement.

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