EG-230 Process and Pilot Plant Operations B

EG-230 GUIDE TO REPORT WRITING

1.0 Introduction
There are few hard and fast rules about writing reports. Depending on the purpose of the
report, whether it is to be published as a technical paper, circulated internally in a company
as a report on development work, or submitted as a thesis for a higher degree, so its form will
vary, at least in the emphasis given to different sections. Nevertheless, there are some general
principles on which most people are agreed. These are brought out in the following guide. In
addition, some arbitrary rules have been included with the idea of producing a standard pattern
of presentation for all your laboratory reports. One thing is common to all report writing: you
think most logically when you argue your case in writing, especially when you adopt an
appropriate layout.

2.0 General Structure and Writing Style

As highlighted in the document “EG-230 Guide to Report Writing - Formatting 24-25.pdf”,
the general layout of the report will be as follows:

University Coursework Coversheet: Standard coursework coversheet should be

attached.
Title Page: This should give the report title, the students name(s) and number(s), the date
of the experiment and the date of the report (1 page of A4 Maximum).
Summary: 1 page of A4 MAXIMUM (approximately 300 to 500 words).
Table of Contents: List of sections and page numbers.
List of Figures: This is optional but is becoming more common.
List of Tables: This is optional but is becoming more common.
1.0 Introduction: 1 page of A4 MAXIMUM.
2.0 Theory: 3 pages of A4 MAXIMUM.
3.0 Materials and Methods: 4 pages of A4 MAXIMUM including diagrams.
4.0 Results: No page limit.
5.0 Discussion: No page limit.
6.0 Conclusions and Recommendations: 1 page of A4 MAXIMUM.
7.0 Risk Assessment: A risk assessment is required for all experiments (see template for
the risk assessment).
8.0 Nomenclature: A list of symbols and units.
9.0 References: An alphabetical list of the references is often used but numbering is also
common (see documents on referencing).
Appendices: Extra information, calculations, data etc. Usually numbered as Appendix
1.0, Appendix 2.0 etc., depending on the number of appendices added.

In the rest of this document the content of each of the sections will be discussed. First though
some general rules on the English used and writing style will be highlighted.

1 Updated January 2025

 EG-230 Process and Pilot Plant Operations B

2.1 English and Writing Style

1) Always write in the past tense (the project/experiment was carried out in the past) except
when referring to something in the report, which exists and always exists, then the present
tense is used, for example:

The heat transfer data were obtained from Coulson & Richardson, Volume 1,
(1993), as is described in Appendix (A-2) and is shown in Table (2.10). The data
in Table (2.10), having been made dimensionless by the method given in Appendix
(A-3), are plotted in dimensionless form versus the dimensionless volumetric
throughput flow in Figure (A3.4.6), so as to evaluate the heat transfer surface area.

2) Do not use personal pronouns such as I, he, she, we, they and particularly it.

Example 1:
We use the available design software package as shown in Appendix (A-3), Table
(A3.8.2) and we operated the programme so that it gives the discharge pressure of
the feed pump.

This should be written as:

The design software package was used, as is shown in Table (A3.8.2) of Appendix
(A-3), and the programme was run until the discharge pressure of the liquid feed
stock pump to the bioreactor was obtained.

Note: there are no personal pronouns, the past tense was used and the word it was removed.

Example 2:
It was concluded that the evaporation rate of the solvent is set by the temperature
so that it is increased when it is changed.

Too many it’s used and the present tense, this is better written as:

The conclusion was made that the evaporation rate of the solvent was set by the
temperature, so that the rate was increased when the temperature was changed.

2 Updated January 2025

 EG-230 Process and Pilot Plant Operations B

3) Always define this, these, and those, for example:

This was done so that the data could be given in this, so that it could be checked.

Is better written as:

This calculation was done so that the data could be given in this format, and then
the calculations could be checked.

4) Some principles of effective writing include:

• Write for your reader, not yourself.

• What is in your mind is not in your reader's until you put it there.
• Most readers are easily bored and give up easily.
• Holding your reader's attention is your job, not your readers.
• Present your reader with the main points first, leaving the details until later.
• Separate fact from opinion.
• Subheadings make comprehension easier.
• Aim to be clear, concise and attractive.
• Introduce your point, state your point, then consolidate your point; the sandwich
structure is universal for effective communication.

3.0 Content of Sections in the Report

3.1 University Coursework Coversheet:
This self-explanatory and is the standard faculty coursework coversheet which is used for all
coursework and should be added to the report.

3.2 Title Page

This page should include the University Crest, title of the report, the name of the author(s) of
the report, the date of the experiment and date of submission of the report. The natural title
for these types of report is that of the experiment e.g. UO 07 Water Flow (or similar). In other
contexts, you may have a choice in naming the report. If so, remember that a good title is a
statement of the content, so deserves thought.

3 Updated January 2025

 EG-230 Process and Pilot Plant Operations B

3.3 Summary (1 page of A4 MAXIMUM)

The summary should concisely convey what you did and primarily what you discovered. The
summary picks out key features of the report enabling the busy reader to decide whether or
not to give more time to it. The summary should reflect:

• The aims and objectives of the work. Usually, one or two concise sentences suffice for
this part of the summary.
• The methodology used. Again, usually just a few sentences on the methodology used
is required.
• Key results and discussion points. The is the main part of the summary. Pick out the
important results, giving numerical values with their precision wherever possible,
and say what conclusions were drawn from each finding. The summary does not
usually contain Tables, Figures or References. The summary may contain equations
on occasion depending on what is being investigated.
• Conclusions and recommendations. A few lines on the conclusions obtained from the
report is usual at the end of the summary.

An example of a good and bad summary is given on page 9.

3.4 Table of Contents, Lists of Figures and List of Tables

This is a listing of the sections with appropriate page numbers. You may also include a list of
figures and tables as well.

3.5 Introduction
This should include:
• Background and the justification for the investigation: Outline what the experiment is
about and any relevant industrial applications.
• Overview of the contents of the report: Usually, one or two concise sentences suffice
for this to say what the report is about.
• Aims and objectives of the investigation: What are the aims and objectives of the
investigation? The aims should be given here. These are the points that are usually
answered in the results and discussion.

4 Updated January 2025

 EG-230 Process and Pilot Plant Operations B

3.6 Theory (3 pages of A4 MAXIMUM)

In this section you should outline the major theoretical concepts associated with your
experiments. DO NOT just repeat the theory we have given you in the experimental
instructions back to us. You should expand around this and use references to tell us more
about the subject. When writing your theory section, the content you include should be
directly appropriate to your experimental program and how you process/interpret your data.
This can then be referred back to in the discussion section. Referencing is important in this
section as you have a limited amount of space and references to more detailed derivations of
the equations is an important skill. The referencing system used should be the APA
referencing system. Guides to the referencing are available on the CANVAS site for EG-230.

3.7 Materials and Methods (4 pages of A4 MAXIMUM)

As a general principle a full laboratory report should include enough information on both
apparatus and method to make it possible for the reader to duplicate the experiment. This
section should include:
• The type of apparatus or equipment used in the investigation: Give a succinct
description of the apparatus and its purpose with the aid of a labelled diagram (usually
a P&ID, Note: you can copy the P&ID’s from the experimental instructions as long as
you reference them).
• An account of the experimental methods employed in obtaining the data. Describe
your experimental procedure rather than the operating procedure (i.e. what did you
actually do). DO NOT USE BULLET POINTS!! Detailed instructions for operating
the equipment are provided on the CANVAS site for each experiment and should be
cited as a reference rather than copied out, though you should describe any additions
and improvements of your own. Describe your methods of measurement and indicate
their reproducibility. Discuss any experimental difficulties and how you overcame
them. Use the past tense in the experimental section of the report; you are reporting
what you did.

3.8 Results (no page limit)

These should include:
• A detailed record of both the recorded and calculated data and, other observations.
For ease of comprehension, the raw data and the experimental results derived from

5 Updated January 2025

 EG-230 Process and Pilot Plant Operations B

them should always be tabulated or graphed wherever possible. Results may include
qualitative observations as well as data. Ways can usually be found to present even
observations in the form of tables or graphs
• All the tables and figures should have captions, and brief explanations. Remember
just presenting a series of figures and tables is useless without any text to guide the
reader through the results. The text should guide the reader through the dataset and
prepare the reader for the discussion.
• Remember that numbers are meaningless without their units. Numbers are of no use
without relevant units and are of limited use without estimates of precision for
example u = 18 means nothing whereas u = 18 ± 2 m/s has far more meaning.
• Analysis of error. Sound deductions can be made only in the light of knowledge of the
accuracy, precision and reliability of the results, which need to be established first.
Error analysis procedures have been studied in Year 1 and also covered for EG-230 in
a video on the CANVAS site. If you have not attended the Year 1 course you are
advised to study the small book by M. Pentz and M. Shott, “The Handling of
Experimental Data”, Open University Press, 1988 (out of print but in Main Library,
we also have some copies available to borrow).

3.9 Discussion
"There is something fascinating about science.
One gets such wholesale returns of conjecture out of such a trifling investment of fact"
Mark Twain: "Life on the Mississippi"

The main characteristics of a good discussion are:

1. The quality of the data is first established and then taken into account in drawing
conclusions.
2. Every deduction is justified by quoting the data that support it. In addition, the reader is
told where the quoted values come from for further study if desired.
3. Each finding is interpreted (explained) in terms of theory. Comparisons are also made
with any available literature data.

The discussion should contain a detailed analysis of the following:

• The methods of obtaining and the quality of the data.

6 Updated January 2025

 EG-230 Process and Pilot Plant Operations B

• The interpretation and derivation of the data.

• The implications of the findings with respect to published literature, established theory
and underlying principles (this is where your theory section and literature research
comes into play)
• The degree to which the findings fulfil the aims and objectives of the investigation

The discussion of the results proceeds topic by topic. For each topic there are two stages: you
describe first what you found and then what it means.

Stage 1: Describe what you found. Do not be afraid of stating the "obvious". It is your job
to get your findings across to your reader, not your readers. Give your reader a
conducted tour of your results, pointing out values, trends and correlations. On the
tour, use your results to make what deductions you can that are valid within
experimental error, e.g. in assessing the significance of the difference between the
two sides of a heat balance, compare the difference with the errors in the terms
concerned. A good form of presentation might be: “The heat input to .... is 36  3
kW, the output is 25  2 kW (see Table 7.2). The difference is 11  4 kW, implying
a heat loss which is significantly larger than experimental error.”

Note how the results are quoted in this example. The reader does not have to hunt
elsewhere in the report for the figures, but is still given their source (i.e. Table 7.2)
so that he/she can study their derivation if desired.

Stage 2: Say what the findings mean. Interpret the results in terms of physical or chemical
principles. Include any qualitative observations as well as quantitative results. Say
whether the findings are as expected from theory or from comparison with literature
data and discuss any discrepancies.

3.10 Conclusions and Recommendations (1 page of A4 MAXIMUM)

In this section the conclusions which have been drawn from the discussion of the findings
should be presented in a clear concise form. The recommendations for improving future
similar studies and reflections on how to avoid errors and improve the results should also be
included.

7 Updated January 2025

 EG-230 Process and Pilot Plant Operations B

3.11 Risk Assessment

A risk assessment which was conducted before completing your experiment should be
included. This also needs to be referred to in the report.

3.12 Nomenclature
This is a list of symbols with their meanings and units.

3.13 References
All references cited in the report should be presented consistently in the reference list using
either the Vancouver or Harvard system. The Harvard system is the one generally preferred
by publishers in engineering fields (also see library guides on CANVAS).

3.14 Appendices
The Appendices contain any other relevant information. However, you do need to include a
complete set of sample calculations in an Appendix, to show the method of computation used
for your results. These must be typed. A sample calculation is based on a single typical run
and presented as follows.

1. State relevant run number.

2. Give an algebraic statement of the equation used.
3. List the symbols, each with its definition (unless you give a reference to where they
are defined elsewhere in the report e.g. in the nomenclature) and the particular
numerical value to be substituted with its precision and units.
4. Show the numerical values and their units substituted in the equation, followed by
the answer and its precision. This makes it easier for the marker to check
calculations.

8 Updated January 2025

 EG-230 Process and Pilot Plant Operations B

4.0 Examples of a Good and Bad Summary

Below are two summaries, one good and one bad, of a piece of work entitled “Gas dispersion
in packed beds”. If you wanted to know the results of the work (and so, implicitly, knew a
little about the subject area already), which summary would you find more informative?

SUMMARY 1
The purpose of this research project was to determine longitudinal dispersion
coefficients in packed beds. This parameter is important whenever packed beds are used
for mass transfer operations, e.g. in packed bed reactors, gas absorption or gas
chromatography.

The apparatus consisted of a cylindrical packed bed through which air flowed at a
velocity which was kept uniform over the cross-section by having a porous distributor
at the base. It was planned to inject pulses of a tracer into the gas stream and measure
their concentration profiles at the exit with a -ray ionisation detector chosen for its
rapid response characteristics. Argon was chosen as the tracer. From the area, residence
time and width of the tracer profile, the longitudinal dispersion coefficient was
calculated. The results were presented as plots of dispersion coefficient and other
parameters against Reynolds number. Conclusions were drawn about the mechanism of
dispersion for different ranges of Reynolds number and particle size.

SUMMARY 2
Longitudinal dispersion in a bed of non-porous particles has been measured for the flow
of air, traced by a pulse of argon. The particles were glass beads, powdered perspex and
sand. Dispersion coefficients have been calculated from response curves measured using
an ionisation detector situated in the gas stream.

The dispersion coefficient has been found to have a constant value of (15 ± 2) mm 2 s-1
at low particle Reynolds numbers (0.008 < Re < 0.7); this value is independent of
particle diameter over a range 0.38 – 6.1 mm. The dispersion coefficient increases
linearly with Re, from (41 ± 4) mm2 s-1 at Re = 3 to (990 ± 60) mm2 s-1 at Re = 50. These
results indicate that at low particle Reynolds numbers the dispersion is affected by
molecular diffusion, but at high Reynolds numbers eddy diffusion predominates. With

9 Updated January 2025

 EG-230 Process and Pilot Plant Operations B

particles finer than 0.38 mm channelling occurs at all but very low Reynolds numbers
and the dispersion coefficient is increased. Dispersion coefficients obtained by previous
investigators with other solids agree with ours within a factor of 4 or better.

A good summary, such as Summary 2, has the following characteristics.

1. It deals specifically with what was actually done, and not purely with what it was
about. The first summary spends many words on the background and methodology.
The proper place for such material is the Introduction and Experimental sections of
the report.
2. Although a good summary indicates the method used, it concentrates on giving the
results, stating them in quantitative terms wherever possible. This is the hard
information which the informed reader mainly wants to know. Summary 1 does not
say at all what the results were.
3. A good summary conveys the information concisely and in logical order. For example,
the overall purpose and method of study are concisely and sufficiently stated in the
first three sentences of Summary 2. The detailed aims are implicit in the results.

10 Updated January 2025