DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

UNIT-2

10M Q &A

1. Explain SQL functions for string conversions with examples.

2. Write and explain the SQL functions (i)Date and Time(ii) Numeric.
3. Explain creating and modifying relations in SQL. With examples
4. Explain about integrity constraints over relations.
5. Explain domain constraints & key constraints with an example.
6. What is the importance of null values? Explain comparison of using null
values and not using null values with examples.
7. Explain with examples, different DDL and DML operations in SQL.
8. Discuss about arithmetic & logical operations in SQL with examples.

1)Explain SQL functions for string conversions with examples.

In SQL, string conversion functions are used to manipulate and convert data types, particularly converting
between strings and other data types, or modifying strings themselves. Here are some commonly used SQL string
conversion functions along with examples:

1. CAST() Function
The CAST() function is used to convert one data type to another. It can be used for converting strings to integers,
dates, etc.

Syntax:
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CAST(expression AS data_type)

Example:
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SELECT CAST('2024-10-17' AS DATE) AS ConvertedDate;

This converts the string '2024-10-17' to a date type.

2. CONVERT() Function
The CONVERT() function is similar to CAST() but provides more formatting options, especially for date and
time.

Syntax:
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CONVERT(data_type, expression [, style])
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 Example:
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SELECT CONVERT(VARCHAR(10), GETDATE(), 101) AS USFormattedDate;

This converts the current date to a string in the format MM/DD/YYYY.

3. UPPER() and LOWER() Functions

These functions are used to convert strings to uppercase or lowercase, respectively.

Syntax:
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LOWER(string)

Example:
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SELECT UPPER('hello world') AS UppercaseString,
LOWER('HELLO WORLD') AS LowercaseString;

This will return:

 UppercaseString: HELLO WORLD

 LowercaseString: hello world

4. LTRIM() and RTRIM() Functions

These functions remove leading and trailing spaces from strings.

Syntax:
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RTRIM(string)

Example:
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SELECT LTRIM(' Hello World') AS TrimmedLeft,
RTRIM('Hello World ') AS TrimmedRight;

This will return:

 TrimmedLeft: Hello World

 TrimmedRight: Hello World

5. TRIM() Function
The TRIM() function is used to remove both leading and trailing spaces from a string.

Syntax:
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Example:
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SELECT TRIM(' Hello World ') AS TrimmedString;

This will return Hello World.

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 6. SUBSTRING() Function
The SUBSTRING() function extracts a portion of a string.

Syntax:
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SUBSTRING(string, start_position, length)

Example:
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SELECT SUBSTRING('Hello World', 1, 5) AS SubStringResult;

This will return Hello.

7. LEN() Function
The LEN() function returns the length of a string.

Syntax:
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Example:
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SELECT LEN('Hello World') AS StringLength;

This will return 11.

8. REPLACE() Function
The REPLACE() function replaces all occurrences of a specified substring with another substring.

Syntax:
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REPLACE(string, old_substring, new_substring)

Example:
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SELECT REPLACE('Hello World', 'World', 'SQL') AS ReplacedString;

This will return Hello SQL.

9. CONCAT() Function
The CONCAT() function is used to concatenate two or more strings.

Syntax:
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CONCAT(string1, string2, ...)

Example:
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SELECT CONCAT('Hello', ' ', 'World') AS ConcatenatedString;

2.Write and explain the SQL functions (i)Date and Time(ii) Numeric.
Prepared by: Pavan Kumar Ravinuthala, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CSE, PACE ITS, Vallur-523272. Page 3 of 17
 ANS:
SQL provides a variety of functions for handling date and time data as well as numeric data. Below is an overview
of some commonly used functions in both categories, along with explanations and examples.

I. Date and Time Functions

1. GETDATE()
Returns the current date and time.

Syntax:
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GETDATE()

Example:
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SELECT GETDATE() AS CurrentDateTime;

This returns the current system date and time.

2. DATEADD()
Adds a specified interval to a date.

Syntax:
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DATEADD(interval, number, date)

Example:
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SELECT DATEADD(DAY, 5, GETDATE()) AS NewDate;

This adds 5 days to the current date and returns the new date.

3. DATEDIFF()
Calculates the difference between two dates.
Syntax:
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DATEDIFF(interval, start_date, end_date)

Example:
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SELECT DATEDIFF(DAY, '2024-10-01', GETDATE()) AS DaysDifference;

This calculates the number of days between October 1, 2024, and the current date.

4. FORMAT()
Formats a date/time value according to a specified format.

Syntax:
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format)

Example:
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SELECT FORMAT(GETDATE(), 'dd/MM/yyyy') AS FormattedDate;

This formats the current date as dd/MM/yyyy.

5. YEAR(), MONTH(), DAY()

These functions extract the year, month, and day from a date.

Syntax:
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MONTH(date) DAY(date)

Example:
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SELECT YEAR(GETDATE()) AS CurrentYear,
MONTH(GETDATE()) AS CurrentMonth,
DAY(GETDATE()) AS CurrentDay;

This returns the current year, month, and day as separate columns.

6. CONVERT()
Used to convert a date to a specific format.

Syntax:
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CONVERT(data_type, expression [, style])

Example:
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SELECT CONVERT(VARCHAR(10), GETDATE(), 101) AS USFormattedDate;

This converts the current date to a string in the format MM/DD/YYYY.

7. LAST_DAY() (available in MySQL)

Returns the last day of the month for a given date.

Syntax:
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LAST_DAY(date)

Example:
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SELECT LAST_DAY('2024-10-17') AS LastDayOfMonth;

This returns the last day of October 2024, which is 2024-10-31.

II. Numeric Functions

1. ABS()
Returns the absolute value of a number.

Syntax:
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 Example:
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SELECT ABS(-10) AS AbsoluteValue;

This returns 10.

2. ROUND()
Rounds a numeric value to a specified number of decimal places.

Syntax:
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ROUND(number, decimal_places)

Example:
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SELECT ROUND(123.4567, 2) AS RoundedValue;

This returns 123.46.

3. CEILING()
Returns the smallest integer greater than or equal to a specified number.

Syntax:
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CEILING(number)

Example:
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SELECT CEILING(123.45) AS CeilingValue;

This returns 124.

4. FLOOR()
Returns the largest integer less than or equal to a specified number.

Syntax:
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Example:
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SELECT FLOOR(123.45) AS FloorValue;

This returns 123.

5. POWER()
Raises a number to a specified power.

Syntax:
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exponent)

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 Example:
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SELECT POWER(2, 3) AS PowerValue;

This returns 8 (2 raised to the power of 3).

6. SQRT()
Returns the square root of a specified number.

Syntax:
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Example:
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SELECT SQRT(16) AS SquareRoot;

This returns 4.

7. SUM()
Calculates the sum of a set of values.

Syntax:
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Example:
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SELECT SUM(Salary) AS TotalSalary FROM Employees;

This returns the total salary from the Employees table.

8. AVG()
Calculates the average of a set of values.
Syntax:
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Example:
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SELECT AVG(Salary) AS AverageSalary FROM Employees;

This returns the average salary from the Employees table.

9. COUNT()
Counts the number of rows that match a specified condition.

Syntax:
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Example:
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SELECT COUNT(*) AS TotalEmployees FROM Employees;
Prepared by: Pavan Kumar Ravinuthala, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CSE, PACE ITS, Vallur-523272. Page 7 of 17
 3. Explain creating and modifying relations in SQL. With examples
ANS:

Creating and modifying relations (or tables) in SQL is fundamental for managing a database. Here’s a detailed
explanation of how to create, modify, and manage these relations.

Creating a Table
To create a table, you use the CREATE TABLE statement. This statement defines the table structure, including
the names and types of columns.

Syntax:
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CREATE TABLE table_name (
column1 datatype constraints,
column2 datatype constraints,
...
);

Example:
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CREATE TABLE Employees ( EmployeeID
INT PRIMARY KEY, FirstName
VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL, LastName
VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
HireDate DATE,
Salary DECIMAL(10, 2)
);

In this example, we created an Employees table with five columns. The EmployeeID is defined as the primary
key, ensuring that each employee has a unique identifier.

Modifying a Table
You can modify an existing table using the ALTER TABLE statement. This allows you to add, modify, or delete
columns and constraints.

1. Adding a Column

To add a new column to an existing table: Syntax:

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ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype constraints;

Example:
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ALTER TABLE Employees ADD
Email VARCHAR(100);

This adds a new column Email to the Employees table.

2. Modifying a Column

To change the datatype or constraints of an existing column: Syntax:

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ALTER TABLE table_name
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 MODIFY COLUMN column_name new_datatype new_constraints;

Example:
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ALTER TABLE Employees
MODIFY COLUMN Salary DECIMAL(12, 2);

This changes the Salary column to allow for larger decimal values.

3. Dropping a Column

To remove a column from a table: Syntax:

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ALTER TABLE table_name DROP
COLUMN column_name;

Example:
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ALTER TABLE Employees DROP
COLUMN Email;

This removes the Email column from the Employees table.

Example of Complete Flow

Here’s a complete example illustrating creating a table, modifying it, and altering it further:

1. Creating the Table:

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CREATE TABLE Products ( ProductID
INT PRIMARY KEY,
ProductName VARCHAR(100) NOT NULL, Price
DECIMAL(10, 2) NOT NULL,
Stock INT
);
Adding a New Column:
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ALTER TABLE Products ADD
Description TEXT;

2. Modifying a Column:
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ALTER TABLE Products
MODIFY COLUMN Price DECIMAL(15, 2);

3. Dropping a Column:
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ALTER TABLE Products DROP COLUMN Stock
4. Explain about integrity constraints over relations.
ANS:
Integrity constraints are rules that ensure the accuracy and consistency of data in a relational database. They help
maintain the correctness of the data by enforcing specific conditions that the data must satisfy. Here are the main
types of integrity constraints in the context of relational databases:
Prepared by: Pavan Kumar Ravinuthala, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CSE, PACE ITS, Vallur-523272. Page 9 of 17
 1. Entity Integrity
 Definition: This constraint ensures that each entity (row) in a table is unique and identifiable.
 Key Points:
o Every table must have a primary key.
o The primary key must contain unique values, and it cannot contain NULL values.
2. Referential Integrity
 Definition: This constraint ensures that relationships between tables remain consistent.
 Key Points:
o Foreign keys are used to create links between tables.
o A foreign key in one table must match a primary key in another table or be NULL. This
prevents orphaned records and ensures valid relationships.
3. Domain Integrity
 Definition: This constraint ensures that all values in a column fall within a defined domain or set of
acceptable values.
 Key Points:
o Each column in a table must have a defined data type (e.g., integer, varchar).
o Constraints such as CHECK can be used to restrict values (e.g., age must be greater than 0).
4. User-Defined Integrity
 Definition: These are specific rules defined by users based on business requirements.
 Key Points:
o They can include complex constraints that might not fit into standard types, like ensuring that a
project start date must be before its end date.
o Implemented using triggers, stored procedures, or application logic.
5. Unique Constraints
 Definition: This constraint ensures that all values in a column or a set of columns are unique across
the table.
 Key Points:
o Unlike the primary key, a table can have multiple unique constraints.
o Columns with unique constraints can accept NULL values, but each NULL is considered distinct.
6. Check Constraints
 Definition: This constraint allows for the specification of a condition that must be met for values in a
column.

5. Explain domain constraints & key constraints with an example.

ANS:
In the context of databases and relational data models, domain constraints and key constraints are important
concepts used to maintain data integrity. Here's an explanation of both, along with examples: Domain Constraints
Domain constraints define the allowable values for an attribute (or column) in a database table. These constraints
ensure that data entered into a column adheres to specific rules related to its type, format, or range.

Examples of domain constraints:

 Data Type: An attribute designated as an integer should only accept integer values.
 Range: An attribute for age may be constrained to values between 0 and 120.
 Format: An attribute for email addresses can be constrained to follow a specific pattern (e.g., must contain
an '@' symbol).
 Non-Null: An attribute must not be empty (NULL).
Example: Consider a table Students with the following attributes:
 StudentID (Integer)
 Name (String)
 Age (Integer, must be between 0 and 120)
 Email (String, must match a specific format)
In this case:
 The Age attribute has a domain constraint that restricts its values to be between 0 and 120.
 The Email attribute might have a domain constraint that requires it to follow a valid email format.
Key Constraints
Key constraints are used to ensure that each record (or row) in a table can be uniquely identified. A key constraint
can be a primary key or a unique key:
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  Primary Key: This constraint ensures that a column (or a combination of columns) has unique values
and cannot contain NULL. It uniquely identifies each row in a table.
 Unique Key: This constraint also ensures that the values in a column (or a combination of
columns) are unique but can contain NULL values.
Example: Using the same Students table, we can set constraints as follows:
 StudentID is defined as the primary key, ensuring that each student has a unique identifier that cannot
be NULL.
 An attribute like Email can have a unique constraint, ensuring that no two students can have the same
email address, but it can allow for NULL values if a student does not provide an email.
Summary Example of a Table
Here's how the Students table might be defined with these constraints:

StudentID (Primary Key) Name Age (0-120) Email (Unique)

1 Alice 20 [email protected]
2 Bob 22 [email protected]
3 Charlie 25 NULL
In this example:
 The StudentID column uniquely identifies each student (primary key).
 The Age column is constrained to be between 0 and 120.
 The Email column must be unique, ensuring no duplicates (unique key).
By enforcing these domain and key constraints, the database maintains data integrity and consistency.
6. What is the importance of null values? Explain comparison of using null values and not using null
values with examples.
ANS:
Null values play a crucial role in data management and programming. They represent the absence of a value or an
unknown value, which can significantly affect how data is interpreted, stored, and processed. Here’s a breakdown
of their importance and a comparison of scenarios with and without null values.
Importance of Null Values
1. Indicating Missing Data: Null values are essential for representing missing, incomplete, or unknown
data. This is common in databases and data analytics, where not all data points may be available.
2. Data Integrity: Allowing null values can enhance data integrity by explicitly acknowledging that certain
fields may not have data without forcing invalid entries (like zero or empty strings).
3. Statistical Analysis: In statistical analyses, null values can signify that a particular data point should
be excluded from calculations, thereby ensuring accurate results.
4. Default States: In programming, null can represent an uninitialized state, which can help prevent errors
associated with default or placeholder values.
Comparison: Using Null Values vs. Not Using Null Values Example
Scenario: Customer Database
Consider a customer database with the following columns: CustomerID, Name, Email, Phone, and Address.
1. Using Null Values
o Table Structure:
CustomerID Name Email Phone Address
1 John Doe [email protected] NULL NULL
2 Jane Smith [email protected] 123-456-7890 123 Main St
3 NULL NULL NULL NULL
o Interpretation:
 The NULL entries for Phone and Address indicate that the information is missing.
The NULL for Name shows that the customer ID 3 does not have an associated name.
 Queries can be easily crafted to find all customers without phone numbers or
addresses.

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 o Benefits:
 Accurate representation of data: It’s clear which fields have no data.
 Easier data management: Specific queries can filter based on nulls, such as
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Phone IS NULL;.
2. Not Using Null Values
o Table Structure:

CustomerID Name Email Phone Address

1 John Doe [email protected] "N/A" "N/A"
CustomerID Name Email Phone Address
2 Jane Smith [email protected] 123-456-7890 123 Main St
3 "Unknown" "Unknown" "N/A" "N/A"
o Interpretation:
 The entries "N/A" and "Unknown" are used to indicate missing data.
 This can lead to ambiguity: it’s not clear if "Unknown" means the data is missing, or if it
is a valid entry.
o Drawbacks:
 Data misinterpretation: It may confuse users or systems as to whether "N/A" is a valid
entry or an indicator of missing information.
 Complicated filtering: Queries become more complex as they have to filter out multiple
placeholder values. For example, to find missing phone numbers, the query would be
SELECT * FROM Customers WHERE Phone = 'N/A';

7. Explain with examples, different DDL and DML operations in SQL.

ANS:

In SQL (Structured Query Language), operations are typically categorized into two main types: Data Definition
Language (DDL) and Data Manipulation Language (DML). Here’s a breakdown of each category along with
examples:

Data Definition Language (DDL)

DDL commands are used to define, modify, and manage the structure of database objects such as tables, indexes,
and schemas. Common DDL operations include:

1. CREATE: Used to create a new database object.

o Example: Creating a new table called Employees.
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CREATE TABLE Employees (
EmployeeID INT PRIMARY KEY,
FirstName VARCHAR(50),
LastName VARCHAR(50),
BirthDate DATE,
HireDate DATE
);

2. ALTER: Used to modify an existing database object.

o Example: Adding a new column Email to the Employees table.
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ALTER TABLE Employees ADD
Email VARCHAR(100);

3. DROP: Used to delete a database object.

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 o Example: Deleting the Employees table.
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DROP TABLE Employees;

4. TRUNCATE: Used to remove all records from a table without logging individual row deletions. This
operation is faster than DELETE but cannot be rolled back.
o Example: Truncating the Employees table.
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TRUNCATE TABLE Employees;

5. RENAME: Used to rename an existing database object.

o Example: Renaming the Employees table to Staff.
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RENAME TABLE Employees TO Staff;

Data Manipulation Language (DML)

DML commands are used to manipulate data within existing database objects. Common DML operations include:

1. INSERT: Used to add new records to a table.

o Example: Inserting a new employee record into the Employees table.
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INSERT INTO Employees (EmployeeID, FirstName, LastName, BirthDate, HireDate, Email)
VALUES (1, 'John', 'Doe', '1985-06-15', '2023-01-10', '[email protected]');

2. UPDATE: Used to modify existing records in a table.

o Example: Updating the email address of an employee with EmployeeID 1.
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UPDATE Employees
SET Email = '[email protected]'
WHERE EmployeeID = 1;

3. DELETE: Used to remove existing records from a table.

o Example: Deleting the employee record with EmployeeID 1.
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DELETE FROM Employees
WHERE EmployeeID = 1;

4. SELECT: Although primarily used to query data, it’s also considered part of DML as it retrieves data
from a table.
o Example: Selecting all employees from the Employees table.
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SELECT * FROM Employees;

8. Discuss about arithmetic & logical operations in SQL with examples.

ANS:

Arithmetic and logical operations in SQL are fundamental for manipulating data, allowing you to perform
calculations and control the flow of data. Let’s dive into both types of operations with examples.

Arithmetic Operations

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 Arithmetic operations are used to perform mathematical calculations. The main arithmetic operators in SQL are:

 Addition (+): Adds two values.

 Subtraction (-): Subtracts one value from another.
 Multiplication (*): Multiplies two values.
 Division (/): Divides one value by another.
 Modulus (%): Returns the remainder of a division operation.

Example of Arithmetic Operations

Assume we have a table named Sales with the following columns:

Item Quantity Price

Apples 10 2.00
Bananas 20 1.50
Oranges 15 1.75

1. Total Sales Value for Each Item

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SELECT Item, Quantity, Price, (Quantity *
Price) AS TotalSales
FROM Sales;

Result:

Item Quantity Price TotalSales

Apples 10 2.00 20.00
Bananas 20 1.50 30.00
Oranges 15 1.75 26.25

2. Calculate Total Quantity of All Items

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SELECT SUM(Quantity) AS TotalQuantity
FROM Sales;

Result:

TotalQuantity
45

Logical Operations

Logical operations allow you to evaluate conditions and return boolean values (TRUE, FALSE, or
UNKNOWN). The main logical operators are:

 AND: Returns TRUE if both conditions are true.

 OR: Returns TRUE if at least one of the conditions is true.
 NOT: Reverses the boolean value of the condition.

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 Example of Logical Operations

Continuing with the Sales table:

1. Find Items with Quantity Greater than 15 and Price Less than 2.00

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SELECT Item, Quantity, Price FROM
Sales
WHERE Quantity > 15 AND Price < 2.00;
Result:

Item Quantity Price

Bananas 20 1.50

2. Find Items that are Either Bananas or Have a Price Greater than 1.50

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SELECT Item, Quantity, Price FROM
Sales
WHERE Item = 'Bananas' OR Price > 1.50;

Result:

Item Quantity Price

Bananas 20 1.50
Oranges 15 1.75

3. Find Items that are Not Apples

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SELECT Item, Quantity, Price FROM
Sales
WHERE NOT Item = 'Apples';

Result:

Item Quantity Price

Bananas 20 1.50
Oranges 15 1.75

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 UNIT-2

2M Q&A

1. Explain any two TCL commands

2. Give brief description of DCL command.
3. Why does SQL allow duplicate tuples in a table or in a query result?
4. Define primary key. Give example.
5. What is the difference between primary key and foreign key?
6. Define referential integrity.

1. Explain any two TCL commands

ANS:
Tcl (Tool Command Language) is a scripting language that is widely used for rapid prototyping, scripted
applications, and GUIs. Here are two basic commands in Tcl along with their explanations:
1. set
The set command is used to create or modify variables in Tcl. It can also retrieve the value of a variable if it
already exists. The syntax is:
set variableName value
 Example: set x 10 puts $x
;
# This will output: 10
1. Example: the variable x is set to 10, and then its value is printed using the puts command.
2. puts
The puts command is used to output a string to the standard output (usually the console). It can be used to print
messages, variable values, or any string.
2.Example: puts "Hello, World!"
This command will output Hello, World!

2. Give brief description of DCL command.

ANS:
DCL, or Data Control Language, is a subset of SQL (Structured Query Language) used to control access to data
stored in a database. It primarily deals with permissions and security, allowing database administrators to
manage user privileges. The main DCL commands are:
1. GRANT: This command is used to give users specific privileges to perform actions on database objects
(e.g., tables, views).
2. REVOKE: This command removes previously granted privileges from users, restricting their access
to certain database operations.

3. Why does SQL allow duplicate tuples in a table or in a query result?

ANS:
SQL allows duplicate tuples (rows) in a table or in the results of a query due to its design principles, which
prioritize flexibility and practicality for data management. Here are several key reasons why duplicates are
permitted:
1. Relational Model Foundation: The relational model, on which SQL is based, allows for sets of tuples
where duplicates can exist. This is because a relation is defined as a set of tuples, and while mathematical
sets do not allow duplicates, the practical implementation allows for the same tuple to appear multiple
times, especially in the context of unordered data.
2. Data Representation: In many real-world scenarios, duplicate records are meaningful. For example, a
sales table might record multiple transactions for the same customer on the same day. Each transaction is
distinct and important, even if the values are identical.

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 4. Define primary key. Give example.
ANS:
A primary key is a specific type of database constraint that uniquely identifies each record in a table. It ensures
that no two rows in the table can have the same value for the primary key column(s) and that the primary key value
cannot be NULL. This uniqueness constraint helps maintain data integrity and allows for efficient data retrieval.
Consider a table named Students that stores information about students in a school. Here’s how it might look:
StudentID FirstName LastName DateOfBirth
1 John Doe 2000-01-01
2 Jane Smith 1999-05-12
3 Mike Brown 2001-09-22
In this example:
 The primary key is StudentID.
 Each student has a unique StudentID, ensuring that no two students share the same ID, and it cannot
be NULL.

5. What is the difference between primary key and foreign key?

ANS:
A primary key and a foreign key are both fundamental concepts in relational database design, but they serve
different purposes and have distinct characteristics. Here’s a breakdown of their differences:
Primary Key
1. Definition: A primary key is a column or a set of columns that uniquely identifies each record in a table.
2. Uniqueness: Each value in a primary key column must be unique across the table, meaning no two
rows can have the same primary key value.
Foreign Key
1. Definition: A foreign key is a column or a set of columns in one table that refers to the primary key in
another table.
2. Referential Integrity: A foreign key establishes a relationship between two tables, ensuring that the
value in the foreign key column corresponds to an existing value in the primary key of the column in
another table.
6. Define referential integrity
ANS:
Referential integrity in a database management system (DBMS) refers to a set of rules that ensures
relationships between tables remain consistent. Specifically, it ensures that foreign keys in a table correctly
point to valid primary keys in another table, maintaining the logical correctness of the data across related tables.

For example, in a relational database, if you have a "Customers" table and an "Orders" table, the
"Orders" table might have a foreign key that references the "Customers" table's primary key. Referential
integrity makes sure that every order in the "Orders" table corresponds to a valid customer in the "Customers"
table.

Prepared by: Pavan Kumar Ravinuthala, Asst. Prof., Dept. of CSE, PACE ITS, Vallur-523272. Page 17 of 17