HUMAN ANATOMY PRELIM TERM

BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN
AND PHYSIOLOGY NURSING 1

MC 102NUR FACILITATOR: MA. DJOCELLE

LECTURE / SECOND SEMESTER C. MALICAD
SY. 2021-2022
SAINT PAUL UNIVERSITY – PHILIPPINES

WEEK 4 muscles, and the connective tissues are located in fats and
others of padded tissues, bones
TISSUES, MEMBRANES, INFAMMATION AND TISSUE
REPAIR

Tissue
 group of specialized cells and the extracellular matrix
 provides an understanding how cells are organized
 has a structure that relates to the function of the organ
where it is found

So, in some ways the human body is like a complex machine, for
example all parts of an automobile cannot be made from a single
type of material. A metal which is capable of withstanding the
heat of an engine cannot be used for windows or tires.

Similarly, the many parts of the human body are made of

collections of specialized cells and the material surrounding
them.

Muscles that contract to produce body movements have a

different structure and functions from epithelial cells that protect,
secret or absorb. So, what is that tissue? A tissue is a group of
cells with similar structure and function as well as similar
extracellular cellular substances located between the cells.
Knowledge of the tissues structure and function is important in
understanding how individual cells are organized to form tissue
and how tissues are organized to form organs, organ system and
complete organism. So, there is a relationship between the
structure of each tissue type and its function and between the
tissue in an organ and organ’s function. So, development,
growth, aging, trauma, and diseases results from changes in
tissues.

Four Types of Tissue

1. Connective
2. Epithelial
3. Muscle
4. Nervous

So, these are the four basic tissue types in no particular order
epithelial, connective, muscle and nervous tissues but in some
textbook, they consider the blood and lymph or liquid tissue as
the fifth time but in our reference it is included in the connective
Types of Tissue
tissue. So, in this chapter it emphasizes epithelial and connective
tissue, muscle and nervous tissues will be discussed in more EPITHELIAL TISSUE
detail in later chapters. So, when you say epithelium, it is all  mostly composed of cells, with very little matrix
about cells while connective tissues are cells living in background connections
matrix which are pretty much of water and some protein with  covers body surfaces
some fibers. Muscle tissues has three kinds: the skeletal, smooth  has distinct basement membrane and cell surfaces:
and cardiac, and nervous tissue is very unique because of the o free (apical) surface
neuron shape. Nervous tissues are located in the brain, spinal o lateral surface
cord and nerves while epithelial tissues are located in the lining of o basal surface
gastrointestinal tract and hollow organs and in the skin surfaces.
Muscle tissues are also located in the heart, smooth and skeletal

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 o secreting substances
o absorbing substances
o Protecting underlying structures - for example the outer
layer of skin and epithelium of the oral cavity protect the
underlying structures from abrasion.
o Acting as barrier - epithelium prevents many substances
from moving through it, for example the skin acts as a
barrier to water and reduces water loss from the body. The
skin also prevents many toxic molecules and
microorganisms from entering the body
o Permitting passage of substances - through epithelium,
acts as a barrier for some substances, it also permits
- These are found throughout the body where it covers many other substances to move through it, for example
internal and external surfaces. The characteristics oxygen and carbon dioxide our exchanged between the air
common to most type of epithelial tissues are mostly and blood by diffusion through the epithelium in the lungs.
composed of cells, it consists of almost entirely of cell with So epithelium act as a filter in the kidney allowing many
very little extracellular matrix between them. It covers well substances to pass from the blood into the urine but
the surfaces and forms glands that are derived retaining other substances such as blood, blood cells and
developmentally from body surfaces which include the proteins in the blood.
exterior surface, the lining of the digestive and respiratory o Secreting substances - mucous glands sweat glands,
tract, the heart and blood vessels and the linings of many and then some secreting portion of the pancreas are all
body cavities. composed of epithelial cells that secrete their products
- It also has distinct cell surfaces, the basement membrane unto surface or into ducts that carry them to other areas of
and cell surfaces called/or the free or optical surface, the the body
lateral surface and the basal surface. Shown in the figure, o Absorbing substances - the plasma membrane of a
most epithelial tissues have one free or apical surface certain epithelial tissue contained carrier or things which
where cells are exposed and not attached to other cells. regulate the absorption of materials
The cells or lateral surface where cells are attached to  classified in terms of number of layers, cell shape, and
other epithelial cells, and at the base of the cell is what presence of special features:
you call the basal surface attached to a basement o simple epithelium ~ squamous, cuboidal,
membrane. columnar
- The free surface often lines the lumen of ducts, vessels o stratified epithelium ~ squamous, cuboidal,
and cavities and also, the basement membrane is a transitional
specialized type of extracellular material secreted by o pseudo stratified epithelium ~ columnar
epithelial and connective tissues. It helps attach the - The classification of epithelial tissues official tissues are
epithelial cells to the underlying tissues and also, it plays classified primarily according to the number of cells the
an important role in supporting and guiding cells during cell layer and the shape of the superficial cells. There
tissue repair. are three major types of epithelium based on the
- The basement membrane is typically porous which allows number of cell layers in each.
substances to move to and from the epithelial tissues o simple epithelium ~ squamous, cuboidal,
above it. A few epithelial tissues such as those and columnar
lymphatic capillaries and liver sinusoids do not have - Simple epithelium consists of single layer
basement membranes, and some epithelial tissues such of cells with each cell extending from the
as those in some endocrine glands do not have a free basement membrane to the free surface.
surface or a basal surface with a basement membrane. o stratified epithelium ~ squamous, cuboidal,
 cell and cell matrix connection transitional
 nonvascular, but gases and nutrients reach the tissue - The stratified epithelium consists of more
through diffusion than one layer of cells but only the basal
 capable of regeneration layer attaches the deepest layer to the
- Epithelial tissue is a cell and cell matrix connection. basement membrane.
Specialized cell especially cell contacts binds adjacent o pseudo stratified epithelium ~ columnar
epithelial cells together and to the extracellular matrix of - The pseudo stratified columnar epithelial is
the basement membrane. Avascular, meaning absence a special type of simple epithelium.
or non-vascular but has a nerve. Blood vessels in the Pseudo means false so this type of
underlying connective tissues do not penetrate the epithelium appears to be stratified but it’s
basement membrane to reach the epithelium thus, all not, it consists of one-layer cell with all the
gases and nutrients carried in the blood must reach the cells attached to the basement membrane.
epithelium by diffusing from blood vessels across the There appear to be two or more layers of
basement membrane. In epithelial tissues with many cells because some of the cells are tall and
layers, diffusion must also occur across cells and the extend to the free surface whereas others
most metabolically active cells are close to the are shorter and do not extend to the free
basement membrane. Also, epithelial tissue is capable surface.
of regeneration so it has the ability to replace damaged
cells with new epithelial cells. The undifferentiated cell
or stem cells continuously divide and produce new cells
in some types of epithelial tissues such as those in the
skin and the digestive tract with new cells continuously
replace cells that dies.

 works by:
o protecting underlying structures
o acting as barrier
o permitting passage of substances

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 ciliated cells these are often located in the kidney tubules,
glands and their ducts, corrid/quarried? plexus of the
brain, lining of terminal bronchioles of the lungs, and
surfaces of the ovaries.
- Simple columnar epithelium. These are also single
layered of tall, narrow cells. Some cells have cilia like the
bronchioles of the lungs or the torry? Tubes, uterine tubes
and uterus, or microvilli in the intestines. They function as
they moved particles out of the bronchioles of the lungs by
ciliated cells and also, partially responsible for the
movement of oocytes or the egg cells before maturation
through the uterine tubes by ciliated cells, secretions by
cell of the glands the stomach and intestines and also
absorption by cells of the small and large intestine. These
often located in the glands and some ducts, the
bronchioles of the lungs, auditory, stomach, intestines,
bladder, bile ducts, ventricles of the brain.
- Stratified squamous epithelium. It also consists of
several layers of cells near the basement membrane. The
cells are more cube shape but at the free surface, the cells
are flat or scale-like. The structure is multiple layers of
- Squamous. Cells are flat or a scale-like cells that are cube shaped in the basal layer, progressively
flattened toward the surface. The epithelium can be
- Cuboidal or cube-like - Cells are cube in shape about
nonkeratinized or moist or keratinized. In non-keratinized
as wide as they are tall
stratified squamous, epithelium in the surface cell retain in
- Columnar. The tall and thin similar to a column. Cells
nucleus and cytoplasm. So, in the keratinized stratified
tend to be taller than they are wide.
epithelium, the cytoplasm of the cell at the surface is
placed by a protein called keratin and the cells are dead.
So, the function of this is protection against abrasion, a
barrier against infection, reduction of water loss from the
body. So, the location of the keratinized is primarily in the
skin. The nonkeratinized are found in mouth, throat,
larynx, esophagus, anus, vagina, inferior urethra or
cornea. So, the stratified cuboidal epithelium structure is
multiple layers of somewhat cube shaped cells and their
function is secretion, absorption, protection against
infection. These are located in the sweat glands, ovarian
follicular cells and the salivary gland ducts.
- Stratified columnar epithelial. The structure is also
multiple layers with tall, thin resting on layers of more cube
cells and the cells are also situated in the larynx. Their
function also is for protection and secretion, and these are
also located in the mammary gland, ducts, the larynx a
portion of male urethra
- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium or the ciliated cells –
these cells are columnar in shape, taller than they are
wide and although they appear to consist of more than one
layer, all the cells rest on the basement membrane. So
- When you see an epithelium, these are arranged in an their function is to synthesize and secrete mucus into the
orderly manner. We will see them in one layer which is the free surface. They move mucus or fluid that contains
simple or stacked which is the stratified arrangement. foreign particles over the surface of the free surface and
There are three types of epithelium based on idealized passages. So, they are located in the lining of Nasal
shapes of the epithelial cells cavities and tissues, nasal sinus, auditory tubes, pharynx,
- In most cases, epithelium is given two names such as trachea, bronchi of the lungs.
simple squamous, stratified squamous, simple columnar or
pseudostratified columnar. The first name indicates the
number of layers and the second name indicates the Free cell surfaces
shape of the sales at the free surface. So, we will discuss - Free cell surfaces face or faces of epithelial tissues can be
them one by one
smooth or folded. They may have microvilli or cilia.
- Simple squamous epithelium consists of one layer of flat
Smooth surfaces reduce friction for example the lining of
of hexagonal or scale-like. These are the cells that rest on
blood vessel is a simple squamous epithelium that
the basement membrane, these are found where diffusion
reduces friction as blood flows through the vessels.
or filtration takes place. So, like the lining of blood vessels
Microvilli or extensions of cell that greatly increase free
and the heart, the lymphatic vessels, small ducts, alveoli of
surface area. They occur in cells that absorb or secrete
the lungs, portions of the kidney tubules, linings of serous
such as serous membrane and the lining of the small
membrane of the body cavities like the pleural, pericardial,
intestines. Microvilli are motile and contain microfilaments.
peritonial and inner surface of the tympanic membrane
- Simple cuboidal epithelial. The structure is a single layer
Stereocilia
of cube shaped cells. Some cells have microvilli like the
- elongated form of microvilli found in sensory
kidneys, kidney tubules or cilia in the terminal bronchioles
structures, such as the inner ear
of the lungs. The function is also secretion and absorption
- sound detection
by cells of the kidney tubules. Secretion by the cells on the
glands and quarried? plexus also, movement of particles
embedded in the mucus out of the terminal bronchioles by

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 - Stereocilia - Specialized elongated form of microvilli found o -clast ~ breaks ECM down for remodeling
in sensory structures such as the inner ear where they
play a role in sound detection. Stereocilia are also found in e.g., osteoblast, osteocyte, osteoclast fibroblast, fibrocyte,
some places where absorption is important such as an fibroclast chondroblast, chondrocyte, chondroclast
epithelium of epilidimis?

Cilia - move mucus containing foreign particles out of the

respiratory airways-also found on the uterus and uterine
tubes, where it helps move mucus and osteocytes.

- In contrast, motile cilia contain microtubules which allow

them to move materials across the free surface of the cell.
So, there are three types of ciliated epithelium lining in
respiratory tract where cilia move foreign particles out of
the respiratory airways. cilia are also found on the apical
surface of the simple columnar epithelial cell of the uterus
and uterine tubes where the cilia help move mucus and
oocytes before the egg cell matures.

Cell Connections
Desmosomes - consist of adhesive glycoproteins that bind  classified as:
cells together and intracellular proteins  connective tissue proper
A. loose CT (fewer protein fibers, more ground
Hemidesmosomes - similar to one-half of a desmosome, substance)
1. Areolar
attach epithelial cells to the basement membrane. 2. Adipose
3. Reticular
Tight junctions - hold cells together and form a
permeability barrier

Adhesion belt - found just below the tight junction

Gap junction - small, specialized contact region between

cells containing protein channels

B. dense CT (more protein fibers, less ground

substance)
Epithelium: Glandular a. Dense Regular Collagenous Connective Tissue
Types:
 Endocrine-ductless glands that produce hormones
 Exocrine-secrete their products into body surfaces
(skin) or into body cavities

b. Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue

CONNECTIVE TISSUE
 diverse primary tissue that makes up part of every organ
 differs from other three tissue types as it consists of cells
separated each other by extracellular matrix (ECM) which
c. Dense irregular Collagenous Connective
is composed of:
Tissue
o protein fiber ~ collagen, reticular, elastin
o ground substance
o fluid
 works by:
o enclosing and separating other tissues
o connecting tissues to one another
o supporting and moving parts of the body
d. Dense irregular Elastic Connective Tissue
o storing compounds
o cushioning and insulating
o transporting
o protecting
 has specialized cells that produce the ECM using the
suffixes:
o -blast ~ creates ECM  Supporting connective tissue -cartilage
o -cyte~ maintains ECM

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  Bone (hard connective tissue)
There are three types of cartilage:
A. Hyaline cartilage

B. Fibrocartilage

C. Elastic cartilage

 Fluid Connective Tissue

a. Blood-Transports oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones,
nutrients, waste products, and other substances; NERVOUS TISSUE
protects the body from infections and is involved in  Nervous Tissue forms the brain, spinal cord, and nerves
temperature regulation activities
b. Bone Marrow-Produces new blood cells (red marrow);
stores lipids (yellow marrow)

MUSCLE TISSUE
 makes movement possible through contraction that results
from contractile proteins located within the muscle cells
(muscle fibers)  consists of
o neuron (nerve cell ~ spinal and cranial)
 generate and conducts action potentials
 composed of three parts:
 »Cell body
 »Dendrite
 »Axon

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 TISSUE INFLAMMATION
 normal process of the body to respond in times of local
injury, irritation, and microbial invasion through complex
series of events
o An increase in the diameter of capillaries (vasodilation),
which increases blood flow to the site
o Increased permeability of the capillaries, allowing the
escape of plasma and plasma proteins
o Escape of leukocytes from the capillaries and their ac
cumulation at the site of injury
 Produces five symptoms
o Redness (rubor)
o heat (calor)
o swelling (tumor)
Types of Neurons o pain (dolor)
MULTIPOLAR NEURON o disturbance/loss of function (functio laesa)
 has symptoms that are adaptive as they collectively warn
Structure: The neuron consists of dendrites, a cell body, and a the person to protect the injured area from further damage
long axon; glia, or support cells. Surround the neurons  mobilizes the body’s defenses and isolates and destroys
microorganisms, foreign materials and damaged cells to
Function: Neurons transmit information in the form of action
allow repair to begin
potentials, store “information”, and integrate and evaluate data;
glia support, protect, and form specialized sheaths around axons

Location: in the brain, spinal cord, ganglia

PSEUDO-UNIPOLAR NEURON

Structure: The neuron consists of a cell body with one axon

Function: Conducts action potentials from the periphery to the

brain or spinal cord

Location: In ganglia outside the brain and spinal cord

Tissue Membrane
 thin layer of tissue that covers a structure or lines a cavity
 mostly made up of epithelium and connective tissues on
which the epithelium rests
 Tissue Membrane classified as:
o external tissue membrane (skin)
–composed of stratified squamous epithelium
and dense connective tissue
o internal tissue membrane
–mucous ~ lines cavities that open to the
outside of the body, and works through:
»Protection
»Absorption
»Secretion
–serous ~ lines cavities that do not open
to the outside of the body, and works by:
 Protecting the internal organs from
friction through secretion of serous fluid
(lubrication)
 Holding the internal organs in place
 Acting as selectively permeable barrier SEQUENCE OF EVENTS OF INFLAMMATION
to prevent large amounts of fluid from
accumulating within the cavity TISSUE INJURY
–synovial ~ lines cavities of freely movable An inflammatory response may be triggered by physical,
joints, and works by: chemical, or biological agents. This diagram shows the
inflammatory response to bacteria
 Reducing friction through secretion of
synovial fluid (lubrication) Introduced when a splinter penetrates the skin.
 Allowing smooth movement at joints
VASODILATION
Increased blood flow to injured area provides increased delivery
of plasma proteins neutrophils, and phagocytes.

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INCREASED PERMEABILITY tissue to their normal state
Protein-rich exudate containing immunoglobulins and Takes place through two Occurs through the
complement moves into injured area. events; regeneration and proliferation of cells in the
replacement tissue
EMIGRATION OF LEUKOCYTES Heals major types of Heals minor types of
damages damages
Neutrophils and macrophages adhere to endothelial cells of
Forms scar tissues Does not form scar tissues
capillaries.
May restore some of the Capable of healing the
Leukocytes squeeze through gaps created by contraction of original structures of the damage with no permanent
damaged tissue, but may also damage remains
endothelial cells.
result in structural
CHEMOTAXIS abnormalities that impair
organ function
Neutrophils and macrophages move to site of injury in response
to gradient of chemotactic mediators released by Injured tissue.
Inflammation is a local immune response to tissue injury or
infection experienced as heat, redness, edema, pain and loss of
PHAGOCYTOSIS function. Immediately after injury, inflammation begins with brief
vasoconstriction of the local blood vessels to reduce blood loss
Phagocyte attaches to bacterium and engulfs it by endocytosis. and formation of a clot to stop the bleeding. Then, stimulated by
Bacteria are degraded by oxygen radicals and digestive cell injury and death, local cells release vasoactive chemicals
enzymes. such as prostaglandins and histamine to dilate local blood
vessels leading to increased blood flow to the area. These
chemicals also cause endothelial cells in small blood vessels to
contract opening spaces between them. This increased capillary
Purpose of Inflammation permeability allows fluids and proteins to pass from the blood into
the tissue. Next, during a multistage process called chemotaxis,
To localize infection
circulating immune cells called neutrophils move out of the blood
To prevent spread of pathogens vessels to the site of injury and destroy pathogens and damaged
cells. Chemotaxis begins when cells at the injury site release
To destroy and detoxify pathogens messenger molecules called chemo attractants which cause local
endothelial cells and circulating neutrophils to stick together.
To aid in repair and healing Next, in a process called diapedesis, neutrophils squeeze
through the endothelial gaps. The neutrophils migrate to the
injury site by following a chemotactic gradient. Upon arrival, the
neutrophils encounter bacteria engulf them and digest them in a
TISSUE REPAIR
process called phagocytosis. After destruction of the bacteria and
 substitution of viable cells for dead cells removal of cellular waste, tissue repair begins when locally
 occurs either by: produce growth factors cause local fibroblasts to begin dividing
o regeneration–new cells are the same type as those
rapidly and secreting large quantities of collagen to reinforce the
that were destroyed, and normal function is usually
womb. Anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit inflammation by blocking
restored
o replacement (fibrosis)–new type of tissue develops production of inflammatory chemicals. The most common drugs
that eventually causes scar production and loss of for inflammation are non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or
some tissue function NSAIDS such as aspirin and ibuprofen they contain an enzyme
called cyclooxygenase or Cox that inhibits the production of
prostaglandins and several other inflammatory chemicals thus
reducing vasodilation, edema, and pain associated with
inflammation.

REPAIR VERSUS REGENARATION

REPAIR REGENERATION
The restoration of tissue A type of healing in which
architecture and function after new growth completely
an injury restores portions of damaged

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