Sexual reproduction in fl .

. --- -- - ow~~ng plants

Flowerrng plants produce flow f -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- --
t I h' ers or sexual re rOd .
the recep ac e, w 1ch usually bea f P uction. A flower consists of an expanded stem tip
. rs our whorls ( · ) f .. '
one or more carpeIs in the centre. nngs o mod1f1ed leaves, sepals, petals, stamens, and
\lost flowers contain both fem I d
a e an male rep d ·
pro d uce one or more ovules wh · h . ro uct,ve parts. The female parts are the carpels· these
. rc contain the f I ,
pro d uce t h e poIIen grains which c t . ema e gametes. The male parts are the stamens; these
on am the male gametes.

petal - provides colour

and scent to attract insects
honey guides - markings or and birds for pollination
patterns on petals to guide
insects to the nectar - - --...\._
- ----1--- stigma - sticky end of the
anther - produces style. Catches pollen grains
pollen grains containing
stamen - male male gametes __...;-- - style - holds the stigma where
it can best catch pollen carpel - female
part of the flower part of the flower
filament - holds the - -- - ~ -4.\
anther where it can , , - - - - ovary - contains ovules
best deliver pollen
/ ~ r - - - - -- ovule - contains an ovum,
the female gamete
sepal - usually green. - - - - - . . . /
Protects the flower when in bud nectary - at the base of the petal.
Contains nectar to attract insects
and birds for pollination
pedicel - the flower stalk - - - - - -- - IU

receptacle - bears the flower parts

Figure 14.6 A longitudinal section of a generalised flower showing the function of the parts

Pollination
1·01/ination is the trans(er of p o llen grains from the anthers to the stigmas of flowers.
Pollination leads to fertilisation and there are two types:
• Self pollination occurs when a pollen grain is transferred from an anther to a stigma of the same
flower or to a stigma of another flower on the same plant.
• Cross pollination occurs when a pollen grain is transferred from an anther of a flower on one plant
to a stigma of a flower on a different plant of the same species.
Agents of pollination carry the pollen grains between flowers. They may be the wind, insects and some
birds, e.g. humming birds. Flowers are usually adapted to be pollinated by wind or by insects.

Table 14.6 Comparing flowers adapted for wind pollination and insect pollination

~
1
• U sually small and inco~ spicu_ous. __ •~ L sua! ly large and conspicuous.
Often absent. If present they are small, • Usually relatively large, brightly
green or dull coloured and have no colour_ed and scented, ~nd have
scent, nectar or honey guides. There ~ectarres and honey gwdes to attract
I are no po llinating agents_to attract. insects.
Pollen grains • Small, smooth and light so they are • Relatively large, sticky or spiky to stick
easily carried by the wind. onto the body of insects.
e quantities are produced as many • Smaller quantities are produced as
• Larg fewer are lost.
are lost.

14 Reproduction [129
 Wind pollinated Insect pollinated
Stamens • Anthers are loosely attached to long, • Anthers are firmly attached to short,
thin filaments and they hang outside stiff filaments, and are usually inside
the flower so the pollen can be easily 1 the flower so the insect brushes
blown off them by the wind. against them as it goes to get nectar
and picks up pollen grains without
• Anthers are large to produce a lot of
pollen g rains. damaging the anthers.

Stigmas • Long, branched and feathery and hang I • Flat or lobed and sticky, and are
outside the flower to provide a large I usually situated inside the flower so
area to catch the pollen grains. I
the insect brushes against them as it
goes to get nectar and deposits pollen
onto them.
--------------------------4--
Examples Guinea grass, maize, sugar cane.
---- - - -
Pride of Barbados, flamboyant,
1
i allamanda.

~ stigma - large and feathery.

•/ " Projects outside the flower

bract - small and green

r~½g.' - + - - ovary

r-
rJ anther - large and loosely
attached to the filament.
Hangs outside the flower

Figure 14.7 Generalised structure of a wind pollinated flower

Fertilisation in flowering plants

After pollination has occurred, the male gamete then has to reach the female gamete for fertilisation
to take place.

@ A pollen grain lands on the stigma. It

pollen tube - ------1,--. absorbs nutrients present; swells and
develops a pollen tube.
two male nuclei -=:-+-➔
(male gametes) @ The pollen tube, with two male nuclei
and a tube nucleus in its tip, grows down
tube nucleus - - - - through the style by secreting digestive
enzymes that digest a pathway.
ovary - --1--
.A-- - polar nuclei @ The pollen tube grows through the
ovary wall and through the micropyle of
- ~ -- - embryo sac the ovule and bursts. The tube nucleus
degenerates, and one male nucleus
~ tH----+-= - integuments ovule
fuses with the female gamete to form
female the zygote. The other male nucleus and
gamete (ovum) the two polar nuclei fuse to form the
micropyle endosperm.

figure 14.8 Longitudinal section through a carpel showing the mechanism of fertilisation

14 Concise Revision Course: CSEC* Biology

Events following fertilisation in flowering plants
See d develo pment
After fertilisation, each ovule develops into a seed:
• The zygote divides by mitosis fo
· h •
rming t e embryo which develops into three parts:
• the plumule or embryonic shoot
• the radicle or embryonic root
• one cotyledon or seed leaf in m onocotyIed ons or two cotyledons .in dicotyledons
. ·
(see Figure 13.2,
page 114).

• The endosp~rm remains in en~ospermic seeds, e.g. maize and castor oil, but is absorbed by the
cotyledons in non-endos~erm1c seeds, e.g. green bean and pigeon pea. In endospermic seeds, the
endosperm stores food; in non-endospermic seeds, the cotyledons store food.
• The integuments become dry and develop into the testa, and the micropyle remains in the testa.
Water is withdrawn from the seed and it becomes dormant.

Fruit development
After fertilisation, the ovary wall develops into the fruit. A fruit contains one or more seeds; the
number depends on the number of ovules in the original ovary that were fertilised . Th~ shape and
structure of many fruits is very similar to the original ovary.
The stigma, style, stamens and petals wither and drop off. The sepals may drop off or they may remain,
e.g. in eggplant.

Fruits
Fruits protect the developing seeds and they help to disperse seeds. The wall of the fruit is known as
the pericarp and may be composed of three layers:
• the exocarp (epicarp) or outer layer
• the mesocarp or middle layer
• the endocarp or inner layer.
There are two main types of fruits:
• Succulent (fleshy) fruits. One or more layers of the pericarp are fleshy and juicy, e.g. mango, guava,
tomato and cucumber.
• Dry fruits. The pericarp is thin and dry, e.g. the pod of pride of Barbados or pigeon pea and the
capsule of castor oil.
A fruit has two scars one where it was attached to the parent plant and one where the style was
attached. A seed onl~ has one scar, the hilum, where it was attached to the fruit.

Seed dispersal
Fruits aid in dispersing seeds. Spreading seeds away from the parent plant is important to increase the
chances of survival.
• o·1spersa1preven t s overcrowd·ing thereby preventing competition for light, water, carbon dioxide
and minerals.
• Dispersal allows plants to colonise new habitats.

14 Reproduction ~
Fruits and seeds often have adaptations to help dispersal.

• Dispersal by animals
• Many succulent fruits contain stored food which attracts animals to eat them, e.g. orange, mango,
guava, tomato and golden apple.

exocarp - brightly coloured

to attract animals
seeds - pass through
digestive systems
unharmed when the
fruit is eaten; the ..._• ......,-,.- mesocarp and endocarp - contain
testa provides protection stored food to attract animals
against digestive enzymes

@ succulent fruit of orange

exocarp - brightly coloured

to attract animals
seed - discarded
when the fruit is eaten

mesocarp - contains stored

food to attract animals

endocarp - hardened to form

the stone around the seed

@ succulent fruit of mango

Figure 14.9 Succulent fruits

• Certain small dry fruits develop hooks that attach the fruits onto the fur of animals, e.g. castor oil,
duppy needle, sweethearts and burr grass.

hooks on the fruit - attach the

fruit to the fur of animals or
human clothing

Figure 14.10 The hooked fruit of castor oil

14 Concise Revision Course: CSEC"' Biology

• Dispersal by wind
• Some small dry fruits develo on . .
the seeds contained inc rt _P f ~ or more wmg-hke extensions, e.g. crow and Combretum, or
These provide a larges e f am ru1ts develop one or more wings, e.g. mahogany and Tecoma.
ur ace area to help the wind carry the fruits or seeds.

wing - provides a
large surface area

four wings at 90° - provide

dry fruit - contains a large surface area to help
a seed. Small and light the wind to carry the fruit

seed

@ winged fruit of Combretum @ winged seed of mahogany

Figure 14.11 Winged fruits and seeds

• Some small dry fruits develop hair-like extensions that form a 'parachute', e.g. Tridax, or the seeds
contained in certain fruits develop a ' parachute' of hairs, e.g. Stephanotis, cotton and silk cotton.
These provide a large surface area to help the wind carry the fruits or seeds.•

~. \ ii 1k¥ '{ft t"' &-

--11,
parachute of hairs - provides a large
:...' - J, ~ ;\ lf~ r Y' ------
!> ~ surface to help the wind to carry the

----T-
.....
'I.:\ · f, \:; ~ ,.?" fruit
dry fruit - contains a --....,_,,}"-:_..~ .,,¼ r...-
seed. Small and light

a parachute fruit of Tridax

- - - parachute of hairs - provides a large

_.---- surface area

seed- small and light ~

b parachute seed of Stephanotis

Figure 14.12 Parachute fruits and seeds

14 Reproduction
G
 /

• Dispersal by water
Some succulent fruits develop a waterproof exocarp and become buoyant so they can float on water,
e.g. coconut and manchineel.

endocarp - hardened - - - exocarp -

to form the stone waterproof
around the seed

mesocarp - initially fleshy

seed but becomes dry and fibrous
with air trapped between the
fibres to make the
fruit buoyant

Figure 14.13 The succulent fruit of coconut

• Dispersal by mechanical means

Some dry fruits split open along lines of weakness and eject their seeds, e.g. pride of Barbados,
pigeon pea and crotalaria.

remains of style

dry fruit - when fully dry

funicle - stalk attaching - - it splits down the lines of
the seed to the fruit weakness between the
two halves. The halves
curl back suddenly and
flick out the seeds
seeds

Figure 14.14 The pod of pride of Barbados

Revision questions
----- --- -------- --- - --- - ---- - -
1 g,. What is the importance of flowers to flowering plants?

11 State the functions of the parts of a flower.

12 What is pollination?

13 Give FOUR features that would enable you to determine that a flower is
insect pollinated.

14 Describe the events that occur in the carpel of a flowering plant following pollination
that lead to the development of the seed and the fruit.

15 Plants are usually the first organisms to colonise new environments even though they
cannot move from place to place by themselves. Explain, giving specific examples,
the different ways plants can arrive in new environments.

14 Concise Revision Course: CSEC41 Biology