Visit https://ebookfinal.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebooks

Optical Design Fundamentals for Infrared Systems

2nd Edition Max J. Riedl

_____ Click the link below to download _____

https://ebookfinal.com/download/optical-design-
fundamentals-for-infrared-systems-2nd-edition-max-j-
riedl/

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookfinal.com

Here are some suggested products you might be interested in.
Click the link to download

Intermediate Optical Design Michael J. Kidger

https://ebookfinal.com/download/intermediate-optical-design-michael-j-
kidger/

Optical Engineering Fundamentals 2nd Edition Bruce H.

Walker

https://ebookfinal.com/download/optical-engineering-fundamentals-2nd-
edition-bruce-h-walker/

Fundamentals of Forensic Science 2nd Edition Max M. Houck

https://ebookfinal.com/download/fundamentals-of-forensic-science-2nd-
edition-max-m-houck/

Computational methods for electromagnetic and optical

systems 2nd ed Edition Banerjee

https://ebookfinal.com/download/computational-methods-for-
electromagnetic-and-optical-systems-2nd-ed-edition-banerjee/
Handbook of Optical Design 2nd Edition Daniel Malacara

https://ebookfinal.com/download/handbook-of-optical-design-2nd-
edition-daniel-malacara/

Multi Gigabit Transmission over Multimode Optical Fibre

Theory and Design Methods for 10GbE Systems 1st Edition
Stefano Bottacchi
https://ebookfinal.com/download/multi-gigabit-transmission-over-
multimode-optical-fibre-theory-and-design-methods-for-10gbe-
systems-1st-edition-stefano-bottacchi/

Fundamentals of communication systems 2nd ed Edition

Proakis

https://ebookfinal.com/download/fundamentals-of-communication-
systems-2nd-ed-edition-proakis/

Design of Integrated Circuits for Optical Communications

1st Edition Behzad Razavi

https://ebookfinal.com/download/design-of-integrated-circuits-for-
optical-communications-1st-edition-behzad-razavi/

Systems Analysis and Design 10th Edition Harry J.

Rosenblatt

https://ebookfinal.com/download/systems-analysis-and-design-10th-
edition-harry-j-rosenblatt/
Optical Design Fundamentals for Infrared Systems 2nd
Edition Max J. Riedl Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Max J. Riedl
ISBN(s): 9780819440518, 0819440515
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 28.71 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
 Optical Design
fundamentals for
Infrared Systems
Second fdifion
 Tutorial Texts Series
• Optical Design Fundamentals for Infrared Systems, Second Edition., Max J. Riedl, Vol. TT48
• Resolution Enhancement Techniques in Optical Lithography, Alfred Kwok-Kit Wong, Vol. TT47
• Copper Interconnect Technology, Christoph Steinbruchel and Barry L. Chin, Vol. TT46
• Optical Design for Visual Systems, Bruce H. Walker, Vol. TT45
• Fundamentals of Contamination Control, Alan C. Tribble, Vol. TT44
• Evolutionary Computation: Principles and Practice for Signal Processing, David Fogel, Vol. TT43
• Infrared Optics and Zoom Lenses, Allen Mann, Vol. TT42
• Introduction to Adaptive Optics, Robert K. Tyson, Vol. TT41
• Fractal and Wavelet Image Compression Techniques, Stephen Welstead, Vol. TT40
• Analysis of Sampled Imaging Systems, R. H. Vollmerhausen and R. G. Driggers, Vol. TT39
• Tissue Optics: Light Scattering Methods and Instruments for Medical Diagnosis, Valery Tuchin, Vol.
TT38
• Fundamentos de Electro-6ptica Para Ingenieros, Glenn D. Boreman, translated by Javier Alda, Vol. TT37
• Infrared Design Examples, William L. Wolfe, Vol. TT36
• Sensor and Data Fusion Concepts and Applications, Second Edition, L. A. Klein, Vol. TT35
• Practical Applications of Infrared Thermal Sensing and Imaging Equipment, Second Edition, Herbert
Kaplan, Vol. TT34
• Fundamentals of Machine Vision, Harley R. Myler, Vol. TT33
• Design and Mounting of Prisms and Small Mirrors in Optical Instruments, Paul R. Yoder, Jr., Vol. TT32
• Basic Elect ro-Optics for Electrical Engineers, Glenn D. Boreman, Vol. TT31
• Optical Engineering Fundamentals, Bruce H. Walker, Vol. TT30
• Introduction to Radiometry, William L. Wolfe, Vol. TT29
• Lithography Process Control, Harry J. Levinson, Vol. TT28
• An Introduction to Interpretation of Graphic Images, Sergey Ablameyko, Vol. TT27
• Thermal Infrared Characterization of Ground Targets and Backgrounds, P. Jacobs, Vol. TT26
• Introduction to Imaging Spectrometers, William L. Wolfe, Vol. TT25
• Introduction to Infrared System Design, William L. Wolfe, Vol. TT24
• Introduction to Computer-based Imaging Systems, D. Sinha, E. R. Dougherty, Vol. TT23
• Optical Communication Receiver Design, Stephen B. Alexander, Vol. TT22
• Mounting Lenses in Optical Instruments, Paul R. Yoder, Jr., Vol. TT21
• Optical Design Fundamentals for Infrared Systems, Max J. Riedl, Vol. TT20
• An Introduction to Real-Time Imaging, Edward R. Dougherty, Phillip A. Laplante, Vol. TT19
• Introduction to Wavefront Sensors, Joseph M. Geary, Vol. TT18
• Integration of Lasers and Fiber Optics into Robotic Systems, J. A. Marszalec, E. A. Marszalec, Vol, TT17
• An Introduction to Nonlinear Image Processing, E. R. Dougherty, J. Astola, Vol. TT16
• Introduction to Optical Testing, Joseph M. Geary, Vol. TT15
• Image Formation in Low-Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy, L. Reimer, Vol. TT12
• Diazonaphthoquinone-based Resists, Ralph Dammel, Vol. TT11
• Infrared Window and Dome Materials, Daniel C. Harris, Vol. TT10
• An Introduction to Morphological Image Processing, Edward R. Dougherty, Vol. TT9
• An Introduction to Optics in Computers, Henri H. Arsenault, Yunlong Sheng, Vol. TT8
• Digital Image Compression Techniques, Majid Rabbani, Paul W. Jones, Vol. TT7
• Aberration Theory Made Simple, Virendra N. Mahajan, Vol. TT6
• Single-Frequency Semiconductor Lasers, Jens Buus, Vol. TT5
• An Introduction to Biological and Artificial Neural Networks for Pattern Recognition, Steven K. Rogers,
Matthew Kabrisky, Vol. TT4
• Laser Beam Propagation in the Atmosphere, Hugo Weichel, Vol. TT3
• Infrared Fiber Optics, Paul Klocek, George H. Sigel, Jr., Vol. TT2
• Spectrally Selective Surfaces for Heating and Cooling Applications, C. G. Granqvist, Vol. TT1
 Optical Design
fundamentals for
Infrared Systems
Second fdi}ion

Max]. Riedl

Tutorial Texts in Optical Engineering

Volume TT48
Arthur R. Weeks, Jr., Series Editor
Invivo Research Inc. and University of Central Florida

SPIE PRESS
A Publication of SPIE—The International Society for Optical Engineering
Bellingham, Washington USA
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Riedl, Max J.
Optical design fundamentals for infrared systems / Max J. Riedl.-- 2" d ed.
p. cm. — (Tutorial texts in optical engineering; v. TT48)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8194-4051-5
1. Optical instruments–Design and construction. 2. Infrared equipment–Design and
construction. I. Title. II. Series.

TS514.R53 2001
621.36'2—dc21 00-068758
CIP

Published by

SPIE—The International Society for Optical Engineering

P.O. Box 10
Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA
Phone: (1) 360 676 3290
Fax: (1) 360 647 1445
Email: [email protected]
WWW: www.spie.org

Copyright © 2001 The Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed

in any form or by any means without written permission of the publisher.

Printed in the United States of America.

 Introduction to the Series
The Tutorial Texts series was initiated in 1989 as a way to make the material presented in
SPIE short courses available to those who couldn't attend and to provide a reference book
for those who could. Typically, short course notes are developed with the thought in
mind that supporting material will be presented verbally to complement the notes, which
are generally written in summary form, highlight key technical topics, and are not
intended as stand-alone documents. Additionally, the figures, tables, and other
graphically formatted information included with the notes require further explanation
given in the instructor's lecture. As stand-alone documents, short course notes do not
generally serve the student or reader well.

Many of the Tutorial Texts have thus started as short course notes subsequently expanded
into books. The goal of the series is to provide readers with books that cover focused
technical interest areas in a tutorial fashion. What separates the books in this series from
other technical monographs and textbooks is the way in which the material is presented.
Keeping in mind the tutorial nature of the series, many of the topics presented in these
texts are followed by detailed examples that further explain the concepts presented. Many
pictures and illustrations are included with each text, and where appropriate tabular
reference data are also included.

To date, the texts published in this series have encompassed a wide range of topics, from
geometrical optics to optical detectors to image processing. Each proposal is evaluated to
determine the relevance of the proposed topic. This initial reviewing process has been
very helpful to authors in identifying, early in the writing process, the need for additional
material or other changes in approach that serve to strengthen the text. Once a manuscript
is completed, it is peer reviewed to ensure that chapters communicate accurately the
essential ingredients of the processes and technologies under discussion.

During the past nine years, my predecessor, Donald C. O'Shea, has done an excellent job
in building the Tutorial Texts series, which now numbers nearly forty books. It has
expanded to include not only texts developed by short course instructors but also those
written by other topic experts. It is my goal to maintain the style and quality of books in
the series, and to further expand the topic areas to include emerging as well as mature
subjects in optics, photonics, and imaging.

Arthur R. Weeks, Jr.

Invivo Research Inc. and University of Central Florida
Once more, to Hermine, Renee, Jim, Bryan, and Stephanie.
CONTENTS
Preface............................................................................................................................. xv
Historical Remarks ......................................................................................................... xvii

Chapter 1. Radiometric Considerations

1 .1 Introduction ...................................................................................................1
1.2 Basic Optical Relations ................................................................................. 1
1.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio .................................................................................... 2
1.4 Extended Simplified Radiometric Performance Equation ............................. 4
1.5 Thermal Radiation Laws ............................................................................... 4
1.5.1 Blackbody radiation and Planck's law ............................................. 5
1.5.2 The Stefan-Boltzmann law .............................................................. 6
1.5.3 Wien's displacement law ................................................................. 7
1.5.4 Kirchhoff's law and emissivity ........................................................ 7
1.6 Transmission through the Atmosphere .......................................................... 8
1.6.1 Permanent constituents of dry atmosphere ...................................... 9
1.6.2 Variable constituents ....................................................................... 9
1.6.3 Approximation (assumption) .......................................................... 9
1.6.4 Precipitable water (definition) ......................................................10
1.6.5 Humidity ....................................................................................... 11
1.6.6 Precipitable water (calculation) .................................................... 11
1.6.7 Atmospheric transmission (calculation) ........................................12
1.6.8 Computer models .......................................................................... 13
1.7 Typical IR Detectors ...................................................................................14
1.7.1 Thermal detectors ......................................................................... 14
1.7.2 Photon or quantum detectors ........................................................14
1.7.3 Photoconductive detectors ............................................................ 14
1.7.4 Specific detectivity and noise equivalent bandwidth ....................15
1.7.5 Detector configurations ................................................................. 16
References................................................................................................... 17

Chapter 2. Basic Optics

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 19

2.2 Snell's Law and the Prism .......................................................................... 20
2.3 The Transition from a Prism to a Lens ........................................................ 20
2.4 Image Formation ......................................................................................... 21
2.5 Object—Image Relations .............................................................................. 23
2.6 Stops, Pupils, and Windows ........................................................................ 24
2.7 Throughput .................................................................................................. 26
2.8 Energy Transfer ........................................................................................... 28
2.8.1 Signal-to-noise calculations .......................................................... 28

ix
 2.9 Differential Changes ................................................................................... 29
2.10 Optical Gain ................................................................................................ 30
2.10.1 Immersion lenses .......................................................................... 30
2.10.2 Light pipes .................................................................................... 33
2.10.3 Field lens ....................................................................................... 34
2.11 Field of View for Staring Arrays ................................................................. 34
References................................................................................................... 35

Chapter 3. Primary Aberrations

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 37

3.2 Primary Aberrations .................................................................................... 37
3.2.1 Spherical aberration ...................................................................... 37
3.2.2 Coma ............................................................................................. 38
3.2.3 Astigmatism .................................................................................. 39
3.2.4 Field curvature .............................................................................. 40
3.2.5 Distortion ...................................................................................... 41
3.2.6 Axial chromatic aberration ........................................................... 41
3.2.7 Lateral chromatic aberration ........................................................ 42
3.3 Calculations of Primary Aberrations ........................................................... 42
3.3.1 Spherical aberration ...................................................................... 44
3.3.2 Coma ............................................................................................. 46
3.3.3 Astigmatism .................................................................................. 47
3.3.4 Field curvature .............................................................................. 47
3.3.5 Astigmatism and field curvature combined ................................... 48
3.3.6 Axial chromatic aberration ........................................................... 49
3.3.7 Numerical example ........................................................................50
3.4 General Aberration Correction Methods ..................................................... 53
3.5 Doublets ...................................................................................................... 53
3.5.1 Two elements, same material ........................................................ 53
3.5.2 Two elements, different materials ................................................. 55
3.5.3 The achromat ................................................................................ 56
3.6 Two Thin Air-spaced Elements ................................................................... 57
3.6.1 The Petzval objective .................................................................... 57
3.6.2 Refractive beam expanders ........................................................... 59
3.6.3 Telephotos .................................................................................... 62
3.7 Reflective Optics ......................................................................................... 62
3.7.1 The spherical mirror ..................................................................... 63
3.7.2 The Mangin mi ror ........................................................................ 65
3.7.3 Classical two-mirror configurations .............................................. 67
3.7.4 The two-sphere Cassegrain system ............................................... 68
3.7.5 The two-sphere Gregory system .................................................. 71
3.7.6 Schwarzschild, a very special case ................................................ 72
3.7.7 Reflective beam expanders ........................................................... 73
3.8 Diffraction Limit ......................................................................................... 74
3.9 Resolution of Imaging Systems ...................................................................75
References................................................................................................... 76

►:M
Chapter 4. Wave Aberrations

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 77

4.2 Diverging and Converging Waves .............................................................. 77
4.3 Optical Path Length OPL ............................................................................ 78
4.4 Optical Path Difference OPD (Wave Front Aberration) ............................ 78
4.5 Spherical Aberration ................................................................................... 78
4.5.1 Numerical example ....................................................................... 79
4.5.2 Best focus position ........................................................................ 81
4.6 Third-Order Spherical Aberration ............................................................... 82
4.7 Depth of Focus ............................................................................................ 82
References................................................................................................... 82

Chapter 5. Special Optical Surfaces and Components

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................. 83

5.2 The Plane-Parallel Plate .............................................................................. 83
5.2.1 Displacements ............................................................................... 83
5.2.2 Optical micrometer ....................................................................... 85
5.2.3 Aberration contributions ............................................................... 86
5.2.4 Application remarks ...................................................................... 87
5.2.5 The wedge (thin prism) ................................................................. 90
5.3 Domes ......................................................................................................91
5.4 The Ball Lens .............................................................................................. 93
5.4.1 Spherical aberration ...................................................................... 94
5.4.2 An aspherized ball lens ................................................................. 94
5.5 Gradient Index Lens .................................................................................... 95
5.6 Conic Sections and General Aspheres ......................................................... 97
5.6.1 Mathematical expressions ............................................................. 98
5.6.2 Reflectors with conic section surfaces .......................................... 99
5.6.3 Lenses with conic section surfaces ............................................. 100
5.6.4 Common two-mirror configurations using conic section
surfaces:......................................................................................103
5.6.5 General aspheres (surfaces of rotation) ....................................... 103
5.6.6 Two conic section mirrors with an aspheric corrector ................104
5.6.7 Three-mirror configurations ........................................................105
5.7 Diffractive (Binary) Optics ....................................................................... 107
5.7.1 The simple diffractive singlet .....................................................107
5.7.2 The hybrid achromat ...................................................................109
5.7.3 Numerical examples .................................................................... l l 1
5.7.4 Diffraction efficiency .................................................................. 114
5.7.5 "Useful" spectral bandwidth .......................................................115
5.7.6 Diffraction efficiency for a particular order ................................ 115
5.7.7 The hybrid achromat, corrected for chromatic and spherical
aberrations.................................................................................. 116
5.7.8 Binary optics ............................................................................... 117
References................................................................................................. 119

xi
Chapter 6. Design Examples

6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 121

6.2 Basic Assumptions for the High-and Low Temperature Applications ......121
6.2.1 Optics for high-temperature system (3-5 µm) ............................ 122
6.2.2 Optics for low-temperature system #1 (8-12 µm) ...................... 122
6.2.3 Optics for low-temperature system #2 (8-12 run) ...................... 123
6.2.4 Optics for low-temperature system #3 (8-12 µm) ......................123
6.3 The Improved Petzval Objective ...............................................................125
6.3.1 Numerical example for a LWIR application ...............................126
6.3.2 Manufacturing remarks ............................................................... 128
6.4 Instantaneous Field of View ......................................................................128
References................................................................................................. 129

Chapter 7. Thermal Effects

7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 131

7.2 Changing Parameters .................................................................................131
7.3 Defocus with Change of Temperature .......................................................132
7.4 Defocus of Singlet .....................................................................................132
7.5 Athermalization with a Doublet ................................................................133
7.6 The Athermalized Achromat .....................................................................135
7.6.1 The all-refractive athermal achromat ..........................................136
7.6.2 The hybrid athermal achromat ....................................................137
7.7 Cold Stop and Cold Shield ........................................................................138
7.7.1 Cold stop .....................................................................................138
7.7.2 Cold shield ..................................................................................138
References.................................................................................................13 9

Chapter 8. Optical Coatings

8.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................141

8.2 Effects at a Single Surface ........................................................................ 141
8.3 Two Plane-Parallel Surfaces ..................................................................... 142
8.4 Antireflection Coatings ............................................................................. 143
8.5 Reflective Coatings ................................................................................... 145
8.6 Typical Interference Filters ....................................................................... 146
8.6.1 Angular sensitivity of filters ...................................................... 148
8.6.2 Thermal sensitivity of filters .....................................................149
References................................................................................................. 150

Chapter 9. Image Evaluation

9.1 Introduction ............................................................................................... 151

9.2 Blur Spot Measurements ...........................................................................151
9.2.1 Circular mask .............................................................................. 151
9.2.2 Slit ..............................................................................................152
9 .2.3 Knife Edge ..................................................................................152
9.3 Energy Distribution ...................................................................................154

xu
 9.4 Modulation Transfer Function ..................................................................154
9.4.1 Overview .....................................................................................155
9.4.2 Contrast and resolving power .....................................................157
9.4.3 Diffraction MTF .........................................................................160
9.4.4 Geometric MTF ..........................................................................161
9.4.5 Numerical example .....................................................................161
References.................................................................................................163

Chapter 10. Diamond Turning

10.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................165

10.2 Overview ...................................................................................................165
10.3 Surface Finish ...........................................................................................166
10.4 Scattering ..................................................................................................168
10.5 Shape Correction ....................................................................................... 169
10.6 Optical Surface Testing .............................................................................169
10.6.1 Surface roughness ....................................................................... 169
10.6.2 Surface shape ..............................................................................171
10.7 Machining Time ........................................................................................ 171
10.8 Further Progress and Developments ..........................................................172
References.................................................................................................172

Appendix

A.1 Paraxial Ray Tracing ................................................................................. 173

A.1.1 Surface equations ........................................................................ 173
A.1.2 Power equations (ray tracing through thin lenses) ...................... 175
A.2 Spherical Aberration of a Thin Lens ........................................................ 176
A.2.1 Derivation of expression ............................................................. 176
A.2.2 Blur spot size .............................................................................. 178
A.3 Optical and Thermal Data for Some Infrared Materials ............................178
A.3.1 Selected materials for the 3-5-µm spectral band ........................ 179
A.3.2 Selected materials for the 8-12-µm spectral band ...................... 179
References................................................................................................. 181

Index ..............................................................................................................................181

xm
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
The many positive remarks about the first edition and listening to the feedback from
the students over the past five years encouraged me to expand upon the original material
in this second edition.

To that end, the subject of beam expanders was modified, and achromats have been
covered in more detail. In a chapter on Special Optical Surfaces and Components, the ball
lens, gradient optics, and three-mirror configurations have been added.

New chapters are Wave Aberrations, Thermal Effects, Design Examples, and
Diamond Turning. In Wave Aberrations, besides the concept, comparison of spherical
aberration with the Seidel coefficient is discussed. The chapter Thermal Effects deals with
methods of designing athermats, lenses that compensate for the undesired results caused
by temperature excursions. The chapter Design Example is an application-based summary
of the subjects covered in the earlier chapters of the book. Because diamond turning is
especially suitable for producing aspheres and diffractive infrared elements, a chapter has
been added to describe this manufacturing method.

To follow the style of the first edition, the added material contains practical
approaches with approximations and many numerical examples.

I thank Rick Hermann and Sharon Streams of SPIE for their support and editorial
assistance. I also thank my friend and colleague Robert E. Fischer for reviewing this
second edition. His suggestions have been most valuable.

Max J. Riedl
February 2001

PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION

This tutorial is intended to provide a basic approach to the optical design of infrared
systems. It is written for systems engineers whose expertise is outside the field of optics.
The material presented can be applied directly to the initial optical system layout phase to
evaluate trade-offs of various configurations. It will also be very helpful in conveying
requirements and expectations to an experienced lens designer.

Over the past decades, much emphasis has been placed on the use of computers in
lens design. Powerful programs developed for the lens designer have made it possible to
explore new and different approaches for fording better solutions to optical design
challenges. Unfortunately, the process of using computers to perform the required
calculations is often referred to as automatic lens design. But to obtain a sensible optical
system, one that is practical to manufacture and meets cost-related and other special
demands, the starting configuration must have a chance to meet those demands.

xv
Optimization programs only succeed in fmding the best available solution from local
conditions. Therefore, it is important to start in the right neighborhood. To identify this
neighborhood—a promising starting point—is one of the goals of this tutorial text.
Designing lenses for the infrared region is in some ways easier than working in the
visible spectrum, since the wavelengths are longer, the index of refraction of most lens
materials is higher, and their relative dispersion is lower. This generally results in smaller
primary aberrations. Third-order aberration calculations are often sufficient to predict
meaningful performance expectations even if the system is simplified to a set of thin
lenses. (lenses with zero thickness). The fact that the diffraction limit is 10 to 20 times
larger in the infrared than in the visible region adds to the usefulness of applying third-
order aberration theory.

Most of the materials used for infrared lenses and mirrors lend themselves to single-
point diamond turning. For that reason, aspheric and diffractive surfaces are routinely
employed since they are no more difficult to generate by this method than spherical
surfaces and offer to the correction of aberrations. Aspheric and diffractive surfaces are
discussed in detail and are also treated in several numerical examples.

Throughout this tutorial text, much emphasis has been placed on the practical aspect
of the material presented. This is reflected by the many approximations that yield useful
answers—especially welcomed during the proposal stage when time and resources are
usually scarce.

This book is organized to follow the flow of radiant energy from the source to the
detector. This flow is expressed with a simplified radiometric equation whose components
identify the major contributors to overall system performance.

While a great deal of material is covered, details had to be limited. It is hoped that
what is presented will be of value not only in the predesign stages of infrared systems, but
also as a stimulus to dig deeper into the existing literature of this exciting field.

The material presented is a collection of notes from early in-house engineering

seminars that led eventually to a more formally structured presentation as part of the SPIE
short-course program. Much of what I am sharing in these pages is based on my long-time
professional and personal association with Warren J. Smith, who along with Donald C.
O'Shea reviewed the manuscript, and Lowell L. Baskins. My special thanks go to the
reviewers for their substantial help; their comments and suggestions greatly improved the
quality of the text.

Mar J. Riedl
October 1995

xvi
HISTORICAL REMARKS
It was 200 years ago that Sir William Herschel, the Royal Astronomer to King
George III, made his famous discovery. He wanted to find some protection for his eyes
while looking into the sun. In his experiments he noticed an increased response as he
scanned the thermometer from the blue end of the spectrum toward the red. This was not
new; it had been done before. However, when he moved the thermometer into the dark
portion beyond the red, where his eyes could not perceive any light, he noticed that the
heat effect increased. That is the region we now call the infrared region.

Over the years, the thermometer was replaced by other detectors.' In 1829, the first
thermopile was introduced by Nobili, which was improved four years later by Melloni.
During the 1880s, several more sensitive detectors were developed. Most notable was the
Langley bolometer, which was about 30 times more sensitive than Melloni's thermopile.
In 1917, Case developed the first photoconductive detector, using thallous sulfide.

An interesting discovery occurred during the 1930s at the Institute of Physics at

Berlin, when Kutzscher experimented with lead sulfide crystals he had found in Italy.
Accidentally he noticed that these crystals were infrared sensitive. 2 This discovery led
eventually to an infrared search and tracking device.

In 1952, the U.S Army built the first scanning thermal imagers, which were called
thermographs. 3 With the development of cooled short-time-constant indium antimonide
(InSb) and mercury doped germanium (Ge:Hg) photodetectors in the late 1950s, the first
fast framing sensors appeared, and in 1956 the first long wavelength FLIR was built at the
University of Chicago.

Now, the technology has advanced to a point where thermal imagers and other
infrared devices have found their place in many applications other than military functions.
These applications range from medical, border control, safety and security,
telecommunication, forensic investigations, and many more.

References

1. R. Hudson, Infrared System Engineering, John Wiley (1969), p. 6.

2. A. R. Vogler, The Odyssey of a Scientist, California State University,
Fullerton (1986).
3. J. M. Lloyd, Thermal Imaging Systems, Plenum Press (1975), p. 5.

xvi'
CHAPTER 1

Radiometric Considerations
1.1 Introduction

This first part begins with identifying the basic elements that make up an optical
system: source or target, aperture stop, field stop, image plane, entrance and exit pupils,
entrance and exit windows. These elements and necessary radiometric definitions are
discussed and applied in analyzing the extended simplified radiometric performance
equation [Eq. (1.7)]. This equation is structured to include the major contributions to the
detected signal in an optical system: the thermal radiation laws that describe the
transmission through the atmosphere, the optics of the system, and finally the response of
the detector.

These concepts are discussed in sequence, except the third one, which will be
addressed last and in more detail, because it embraces the major subject of this tutorial,
optics.

1.2 Basic Optical Relations

An axial ray travels from the axial object point through the lens and on to the image
plane. The axial ray that passes through the edge of the aperture stop is called the
marginal axial ray. The principal ray, also referred to as the chief ray, is an oblique ray
from an off-axis object point through the center of the aperture stop. The marginal
principal ray begins at the edge of the covered object and travels through the center of the
aperture stop and the edge of the field stop. As will be discussed in Chapter3, these two
marginal rays are the only ones needed to calculate the primary, third-order aberrations. u
and up are the angles formed by the axial ray and the principal ray relative to the optical
axis. This is indicated in Fig. 1.1. The aperture stop is the physical opening in the optical
system that limits the size of the axial energy cone from the object. The image of the
aperture stop in the object space is the entrance pupil, and the image of the aperture stop
in the image space is the exit pupil. In lens systems, the object space is to the left of the
first lens surface. The image space is to the right of the last lens surface. The opening that
limits angle up of the principal ray is the field stop. Its image in object space is the
entrance window. In the image space, the field stop image is the exit window. In Fig. 1.1,
D is the size of the aperture stop and d' is the size of the field stop.

Figure 1.1 also indicates that an object located a distance s to the left of the lens is
imaged at distance s' to the right of the lens.
2 OPTICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR INFRARED SYSTEMS

In many cases, the object (target) can be considered to be located at infinity. The
image is then formed in the focal plane of the lens. The axial ray angle u will be zero and
the image distance s' becomes f, the focal length. The ratio of the focal length and the
entrance pupil diameter is called the relative aperture or f-number (f /#).

FIG. 1.1 Basic relations of imaging optics.

1.3 Signal-to-Noise Ratio

There are several means of evaluating the performance of a complete system, such
as MRT 1 (minim um resolvable temperature) and MDT (minimum detectable
temperature). However, because the objective of this tutorial is to concentrate primarily
on the optical portion of an infrared system, we limit ourselves to just one measure, the
signal-to-noise ratio (S/N).

In its simplest form, the signal-noise-ratio is stated by

(1.1)
S/N = NEP
where P is the collected radiant power in watts that is received by the detector. NEP
represents the noise equivalent power, a measure of the minim um signal that yields a
unity signal-to-noise ratio.

The power can be calculated from

EP x EW EP'x EW'
P= SZN= Si2N, (1.2)

where EP and EW are the entrance pupil and entrance window areas (cm z ) and s is the
separation of the entrance window from the entrance pupil (cm). N is called the radiance
 CHAPTER 1. RADIOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS 3

of the source (W cm 2 ster I ). The primed symbols refer to the image side of the system.
EP' and EW' are exit pupil and exit window and s' is the separation of the two.

In this fundamental expression, N appears equal in both relations, indicating that no

reduction of radiation has been accounted for due to loss in transmission or other factors.

The principal point to be made is that Eq. (1.2) is an invariant. It provides a choice
for determining the power transfer from either the object side (target side) or the image
side (detector side).

When the object is located at infinity, the image is formed in the focal plane. In this
case, the area of the exit pupil is De n/4, and s' becomes f, which modifies the image-side
expression of Eq. (1.2) to read

D 2 1L d i2
P= 4f 2 N, . (1.3)

where d' is the linear dimension of the square detector. The detector is the exit window.

The radiated power in watts per square centimeter from a flat diffuse source surface
into a hemisphere is the radiant emittance W. The relationship between the radiant
emittance and the radiance is N WIn.

With this and the substitution off/# for f/D, Eq. (1.3) becomes

d '2
W. (1.4)
P=4(f.l#)2

The noise equivalent power NEP is a function of the detector size d', the electrical
bandwidth Of used in the measurement, and the detector figure of merit D *, which has the
somewhat unusual dimension of cm Hz" 2 W 1 . D * is the signal-to-noise ratio when 1 W is
incident on a detector having a sensitive area of 1 cm2 , and the noise is measured with an
electrical bandwidth of 1 Hz. So,

NEP = d D*(1.5)

Substituting Eqs. (1.4) and (1.5) into Eq. (1.1) yields

D*d'W
S/N = 4 (1.6)
(.f/#) 2 V J
This simple expression indicates the strong influence of the chosen optical system.
The S/N is inversely proportional to the square off /#, the relative aperture. This means
that an IR system with an f /l objective performs four times better with regard to S/N than
4 OPTICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR INFRARED SYSTEMS

an f /2. Unfortunately, as we will see in Chapter 3, the "faster" (low f /#) a lens is, the
larger the aberrations.

1.4 Extended Simplified Radiometric Performance Equation

Equation (1.6) can be extended to indicate the flow of the radiant energy from the
source (target) to the detector by stating

Signal-to-noise ratio = [source power — background power]x[atmosphere transmission]

x[optical throughput]x[detector efficiency],
or
*
S/N = L WT £ T - WB E B][t AJ{ ^ O ^ 2 D (1.7)
4(f /#) ^f

In Eq. (1.7), d' is included in the optics bracket. Even though d' is the linear
dimension of the square detector, it is also the dimension of the field stop and exit
window. The expression assumes that the image of the target is larger than the detector,
i.e., the radiation received from the target "fills" the detector.

We shall now address each of the brackets of this simplified expression. Because of
our emphasis on optics, the third bracket will be discussed last.

1.5 Thermal Radiation Laws

SIN= [WT - WHEW] [tA][ f/# 2 D* 1.

4(f/# ) of

In this first bracket of Eq. (1.7), W is the radiant emittance in watts per square
centimeter within the spectral bandwidth of interest. c is called emissivity; C is
dimensionless and its meaning will be discussed shortly. The subscripts T and B refer to
target and background respectively. Background radiation is the radiation coming from
the surrounding target. The effective or net radiant emittance is the difference between
 CHAPTER 1. RADIOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS 5

target and background radiation. This means that there has to be a radiation difference,
positive or negative, to detect or resolve a target (object).

1.5.1 Blackbody radiation and Planck's law

A blackbody is defined as a perfect radiator which absorbs all radiation incident

upon it.

In his investigation, to fmd a relation between the radiation emitted by a blackbody

as a function of temperature and wavelength, Max Planck (1858-1947) developed the
now famous equation named after him. His efforts laid the foundation of the quantum
theory, for which he received the Nobel prize in 1918. 2
On October 19, 1900, he first reported his findings, which were based on his
experimental work. Z Only two months later, on December 14, he presented the theoretical
derivation of the equation' that described the blackbody radiation curve:

CI
W^ - X51eC21%T _^^ (1.8)

where W. = spectral radiant emittance (W cm 2 µm I ), X = wavelength (µm), T =

blackbody temperature (K), C I = 37,418, and C2 = 14,388, when the area is in square
centimeters. e = base of the natural logarithm (2.7 18.....).

In Eq. (1.8) notice there is a strong dependence on the wavelength and that W, goes
to zero when ? = 0 and o. Planck's curve for a 500 K blackbody is shown in Fig. 1.2.

FIG. 1.2 Planck's curve for a blackbody source with T = 500 K.

To determine the radiant emittance over a spectral band, we integrate under the
Planck curve between the limiting wavelengths X I and X 2 . An example of a selected
spectral band is indicated in Fig. 1.3.
6 OPTICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR INFRARED SYSTEMS

k 2

W=
J YID CA (1.9)

FIG. 1.3 Radiant emittance within a selected spectral bandwidth.

To perform the integration, one can use published tables or special slide rules'. A
very convenient way is to apply Simpson's rule with the aid of a calculator. For that
purpose we state that

W = ^W^ AX . (1.10)
xl

Using a &. of 0.05 or even 0.1 p.m is sufficient for summations over the mid-
wavelength (MWIR) and long-wavelength (LWIR) infrared regions (3-5, and 8-12 pm).
It is also good to remember that if the spectral band is relatively narrow, W &..

1.5.2 The Stefan-Boltzmann law

Independently, Josef Stefan (1835-1893) and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906)

found experimentally that the total radiation emitted by a blackbody (the area under the
Planck curve) is

Wtata, = 6T 4 , (1.11)

where a = 5.66961 x 10 12 (W cm 2 K -4 ) and T = source temperature (K).

 CILAPTER 1. RADIOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS 7

1.5.3 Wien's displacement law

There is a simple and interesting relationship between the peak wavelength and the
temperature at which a blackbody radiates. Wilhelm Carl Werner Otto Fritz Wien
(1864-1928), a Nobel prize recipient in 1911, discovered this behavior of the blackbody
[Eq. (1.12)]. The equation states that the product of the peak wavelength and the source
temperature is constant, which means the peak of the radiation shifts to shorter
wavelengths as the temperature increases. Fig. 1.4 shows the displacement of the peak
wavelength.

2T2897.8
2897.8 (µm K). (1.12)

Applying Planck's law, the spectral radiant emittance at the peak wavelength is

W^ max =1.288x10 -15 T 5 (WCM 2 µm 1 ). (1.13)

FIG. 1.4 Wien's displacement law.

1.5.4 Kirchhoff's law and emissivity

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) stated in 1860 that "at thermal equilibrium,
the power radiated by an object must be equal to the power absorbed." This leads to the
observation that if an object absorbs 100 percent of the radiation incident upon it, it must
reradiate 100 percent. As already stated, this is the definition of a blackbody radiator.

Most radiation sources are not blackbodies. Some of the energy incident upon them
may be reflected or transmitted. The ratio of the radiant emittance W' of such a source and
the radiant emittance W of a blackbody at the same temperature is called the emissivity e
of the source:
8 OPTICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR INFRARED SYSTEMS

F-= WSW. (1.14)

With this relation, different types of radiation sources can be classified as indicated
in Fig. 1.5 where the curve for the blackbody with £ = 1 is Plank's curve. The curve for a
graybody is proportional to Plank's curve for all wavelengths. The spectral radiant
emittance for a selective radiator varies not only with temperature but also with
wavelength.
WX

Blackbody (c = 1)

Selective Radiator (£ = f (A.,T))

\ ^ Graybody (E < 1)

x
FIG. 1.5 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators.

1.6 Transmission through the Atmosphere

tr o d' D*
S /N = [WT£ T - WB E B I [tA ]
I
[4(f/#)2 ] [ O f.1

The second bracket of Eq. (1.7) addresses the transmission of radiant energy through
the atmosphere.

To assess all influences that can affect the transmission is a very complex matter.
Much work has been done by many researchers over many years to model the attenuation
caused by the atmospheric gases.' Many variables, such as changes in temperature;
pressure of the gases; shapes, sizes, and chemical compositions of suspended particles;
and slanted optical path for example, make it extremely difficult to predict IR
transmittance of the atmosphere. Our purpose here is to point out that when the IR system
under consideration is to be employed over a long distance, atmospheric absorption
effects may have to be included. Depending on the application, a cursory look may be
sufficient. In some cases, however, a very detailed analysis will be necessary.

We limit our discussion to a horizontal path, near sea level, and develop
approximations that allow us to obtain a basic understanding of the primary impact of the
atmosphere on IR systems.
 CHAPTER 1. RADIOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS 9

1.6.1 Permanent constituents of dry atmosphere

The relative concentrations of gases present in dry atmosphere are nearly constant
and are therefore called the permanent constituents. Table 1.1 identifies these constituents
and indicates their absorption characteristic in the infrared spectrum.

Table 1.1 Permanent constituents of dry atmosphere.'

Constituent Chemical Percent by Absorbs

(major) formula volume between 2 and 15 µm

Nitrogen N2 78.084 No
Oxygen 02 20.946 No
Argon A 0.934 No
Carbon dioxide CO2 0.032 Yes
Neon Ne 1.818x10 -3 No
Helium He 5.24x10 -4 No
Methane CH, 2.Ox10 -4 Yes
Krypton Kr 1.14x104 No
Nitrous oxide N20 5.0x10-5 Yes
Hydrogen H2 5.0x105 No
Xenon Xe 9.0x10 -6 No
Carbon monoxide CO 7.5x10 -6 Yes

1.6.2 Variable constituents

The two major constituents in the atmosphere that vary with temperature and
altitude are ozone and water vapor.

Since the maximum concentration of ozone occurs at a high altitude (between 10

and 30 km above the earth's surface), we can ignore its effect and state that

water vapor causes most of the absorption in the IR region at sea level.

1.6.3 Approximation (assumption)

Near sea level one can approximate the transmittance through the earth's atmosphere
by considering the absorption effects of carbon dioxide and water vapor only. This is
expressed by
tatmos = t COz XT H z O . ( 1.15)

Here, H 2 O represents water vapor whose density varies with temperature and
humidity. Figure 1.6 shows the infrared wavelength regions where the transmittance is
affected by the presence of water vapor and carbon dioxide.
10 OPTICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR INFRARED SYSTEMS

FIG. 1.6 Spectral windows in the infrared.

1.6.4 Precipitable water (definition)

The amount of water vapor contained in the optical path is called precipitable water.
Important to remember is the word vapor, i.e., water in gaseous form. Precipitable water
(Fig. 1.7) is defined as the depth of the layer of water that would be formed if all the
water vapor along the line of sight was condensed in a container having the same cross
section as the optical bundle.

FIG. 1.7 Precipitable water, concept.

Notice that it is not necessary to know the cross-sectional area of the optical bundle
(cylinder). If the cross section increases, more water is condensed, but it is spread over a
larger area and its depth remains constant.
 CHAPTER 1. RADIOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS 11

1.6.5 Humidity

The calculation of the total amount of precipitable water along the line of sight of
an optical system includes the existing relative humidity. Let us state a few relationships
about humidity in general and then apply them to an example. To simplify matters
somewhat, we shall develop some approximations.

Absolute humidity [ AH (gm -3)

AH(t) is the mass of water vapor in unit volume of the atmosphere at temperature
t (°C). AHsat(t) is the maximum amount of water vapor the atmosphere can hold at
temperature t. This condition is called saturation.

Relative humidity (RH)

Relative humidity is simply the ratio between the mass of water vapor per unit
volume present in the air and the mass of water vapor in saturated air at the same
temperature, i.e.,
AH(t)
RH= (1.16)
AHs (t)

1.6.6 Precipitable water (calculation)

The amount of precipitable water is conveniently expressed in millimeter per meter

path length and can be calculated by

pw =10-3 AH(t) = 10-3 AHsar (t) x RH. (1.17)

For the temperature range from 0° to 35°C, (32° to 95°F), an approximation for the
absolute humidity at saturation is

AHD = 5.071962e 11.0596881 (1.18)

This approximation is accurate to better than 5% throughout the stated temperature

range.

For a 1-km path length, Eq. (1.18) can be restated as

pw = 5.072e o.o597r x RH (min/km). (1.19)

The nomogram shown in Fig. 1.8 is based on this expression.

12 OPTICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR INFRARED SYSTEMS

Temperature Precipitable Water Relative Humidity

t(°C) pw (mm/km) RH (%)

100
40
80
35 30
60
20
— 50
15
30 40
10
8 30
6
25
20
4
15
20
2
155 0

15 1 1H 8
7.8 6

D.4 4
10

D.2
5
.I5 2

0.1
0 1

FIG. 1.8 Nomogram for determining the amount of precipitable water from the temperature and
relative humidity.

In the example shown in Fig. 1.8, an atmosphere with 60% relative humidity at
32°C, contains 20 mm/km precipitable water.

1.6.7 Atmospheric transmission (calculation)

Equation (1.15) states that the total transmission through the atmosphere for specific
conditions can be approximated by the product of the transmission components of carbon
dioxide and water vapor.

To assess the effects over different spectral bandwidths, varying path lengths and
precipitable water contents requires, even with our simplified expression, the aid of
lookup tables, such as provided in Ref. 6. To determine the total transmission in the
MWIR region (3-5 µm) for the example referred to in Fig. 1.8, we fmd the average
 CHAPTER 1. RADIOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS 13

transmittance of CO 2 from the tables in Ref. 6 for a 1-km path length 2 = 0.848, and

the average transmittance for 20-mm precipitable water H2 OZ = 0.591. Therefore, the total
transmission through the atmosphere over 1 km near sea level at 32 °C, and 60 percent
relative humidity is approximately tia °S = 0.8.48 x 0.591 - 0.50. For the same
,,

temperature and humidity conditions, the total transmission over 1 km in the LWIR
region (8 to 12 µm) is considerably better, namely tram,,, = 0.995 x 0.723 = 0.72.

Figure 1.9 is a plot of the atmospheric transmission for both infrared windows
(MWIR, and LWIR) over I km. The above calculated examples are indicated. The two
curves provide information of the impact of the precipitable water contents variation over
the two major IR windows.

Atmospheric Transmission TA

0.72

0.5

1 2 5 10 20 50 100
Precipitable Water (mm)

FIG. 1.9 Transmission over 1-km path for the MWIR and LWIR spectral bands.

1.6.8 Computer models

It is obvious that the subject of atmospheric transmission is extremely complex. The

increase of available computer power and the dedicated efforts of many specialists in this
field have led to computer models that are very detailed. At the present, some of the
commercially available program models are LOWTRAN, HITRAN, and SENTRAN.
14 OPTICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR INFRARED SYSTEMS

1.7 Typical IR Detectors

iod D*
SIN= [WT£T - WBEB]IT.411 2]
( 0

In this section we will briefly address the bracket of the simplified performance
equation [Eq. (1.17)], which relates to the detector of the system. We begin by identifying
the two basic groups of detectors that are commonly used for converting radiant energy
into an electrical signal.

1.7.1 Thermal detectors

A thermal detector absorbs radiant energy, which causes a change of the detector's
electrical characteristics. This electrical response to a change in the target temperature
produces a signal that can be amplified and displayed.

One of the most attractive characteristics of thermal detectors is the equal response
to all wavelengths. This contributes to the stability of a system that must operate over a
wide temperature range. Another significant factor is that thermal detectors do not require
cooling.

However, the response time of these detectors is in milliseconds and therefore

relatively slow. Furthermore, their detectivity is as much as one or two orders of
magnitude lower than that experienced with photon detectors.

The most common thermal detectors are thermocouple, thermopile, bolometer, and
pyroelectric.

1.7.2 Photon or quantum detectors

Photon or quantum detectors operate on the quantum or photon effect. Photons are
absorbed and produce free-charge carriers that change the electrical characteristic of the
responsive element.

Photon detectors are much faster than thermal detectors; their response is in
microseconds. As already mentioned, their detectivity is considerably higher. To obtain
this high detectivity, the detector must be cooled. For moderate temperature reductions,
one- or multistage thermoelectric coolers are employed. To provide cooling to very low
temperatures of 77 K and even lower, cryogenic cooling methods must be applied.

1.7.3 Photoconductive detectors

This is the most widely used group of photon detectors. Their function is based on
the photoconductive effect. Incident infrared photons are absorbed, producing free-
charge carriers that change the electrical conductivity of the sensitive element.
 CHAPTER 1. RADIOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS 15

Some of the materials found in this family of detectors are

• lead sulfide PbS

• lead selenide PbSe
• indium antimonide InSb
• mercury cadmium telluride HgCdTe.

1.7.4 Specific detectivity and noise equivalent bandwidth

One figure of merit used to describe the performance of a detector is the specific
detectivity D* (D-star). It is the signal-to-noise ratio when I W is incident on a detector
having a sensitive area of 1 cm 2 and the noise is measured with an electrical bandwidth of
1 Hz. This definition was introduced by Clark Jones in the 1950s. Its dimension is a
cumbersome cm Hz I12 W-I ; there has been the suggestion to change it to "Jones" units.'

The denominator of the bracket being discussed here refers the electrical bandwidth
of the system's amplifier used for the noise measurement. The most common definition of
this bandwidth is the frequency interval within which the power gain exceeds one-half of
its maximum value. It is also often called the 3-dB bandwidth. $

Figure 1.10 shows the specific detectivity as a function of wavelength for some of
the most commonly used IR photoconductive detectors.

D*
10 12
PbS
195
Pbs
11" 77
^Sb
PbS
77
295

10 10 PbS
195
__ cjii
HgCdTe GeCu
PbSe 77 4.2
Pbse
295 • 77
10 9
Thermistor
Bolometer
10 8 295

2 4 6 8 10 20 40

FIG. 1.10 Spectral sensitivity of some commonly used IR photoconductive detectors.

To illustrate the effect of cooling on performance, some curves in Fig. 1.10 have
been highlighted. They refer to a lead selenide detector at three different temperatures;
295, 195, and 77 K (or 22,-78, and —196°C). It is interesting to note that the spectral roll-
off response shifts to longer wavelengths as the temperature of the detector decreases.
This is a very important property of a sensor. As a practical example, it can be seen
clearly that to measure carbon dioxide, the sensitivity and stability is much greater if the
16 OPrialL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR INFRARED SYSTEMS

detector is cooled to 195 K than it would be for an uncooled detector. The CO 2

absorption occurs at 4.25 µm, which is where the cooled detector peaks. The importance
is not only in the increased D*; the detector is not operating at the slope of the curve,
providing greater stability with temperature changes. It can also be seen that when the
PbSe detector is cooled to an even lower temperature, the shift to longer wavelengths
continues but there is no further gain in sensitivity (i.e., increase of D*).

1.7.5 Detector configurations

Quite frequently, detectors are not single elements but are arranged in arrays. In
thermal imaging, for example, a number of detector elements are mounted in either a
single line or a two-dimensional layout. Linear arrays reduce the required scanning
mechanism to one axis, horizontal or vertical. (Scanning is the process of scene dissection
by sequentially detecting the radiation from a field covered by a single element or a linear
array). Two-dimensional arrays eliminate scanning completely. This arrangement is
known as staring arrays or focal plane arrays (FPA). One can easily imagine how
advantageous such a grouping of many small detector elements in the focal plane can be.

From an optical standpoint, however, there is a trade-off, since such an arrangement

presents an extended field of view which leads to a higher degree of complexity with
regard to aberration corrections. This will be discussed in detail in Chapters 3 and 4.

Figure 1.11 shows a multistage thermoelectrically cooled detector array. The

individual elements (pixels) are as small as 30 x 30 tm and the total number of elements
in such an array can be more than 65,000.

FIG.1.11 Thermoelectrically cooled HgCdTe focal plane array. (courtesy of Hughes, Santa
Barbara Research Center).

With the next chapter we shall begin to discuss the optics bracket of the extended
simplified radiometric performance equation [ Eq. (1.7) ].
 CHAPTER 1. RADIOMETRIC CONSIDERATIONS 17

References

1. G. Hoist, Testing and Evaluation of Infrared Imaging Systems, JCD Publishing

Company (1993).
2. E. Hecht, Optics, second ed., Addison-Wesley (1990).
3. F. von Krbek, Erlebte Physik, Deutscher Verlag (1942), page 119.
4. Infrared Radiation Calculator, Infrared Information Analysis Center,
Ann Arbor, MI, and EG&G Judson, Montgomeryville, PA and others.
5. F. Smith, The Infrared and Electro-Optical Systems Handbook, Vol. 2, Atmospheric
Propagation of Radiation, ERIM & SPIE (1993).
6. R. Hudson, Infrared System Engineering, John Wiley (1969), page 118.
7. W. Rogatto, The Infrared and Electro-Optical Systems Handbook, Vol. 3, Electro-
Optical Components, ERIM & SPIE (1993), page 251.
8. R. Hudson, Infrared System Engineering, John Wiley (1969), page 312.
CHAPTER 2

Basic Optics
2.1 Introduction

With this chapter, we begin to cover the third bracket of our simplified radiometric
performance equation [Eq. (1.7)].

trod' D
SIN= IWTF-T WB£BI ['TA]
4(fl#)2 [ ° f 1
—

where Tp is the net transmittance after absorption and Fresnel losses of all optical
elements, which includes not only lenses and mirrors but windows and filters as well. As
mentioned earlier, even though d' is the linear size of the detector element, it is included
in the "optics bracket" because it is the dimension for the field stop.

Included in this chapter are some numerical examples of S/N calculations for the
reader who is not concerned about optical aberrations and is satisfied with a very
preliminary performance prediction for a conceptual system configuration.

But, at some point, more detailed analysis of the optics is required to do the job. For
that purpose, a fundamental understanding of optics is essential.

We begin with the foundation of geometric optics, which is Snell's law, named after
Willibrord Snel van Royen (1581-1626), a Dutch astronomer and mathematician who
worked at the University of Leiden in Holland. It states that the sine-index product is
equal across an interface when light passes from one transparent medium into another.
The index of refraction is simply the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the light
velocity in a medium. With reference to Fig. 2.1 we can write

sini N'
---=- (2.1)
sini' N

19
20 OPTICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR INFRARED SYSTEMS

FIG. 2.1 Snell's law applied to a ray entering a denser medium (N' >N).

2.2 Snell's Law and the Prism

In applying Snell's law to the surfaces of a prism, we notice that a ray passing
through the prism is always bent toward the thicker part, the base of the prism. This is
illustrated by Fig. 2.2.

FIG. 2.2 Snell's law applied to a prism.

2.3 The Transition from a Prism to a Lens

If a number of truncated prisms are stacked as indicated in Fig. 2.3, rays

emanating from an axial point converge or diverge symmetrically after passing through
the prism array, depending on the orientation of the prisms. By increasing the number of
prisms to infinity, a convex or concave cylindrical lens will emerge. For a rotationally
symmetrical lens, the sections shown in Fig. 2.3 are meridional cross sections through the
lenses.
 CHAPTER 2. BASIC OPTICS 21

FIG. 2.3 Transition from prisms to lenses.

A tangent drawn where the ray enters the lens as shown in Fig. 2.3 is equivalent
to the face of a "localized prism". Snell's law can be applied to the directional change of
the ray, where i is formed by the ray with the normal to the lens surface.

2.4 Image Formation

For simplicity we limit this discussion to a single thin lens and use so-called
first-order expressions.

A thin lens is one whose thickness is usually small compared to its focal length;
in other words, it is assumed that the thickness is zero. We will show later that even
though such a lens does not exist, the concept of a thin lens is very convenient. It
simplifies calculations and still provides meaningful results.

First-order expressions are derived from the assumption that the sine of an angle
is equal to the tangent and therefore equal to the angle itself. The domain for which this is
the case is called the paraxial region, and the assumption is called the paraxial
approximation because some simple approximations can be made in this region. This
concept will be discussed in detail in Chapter 3.

It is important to pay close attention to the sign convention in optical ray tracing.
Recently, there has been a change in the sign of the angle between a ray and the optical
axis. Therefore, it is advisable to take a good look at the definition of the sign conventions
used in a particular reference. The sign conventions shown in Fig. 2.4 are those most
commonly used today.
22 OPTICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR INFRARED SYSTEMS

FIG. 2.4 Basic relations and sign conventions for a thin lens in the paraxial region.

If the object is located at infinity, angle u becomes zero and the distance from the
lens where the image is formed is called the focal lengthf of the lens, and the image plane
is the focal plane. The focal length of a converging lens is positive, and the focal length of
a diverging lens is negative. This is indicated in Fig. 2.5. If the lens is surrounded by air,
the focal lengths are equal for each side of the lens.

FIG. 2.5 Sign conventions for converging and diverging lenses.

There are a number of convenient and simple expressions to determine location,

magnification, and orientation of an image for the arrangement shown in Figs. 2.4 and
2.5. The first expression is

1
L, = 11
L f.. (2.2)
 CHAPTER 2. BASIC OPTICS 23

Magnification can be stated in several ways:

_h'_L'_ u
(2.3)
m h L u'
The angular relation is often not recognized. The magnification is zero when the
image is formed in the focal plane.

2.5 Object—Image Relations

The relationship between object and image is best understood by observing what
happens to the image as an object, fixed in size, is being moved closer toward the lens
(see Fig. 2.6). To fmd the location of the image and its size, a ray parallel to the optical
axis is drawn from the top of object 1 (arrow head) to the right until the ray intercepts the
plane of the lens. After passing through the thin lens, the ray travels downward and
intercepts the optical axis at focal point F'. Another ray is drawn from the same object
point aiming at focal point F. This ray leaves the lens parallel to the optical axis. Where
the two rays intercept lies the arrow head's image point of image 1'. As the object—
located to the left of the converging lens—is moved closer to the lens (object 2), the
image 2' moves to the right, further away from the lens. When the object is placed at the
focal point F of the lens, the image is formed at infinity. This is the principle of a
collimator, whose function it is to simulate a source located at infinity. When the object is
placed between focal point F and the lens, the formed image is virtual. 3' is the virtual
image of object 3. To determine size and location of the virtual image, the exiting rays
after passing through the lens are extended backward until they cross each other (dotted
lines in Fig. 2.6). Object and image are at the same side of the lens and the image
orientation does not change as in cases 1 and 2 where real images are formed. A real
image can be received by a screen, a virtual image cannot. Good examples of virtual
images are what can be seen in a mirror or through a magnifier.

FIG. 2.6 Object—image relations.

 24 OPTICAL DESIGN FUNDAMENTALS FOR INFRARED SYSTEMS

It is important to understand the concept of real and virtual images, because as we

will see shortly, entrance and exit pupils, which control the throughput of radiant energy
through an optical system, can be real or virtual.

Applying Eqs. (2.2) and (2.3) to a lens with a focal length off = 30 and an object
height of h = 10, the three cases shown in Fig. 2.6 are tabulated in Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Change of image location, magnification, and orientation with change of object
position

L L' m h' Image

1 —75 50 —0.667 —6.667 real

2 —45 90 -2 —20 real

3 —20 —60 +3 +30 virtual

Figure 2.7 shows the object—image relation [Eq. (2.2)] for a positive lens, plotted in
focal length units. The three examples from Table 2.1 are identified.

L'

real object,
real image 15f

Objectives 14f
2 % I3f
2f

L
-7f -6f -5f -4f -3f -2f f -f
real object,3^ -2f
virtual image
Magnifiers -3f
-4f
I -

FIG. 2.7 Plot of Eq. (2.2) for a positive lens.

2.6 Stops, Pupils, and Windows

There are two stops that limit the bundles of energy passing through an optical
system. One is the aperture stop (AS), and the other is the field stop (FS).
 CHAPTER 2. BASIC OPTICS 25

The aperture stop can be an element of its own, such as an iris, or it can be the edge
of a lens mount. The aperture stop sets the angular limit of an axial ray. Its image in
object space is called the entrance pupil (EP), and its image in the image space is the exit
pupil (EP). Intermediate images of the aperture stop within the system are simply referred
to as pupils.

For an optical system with a real object (target), the space extending to the left of the
first optical surface is the object space, and the space to the right of the last optical
surface is the image space if the image is real (detector plane). The situation becomes
somewhat complex when the object or the image formed by the system is virtual.' ° Z These
cases will not be considered here.

The opening that limits the size of an object that can be imaged by the system is
called the field stop. The principal ray traveling from the edge of the field stop through
the center of the aperture stop is the marginal principal ray. The field stop is the always
related (conjugate) to the image and object planes. Frequently, the field stop lies in the
image plane. In a camera it is the film, and in an infrared system it can be the detector
itself. In a focal plane array (FPA), the full field is limited by the dimensions of the array.
The field covered by an individual detector element is called the instantaneous field. The
images of the field stop in object space and image space are respectively called entrance
window (EW) and exit window (EW). Intermediate images of the field stop are logically
referred to as windows.

To better understand the interaction between the stops, we will discuss the
arrangement shown in Fig. 2.8. The aperture stop is placed between two lenses and the
detector is the field stop. From the layout, it can be seen that the size of the aperture stop
AS controls the energy cone angle 2u, and the field stop size FS limits the angular field
size 2u. The limiting rays for the energy cone and the field angle are the marginal axial
and the marginal principal rays, respectively. Reducing the size of the aperture stop does
not change the field coverage, nor does changing the field stop size have an impact on the
cone angle 2u.

FIG. 2.8 Stops. The aperture stop controls 2u; the field stop controls 2up .
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
anything she could do for Justina or the children; and
notwithstanding the repugnance with which her conduct had
inspired me, I could not repulse her then. However she had sinned,
the crime and its occasion were both past—Sir Harry was laid out
ready for his burial, and she was grieving for him.
I am an old man, long past such follies myself, and I hope I am a
virtuous man; but all my virtue could not prevent my pitying Lady
Amabel in her distress, and affording her such comfort as was
possible. And so (a little curiosity still mingling with my compassion)
I related to her in detail, whilst I narrowly watched her features, the
last words which had been spoken by her cousin. But if she guessed
for whom that dying entreaty had been urged, she did not betray
herself.
‘Poor fellow!’ was her only remark as she wiped her streaming
eyes—‘poor dear Harry! Used he to call Justina “Pet?” I never heard
him do so.’
Whereupon I decided that Lady Amabel was too politic to be very
miserable, and that my pity had been wasted on her.
Of Mrs Benson I saw nothing, but the professor talked about
attending the funeral, and therefore I concluded that my niece had
invited them, being such intimate friends, to remain for that
ceremony.
On the afternoon of the same day I was told that Justina desired
to speak to me. I sought the room where she was sitting, with
folded hands and darkened windows, with nervous reluctance; but I
need not have dreaded a scene, for her grief was too great for
outward show, and I found her in a state which appeared to me
unnaturally calm.
‘Uncle,’ she said, after a moment’s pause, during which we had
silently shaken hands, ‘will you take these keys and go down into—
into—his study for me, and bring up the desks and papers which you
will find in the escritoire? I do not like to send a servant.’
 I took the keys which she extended to me, and, not able to trust
myself to answer, kissed her forehead and left the room again. As I
turned the handle of the study door I shuddered, the action so
vividly recalled to me the first and last occasion upon which I had
done so. The afternoon was now far advanced, and dusk was
approaching: the blinds of the study windows also were pulled
down, which caused the room to appear almost in darkness. As I
groped my way toward the escritoire I stumbled over some article
lying across my path, something which lay extended on the hearth-
rug, and which even by that feeble light I could discern was a
prostrated body.
With my mind full of murderous accidents, I rushed to the window
and drew up the blind, when to my astonishment I found that the
person over whom I had nearly fallen was no other than poor little
Mrs Benson, who was lying in a dead faint before the arm-chair.
Fainting women not being half so much in my line as wounded men,
I felt quite uncertain in this case how to act, and without considering
how the professor’s wife had come to be in the study or for what
reason, my first impulse was to ring for assistance. But a second
thought, which came I know not how or whence, made me lift the
fragile, senseless body in my arms and carry it outside the study
door into the passage before I called for help, which then I did
lustily, and female servants came and bore the poor ‘quiet-looking
little lady’ away to her own apartments and the care of her husband,
leaving me free to execute the errand upon which I had been sent.
Still, as I collected the desk and papers required by my niece, I
could not help reflecting on the circumstance I have related as being
a strange one, and could only account for it in my own mind by the
probable fact that Mrs Benson had required some book from the late
Sir Harry’s shelves, and, miscalculating her strength, had left her
bedroom with the design of fetching it, and failed before she could
accomplish her purpose. I heard several comments made on the
occurrence, during the melancholy meal which we now called
‘dinner,’ by her husband and Lady Amabel Scott, and they both
agreed with me as to the probable reason of it; and as soon as the
cloth was removed the professor left us to spend the evening with
his wife, who was considered sufficiently ill to require medical
attendance.
We were a rather silent trio in the drawing-room—Lady Amabel,
Mr Scott, and I—for ordinary occupations seemed forbidden, and
every topic harped back to the miserable accident which had left the
hall without a master. The servants with lengthened faces, as though
attending a funeral, had dumbly proffered us tea and coffee, and we
had drunk them without considering whether we required them, so
welcome seemed anything to do; and I was seriously considering
whether it would appear discourteous in me to leave the hall and
return on the day of the funeral, when a circumstance occurred
which proved more than sufficiently exciting for all of us.
I had taken the desk, papers, and keys, and delivered them into
my niece’s hands, and I had ventured at the same time to ask
whether it would not be a comfort to her to see Mrs Benson or some
other friend, instead of sitting in utter loneliness and gloom. But
Justina had visibly shrunk from the proposal; more than that, she
had begged me not to renew it. ‘I sent for you, uncle,’ she said,
‘because I needed help, but don’t let any one make it a precedent
for trying to see me. I couldn’t speak to any one: it would drive me
mad. Leave me alone: my only relief is in solitude and prayer.’
And so I had left her, feeling that doubtless she was right, and
communicating her wishes on the subject to Lady Amabel Scott, who
had several times expressed a desire to gain admittance to her
widowed cousin.
Judge, then, of our surprise, equal and unmitigated, when, as we
sat in the drawing-room that evening, the door silently opened and
Justina stood before us! If she had been the ghost of Sir Harry
himself risen from the dead, she could hardly have given us a
greater start.
‘Justina!’ I exclaimed, but as she advanced toward us with her
eyes riveted on Lady Amabel, I saw that something more than usual
was the matter, and drew backward. Justina’s countenance was
deadly pale; her dark hair, unbound from the night before, flowed
over the white dressing-gown which she had worn all day; and stern
and rigid she walked into the midst of our little circle, holding a
packet of letters in her hand.
‘Amabel Scott,’ she hissed rather than said as she fixed a look of
perfect hatred on the beautiful face of her dead husband’s cousin, ‘I
have detected you. You made me miserable whilst he was alive—you
know it—with your bold looks and your forward manners and your
shameless, open attentions; but it is my turn now, and before your
husband I will tell you that—’
‘Hush, hush, Justina!’ I exclaimed, fearful what revelation might
not be coming next. ‘You are forgetting yourself; this is no time for
such explanations. Remember what lies upstairs.’
‘Let her go on,’ interposed Lady Amabel Scott, with wide-open,
astonished eyes; ‘I am not afraid. I wish to hear of what she accuses
me.’
She had risen from her seat as soon as she understood the
purport of the widow’s speech, and crossed over to her husband’s
side; and knowing what I did of her, I was yet glad to see that
Warden Scott threw his arm about her for encouragement and
support. She may have been thoughtless and faulty, but she was so
young, and he was gone. Besides, no man can stand by calmly and
see one woman pitted against another.
‘Of what do you accuse me?’ demanded Lady Amabel, with
heightened colour.
‘Of what do I accuse you?’ almost screamed Justina. ‘Of perfidy, of
treachery, toward him,’ pointing to Mr Warden Scott, ‘and toward
me. I accuse you of attempting to win my dear husband’s affections
from me—which you never did, thank God!—and of rendering this
home as desolate as it was happy. But you failed—you failed!’
‘Where are your proofs?’ said the other woman, quietly.
 ‘There!’ exclaimed my niece, as she threw some four or five letters
down upon the table—‘there! I brought them for your husband to
peruse. He kept them; generous and good as he was, he would have
spared you an open exposure, but I have no such feelings in the
matter. Are you to go from this house into another to pursue the
same course of action, and perhaps with better success? No, not if I
can prevent it!’
Her jealousy, rage, and grief seemed to have overpowered her;
Justina was almost beside herself. I entreated her to retire, but it
was of no avail. ‘Not till Warden Scott tells me what he thinks of his
wife writing those letters with a view to seducing the affections of a
married man,’ she persisted.
Mr Scott turned the letters over carelessly.
‘They are not from my wife,’ he quietly replied.
‘Do you dare to say so?’ exclaimed Justina to Lady Amabel.
‘Certainly. I never wrote one of them. I have never written a letter
to Harry since he was married. I have never had any occasion to do
so.’
The widow turned towards me with an ashen-grey face, which it
was pitiful to behold.
‘Whose are they, then?’ she whispered, hoarsely.
‘I do not know, my dear,’ I replied; ‘surely it matters little now. You
will be ill if you excite yourself in this manner. Let me conduct you
back to your room;’ but before I could do so she had fallen in a fit at
my feet. Of course, all then was hurry and confusion, and when I
returned to the drawing-room I found Lady Amabel crying in her
husband’s arms.
‘Oh, Warden dear,’ she was saying, ‘I shall never forgive myself.
This all comes of my wretched flirting. It’s no good your shaking
your head; you know I flirt, and so does every one else; but I never
meant anything by it, darling, and I thought all the world knew how
much I loved you.’
 ‘Don’t be a goose!’ replied her husband, as he put her gently away
from him; ‘but if you think I’m going to let you remain in this house
after what that d—d woman—Oh, here is General Wilmer! Well,
General, after the very unpleasant manner in which your niece has
been entertaining us, you will not be surprised to hear that I shall
take my wife away from Durham Hall to-night. When Lady Trevor
comes to her senses you will perhaps kindly explain to her the
reason of our departure, for nothing under such an insult should
have prevented my paying my last respects to the memory of a man
who never behaved otherwise than as a gentleman to either of us.’
I apologised for Justina as best I was able, represented that her
mind must really have become unhinged by her late trouble, and
that she would probably be very sorry for what she had said by-and-
by; but I was not surprised that my arguments had no avail in
inducing Mr Scott to permit his wife to remain at Durham Hall, and
in a few hours they had left the house. When they were gone I took
up the letters, which still lay upon the table, and examined them.
They were addressed to Sir Harry, written evidently in a woman’s
hand, and teemed with expressions of the warmest affection. I was
not surprised that the perusal of them had excited poor Justina’s
wrathful jealousy. Turning to the signatures, I found that they all
concluded with the same words, ‘Your loving and faithful Pet.’ In a
moment my mind had flown back to the dying speech of poor Sir
Harry, and had absolved Lady Amabel Scott from all my former
suspicions. She was not the woman who had penned these letters;
she had not been in the last thoughts of her cousin. Who, then, had
been? That was a mystery on which Death had set his seal, perhaps
for ever. Before I retired to rest that night I inquired for my poor
niece, and heard that she had Mrs Benson with her. I was glad of
that: the women were fond of one another, and Justina, I felt, would
pour all her griefs into the sympathising ear of the professor’s wife,
and derive comfort from weeping over them afresh with her. But
after I had got into bed I remembered that I had left the letters
lying on the drawing-room table, where they would be liable to be
inspected by the servants, and blow the breath of the family scandal
far and wide. It was much past midnight, for I had sat up late, and
all the household, if not asleep, had retired to their own apartments;
and so, wrapping a dressing-gown about me, and thrusting my feet
into slippers, I lighted my candle, and descended noiselessly to the
lower apartments. But when I reached the drawing-room the letters
were gone: neither on the table nor the ottoman nor the floor were
they to be seen; and so, vexed at my own carelessness, but
concluding that the servants, when extinguishing the lights, had
perceived and put the papers away in some place of safety, I
prepared to return to my own room.
The bedrooms at Durham Hall were situated on either side of a
corridor, and fearful of rousing the family or being caught in
deshabile, I trod on tiptoe, shading my candle with my hand. It was
owing to this circumstance, I suppose, that I had reached the centre
of the corridor without causing the least suspicion of my presence;
but as I passed by the apartment where the remains of my
unfortunate host lay ready for burial, the door suddenly opened and
a light appeared upon the threshold. I halted, expecting to see
emerge the figure of my widowed niece, but lifting my eyes, to my
astonishment I encountered the shrinking, almost terrified, gaze of
the professor’s wife. Robed in her night-dress, pallid as the corpse
which lay within, her large frightened eyes apparently the only living
things about her, she stood staring at me as though she had been
entranced. Her brown hair floated over her shoulders, her feet were
bare; one hand held a lighted candle, the other grasped the packet
of letters of which I had been in search. So we stood for a moment
regarding one another—I taking in these small but important details;
she looking as though she implored my mercy and forbearance. And
then I drew back with the gesture of respect due to her sex, and,
clad in her white dress, she swept past me like a startled spirit and
disappeared.
I gained my own room, but it was not to sleep. A thousand
incidents, insignificant in themselves, but powerful when welded into
one, sprang up in my mind to convince me that Justina and I and
everybody had been on a wrong tack, and that in the professor’s
wife, the ‘quiet-looking little lady’ with her Quaker-like robes,
downcast eyes and modest appearance, in the ‘best friend’ that my
niece had ever possessed, I had discovered the writer of those
letters, the concealed visitor in Sir Harry’s room, the ‘Pet’ whose
name had been the last sound heard to issue from his dying lips. For
many hours I lay awake pondering over the best course for me to
pursue. I could not bear the thought of undeceiving my poor niece,
whose heart had already suffered so much; besides, it seemed like
sacrilege to drag to light the secrets of the dead. At the same time I
felt that Mrs Benson should receive some hint that her presence in
Durham Hall, at that juncture, if desired, was no longer desirable.
And the next day, finding she was not likely to accord me an
interview, I made the reception of the missing letters a pretext for
demanding one. She came to her room door holding them in her
hand, and the marks of trouble were so distinct in her face that I
had to summon all my courage to go through the task which I
considered my duty.
‘You found these in the drawing-room last night?’ I said, as I
received them from her.
‘I did,’ she answered, but her voice trembled and her lips were
very white. She seemed to know by instinct what was coming.
‘And you went to find them because they are your own?’ She
made no answer. ‘Mrs Benson, I know your secret, but I will respect
it on one condition—that you leave the Hall as soon as possible. You
must be aware that this is no place for you.’
‘I never wished to come,’ she answered, weeping.
‘I can believe it, but for the sake of your friend, of your husband,
of yourself, quit it as soon as possible. Here are your letters—you
had better burn them. I only wished to ascertain that they were
yours.’
‘General Wilmer—’ she commenced gaspingly, and then she turned
away and could say no more.
‘Do you wish to speak to me?’ I asked her gently.
 ‘No—nothing; it is useless,’ she answered with a tearless,
despairing grief which was far more shocking to behold than either
Justina’s or Lady Amabel’s. ‘He is gone, and there is nothing left; but
thank you for your forbearance—and good-bye.’
So we parted, and to this day, excepting that she is released from
all that could annoy or worry her, I have learned nothing more. How
long they loved, how much or in what degree of guilt or innocence, I
neither know nor have cared to guess at; it is sufficient for me that it
was so, and that while Justina was accusing the beautiful Lady
Amabel Scott of attempting to win her husband’s heart from her, it
had been given away long before to the woman whom she termed
her dearest friend—to the woman who had apparently no beauty, or
wit, or accomplishments with which to steal away a man’s love from
its rightful owner, but who nevertheless was his ‘loving and faithful
Pet,’ and the last thought upon his dying lips.
Professor and Mrs Benson never returned to Durham Hall. It was
not long afterwards that I heard from my niece that his wife’s failing
health had compelled the professor to go abroad; and to-day she
writes me news from Nice that Mrs Benson is dead. Poor Pet! I
wonder if those scared brown eyes have lost their frightened look in
heaven?
I believe that Justina has made an ample apology for her rudeness
to Lady Amabel and Mr Warden Scott. I know I represented that it
was her duty to do so, and that she promised it should be done. As
for herself, she is gradually recovering from the effects of her
bereavement, and finding comfort in the society of her sons and
daughters; and perhaps, amongst the surprises which I have already
spoken of as likely to await us in another sphere, they will not be
least which prove how very soon we have been forgotten by those
we left in the world behind us.
 CHIT-CHAT FROM ANDALUSIA.
A couple of springs ago, business compelling some friends of mine
to cross over into Spain, I gladly accepted the cordial invitation they
extended to me to visit with them that ‘splendid realm of old
romance.’
Our destination was Utrera, a small town situated between Seville
and Xeres, and lying in the midst of those vast plains so often
mentioned in the Conquest of Granada.
I confess that I was rather disappointed to find how hurriedly we
passed through Madrid and Seville, and I longed to be permitted to
linger for a little space within their walls; but ours was not entirely a
party of pleasure, and a diversion was soon created in my thoughts
by our arrival at Utrera, which, from a distance, presented a most
Oriental appearance. The houses, many of which are built in the
Moorish fashion and dazzlingly white, stand out clearly defined
against the deep blue southern sky; the tall tower of Santiago, with
little perhaps but its unusual height to recommend it to a stranger’s
notice, has, nevertheless, an imposing appearance; and even a palm
tree, which, solitary and alone, rears its stately head in the centre of
the town, puts in its claim for adding in no small degree to the effect
of the whole picture. Notwithstanding, with all the combined
advantages of white houses, tall towers, solitary palm trees and
romantic situations, I would advise no one who is not a traveller at
heart or intent upon his worldly profit to fix his residence in this
primitive little Andalusian town.
We first took up our quarters at the posada, with the intention of
remaining there during our stay, but were soon obliged to abandon
the idea, for, though the best inn in Utrera, it was most
uncomfortable, and noisy beyond description.
We began to look about us, therefore, and were soon installed in a
small but beautifully clean and cool-looking house in a street leading
out of the plaza, and found no reason to be discontented with our
abode. It boasted of a pleasant patio (or inner courtyard) and a wide
verandah or gallery, into which our rooms opened. As the days grew
warmer (and very warm indeed they grew after a while) this patio
was our greatest comfort; for, following the example of our
neighbours, we had it covered with an awning, and spent the
greater part of the day, seated with our books or work, beside its
mimic fountain. But if we gained in material comfort by exchanging
the noisy and dirty posada for apartments of our own, we had also
drawn down upon ourselves the burden of housekeeping, which we
found in Spain to be no sinecure. Some friends who had resided a
few months in the town, and acquired a fair knowledge of the
language, manners, and customs of the natives of Utrera,
volunteered to send us a maid, warranted honest and a tolerable
proficient in the art of cookery. But she proved a care-full blessing.
To give her her due, she possessed one good quality, and we found
by experience that it was about the only one she or her sisterhood
could boast of: she was very fond of water. The floors of our new
house were formed of stone, partially covered by strips of matting
which were easily removed; and we soon lived in a perpetual
swamp. Antonia was always both ready and willing to ‘clean up,’ and
never seemed happier than when dashing water in all directions, or
brushing away vigorously at the matting with her little short-handled
broom.
By the way, I wonder why Spanish women prefer to bend double
over their sweeping, instead of adopting our easier method of
performing the same operation? In vain did I strive to convince
Antonia of the advantages attendant on the use of a broom with a
long handle: she only smiled, shook her head, and went obstinately
on her weary way.
The water for our own consumption was drawn daily from the
Moorish aqueduct just outside the town, and brought to us by the
aguador, an old fellow who wore a rusty black velvet turban hat
stuck full of cigarettes, besides having one always in his mouth. He
would pour the water from his wooden barrels into a large butt
which stood in the kitchen; but as we discovered that he (together
with all who felt so inclined) dipped his glass, with the fingers that
held it, into the reservoir whenever he wished to quench his thirst,
we speedily invested in a filter.
We soon found that it was utterly impossible to infuse any ideas of
cookery or housework into the head of the fair Antonia. If we
showed her how to lay the tablecloth and place the dishes, she eyed
us with surprise, bordering on contempt, that ladies should perform
such menial offices; and the next day all our instructions were as
though they had never been. It was the same with everything, until
we decided that it was far less trouble to wait on ourselves, and our
life at Utrera resolved itself into a picnic without an end.
Nevertheless, when we arose one morning to find that Antonia
(wearied perhaps of English suggestions) had quietly walked off and
left us to shift entirely for ourselves, we felt inclined to think that we
had undervalued her. But she had received her wages on the day
before, and we learned afterward that under those circumstances it
is a common thing for Spanish servants to quit their places without
any warning, and return home for a while to live at their ease on the
produce of their labour.
Our next attendant was Pepa, a bright, dark-eyed girl, who always
looked so picturesque, with a spray of starry jessamine or scarlet
verbena coquettishly placed in her black hair, that it was impossible
not to overlook her misdemeanours. She had such an arch way of
tossing her head and shaking her long gold earrings that there was
no resisting her; and indeed Pepa was but too well aware of the fact
herself, and made the best use of her knowledge.
But the dinners were still our bêtes noirs, and in these,
notwithstanding all her prettiness, she could help us little better than
her predecessor. The meat which we procured was simply uneatable,
but happily animal food is little needed in those southern climes, and
we had plenty of game. Hares, partridges, and wild ducks were most
abundant; and a woman used constantly to call on us with live quails
for sale, which she would despatch by sticking one of their own
feathers into their brains.
Of course, everything was more or less spoiled which we
entrusted to the tender mercies of our handmaid; but fortunately
there were no epicures amongst us, and we generally received the
goods the gods provided with contentment if not gratitude, and had
many resources to turn to in order to eke out a distasteful meal. The
bread was excellent, and we always had an abundance of oranges,
chestnuts, melons, and pomegranates; so that, under the
circumstances, we were not to be pitied.
But one day Pepa, disheartened by her repeated failures, begged
to be allowed to serve us a Spanish dinner, after tasting which, she
affirmed, we should never desire to eat any other; and having
received the permission of her mistress, she set to work, and at the
usual hour triumphantly placed the national dish of ‘puchero’ upon
the table. We gathered round it rather doubtfully, but after the first
timid trial pronounced it ‘not so bad, though rather rich.’ It seemed
to contain a little of everything—beef, lard, garlic, garbanzos (or
small, hard beans), lettuce, pepper, potatoes, and I know not what
besides; and the mixture had been kept simmering in an
earthenware pot for hours. The next dish served by Pepa was
‘gaspacho,’ or a Spanish salad, which is mixed quite differently from
an English one, and to most tastes not so palatable. And then she
placed before us a large dish of rice, profusely sprinkled with
cinnamon, and various small cakes fried in oil; and Pepa’s Spanish
dinner (which, by the way, was only a sample, I suppose, of the
most ordinary national fare) was concluded.
We were thankful that it had been sufficiently good to enable us
to praise it enough to give her satisfaction, though we were
compelled to adopt more than one ruse in order, without hurting her
feelings, to escape having the same feast repeated every day.
There are not many ‘lions’ in Utrera, but, such as they are, of
course we visited them. The principal one perhaps is in the vaults
beneath the church of Santiago, but we were scarcely prepared for
the ghastly spectacle which met our gaze there. It appears that,
many years ago, while digging for some purpose round the church,
the workmen found several bodies, which, owing to some peculiar
quality of the soil in which they had been buried, were in a
wonderful state of preservation; and, by order of the authorities,
they were placed in upright positions against the walls of the church
vaults. The old sacristan, who acted as our cicerone, pointed out the
bodies to us with his lighted torch, and directed our attention
especially to one, evidently that of a very stout woman, which had
still a jacket and skirt clinging to it. Strange to say, the bodies were
all clothed, although in most cases it had become difficult to
distinguish the garments from the remains, for all seemed to partake
of the same hue and texture. It is a humbling sight to look upon the
dead after they have turned again to their dust, and with but a
semblance of the human frame left clinging to them, as though in
mockery of our mortality. We could not bear to see the idlers who
had followed our party down into the vaults jeering at the
appearance of these poor carcases, and touching them in a careless
and irreverent manner. Had we had our way, they should all have
been tenderly consigned again to the bosom of their mother earth,
and we experienced a strange sensation of relief as we turned our
backs upon them and emerged once more into the open air.
The principal object of a stroll in Utrera is a visit to the Church of
Consolation, which stands on the outskirts of the town, at the end of
a long walk bordered with lines of olive trees. At intervals along the
way benches are placed, and here on Sundays and feast-days the
inhabitants congregate as they come to and from the church. The
latter is an interesting edifice, though its architecture is
unpretending enough.
Its nave is lofty, and on the whitewashed walls hang hundreds of
little waxen and silver limbs, and effigies, with articles of children’s
clothing and an endless assortment of plaited tails of hair. These are
all offerings made to ‘Our Lady of Consolation,’ in fulfilment of vows
or as tokens of thanksgiving for recovery from sickness; and there is
something very touching in the idea of these women giving up their
most cherished possessions (for every one knows how justly proud
the Spanish are of their magnificent hair) as tributes of gratitude to
her from whom they have received the favours.
The walls near the western door of the Church of Consolation are
hung with innumerable pictures, each bearing so strong a
resemblance to the other, both in style and subject, that they might
have been drawn by the same hand. As works of art they are
valueless, for even the rules of perspective are ignored in a most
comical manner, and with slight variations they all represent the
same subject. On one hand is an invalid man, woman or child, as
the case may be, and on the other a kneeling figure imploring aid for
them of the ‘Virgin of Consolation,’ who is also portrayed appearing
to the suppliant, and encircled by a golden halo. Beneath the
painting is inscribed the name of the patient, the nature of his
disease, and the date of his recovery.
At the back of the church is a large garden belonging to one of the
richest proprietors in the neighbourhood of Utrera, and as the
midday heat became more oppressive it was a favourite haunt of
ours during the cool of the evening, when the air was laden with the
perfume of orange blossoms and other sweet-smelling flowers. The
owners of the garden permitted it to grow wild, but that
circumstance only enhanced its beauty. The orange trees were laden
with golden fruit, of which we were courteously invited to gather as
much as we pleased. But our visits to this charming retreat were
necessarily short, for, as in most southern latitudes, there was
scarcely any twilight in Utrera, and it always seemed as though the
ringing of the Angelus were a signal for the nights immediately to
set in. But what glorious nights they were! The dingy oil-lamps in
the streets (for gas is an innovation which had not yet found its way
there) were little needed, as the sky always seemed to be one bright
blaze of beautiful stars.
The cemetery at Utrera is a quiet spot, surrounded by a high
white wall and thickly planted with cypress trees, which give it a
most solemn and melancholy appearance. They have the custom
there (I am not sure it is not prevalent in other parts of Spain) of
burying the dead in recesses in the walls, which are built expressly
of an immense thickness; the coffins are shoved into these large
pigeon-holes, and the opening is closed with a marble slab, which
bears the inscription usual in such cases, somewhat after the fashion
of open-air catacombs. But little respect seemed to be shown to the
dead.
One day I met some children bearing a bier, upon which was
stretched the corpse of a little girl clothed in white garments, and
with a wreath of flowers placed upon the placid brow. The children,
apparently quite unaware of the reverence due to their sacred
burden, carelessly laughed and chatted as they bore it along the
highway, sometimes sitting down to rest, and then hurrying forward
with unseemly haste, as though to make up for lost time. A tall man,
wrapped in a huge cloak, and who evidently belonged to the little
cortège, followed at a distance, but he too performed the duty at his
leisure, and seemed to find nothing extraordinary or out of the way
in the children’s want of decorum.
With the exception of periodical visits to the Church of Consolation
before mentioned, the people of Utrera rarely seemed to leave their
houses. To walk for the sake of walking is an idea which finds little
favour with a Spanish lady, and my friends and myself were looked
upon as very strange beings for taking so much exercise and caring
to explore the surrounding country.
 But to our English taste it was pleasant to stroll up the Cadiz road
until we reached a small mound situated thereon, which was belted
with shady trees and amply provided with stone seats. This elevation
commanded the view of a vast extent of country, with the grand
frowning hills of the Sierra Nevada in the far distance, which the
gorgeous sunsets always invested with a strange, unearthly beauty.
The intense solitude of the scene, too, was not without its own
peculiar charm. At intervals the silence would be broken by the
approach of a picturesque-looking peasant bestriding a mule, the
silvery jangle of whose bells had been heard in the calm atmosphere
for some time before he made his personal appearance. These
muleteers never failed to interrupt the monotonous chants they are
so fond of singing, to wish us a friendly ‘Buenas tardes’ (‘Good
evening’) while proceeding on their way, and then we would listen to
the sound of the mule’s bells and the low rich voice of his master
until both died away in the distance, and the scene resumed its
normal condition of undisturbed tranquility.
We made an expedition once, by the new railroad, to Moron, a
very old town perched on an almost perpendicular rock and visible
for miles distant. The heat was intense, but we toiled manfully up
the steep and execrably-paved street from the station, and, weary
and footsore, were thankful to find ourselves within the cool walls of
the fine old church. It possesses some valuable Murillos—one of
which, representing the head of our Blessed Lord, is especially
beautiful. The altar-rails, screen and reredos are all richly gilt, and
the sacristan, taking us into the vestry, unlocked several massively
carved chests, which disclosed some valuable plate and precious
stones; referring to which, he boasted, with pardonable pride, that
Utrera could not produce anything half so handsome. And indeed
the inhabitants of Moron may well congratulate themselves on these
treasures having escaped the grasp of the French during the war, for
the sacristan related to us how everything had been hidden away
and miraculously preserved from the hands of the spoiler.
But my chit-chat is drawing to a close. It was not without a certain
regret that we bade farewell to Utrera, for during the whole of our
stay there we had experienced nothing but kindness from all with
whom we had come in contact, and the memory of our sojourn in
that little out-of-the-way Andalusian town, if not fraught with brilliant
recollections, will, at all events take its rank with that portion of the
past which has been too peaceful to rise up again to trouble us. And
it were well if we could say the same for every part of our storm-
ridden lives.
THE END.
 THE SECRET OF ECONOMY.
Apparently, there has been much to say and write lately upon
domestic economy. From the time, indeed, that the question of the
possibility of marriage upon three hundred a-year was mooted, the
subject has never fairly been dropped.
Men with incomes of less than three hundred a-year do not seem
to like the idea, that they are bound in consequence to renounce all
thoughts of matrimony, and inquiries respecting the matter from
aggrieved bachelors are constantly cropping up in those corners of
the weekly papers devoted to correspondence. They have even gone
so far lately as to suggest, since it seems impossible in this century
of riots and rinderpest to curtail one’s expenses, whether it may not
be both lawful and feasible to curtail one’s family.
The question of, on how much, or on how little, a certain number
of persons can exist, is certainly one which affects the mass, but
which, to be answered with fairness, must be put individually. There
are women and women. What one housekeeper can accomplish on
three hundred a-year, another cannot effect on three thousand, for it
is not incompatible with many luxuries to possess very little comfort;
and comfort is, after all, the essence of domestic felicity.
Yet, it is not fair to lay the whole blame of the impossibility of
marriage in these days upon a moderate income, on the
extravagance of women, for the difficulty is just as often attributable
to the disinclination of men to resign the luxuries to which they have
been accustomed. For every really extravagantly disposed female
mind there may be found two thriftily disposed ones; and had such
minds but been endued with the proper knowledge to carry out their
efforts to do well, existence might not be found so difficult a matter
as it appears to be at present.
It is true that the ‘girl of the period’ (not the Saturday Reviewer’s
‘girl’ by any manner of means), is, generally, better dressed and
more accustomed to luxury than her mother was before her. But it
must be remembered that the expenses of a girl before marriage are
regulated by the wishes of her parents, and because they like to see
her sail about in the last Parisian fashion, it by no means follows that
she will always expect to be dressed the same, or that she will not
cheerfully resign some of the luxuries she has been accustomed to,
to meet the means of the man who has taken it upon himself to
support her.
Apropos of which I have far oftener been called upon to
remonstrate with newly-married female friends on their folly in
stripping the trousseaux, which had been prepared for them with
such care, of all their pretty trimmings of lace and ribbon and
embroidery, in order to adorn the little frocks and caps which are
scarcely ever noticed but by the mother herself, than to blame them
for outrunning their husbands’ means in order to procure such
vanities.
Various reasons may combine to make the parent, who can afford
it, take pleasure in seeing her daughter well dressed. A true mother
is naturally proud of a girl’s good looks; and anxious to show them
off to the best advantage; or the feeling that her child may not long
be with her may make her desirous to please her to the utmost
whilst she remains. Of course, the indulgence may arise from lower
and more mercenary motives, such as have been attributed for
many a long year to the stereotyped ‘Belgravian mother;’ but even in
such a case it does not follow that the girl will never be able
contentedly to accommodate herself to a lower range of comfort. It
is not to be expected that, single-handed, she should put away from
her the luxuries which her parents’ income can command; but it
remains to be proved whether she will not willingly exchange them
to become the mistress of a house of her own, even though it may
be smaller than the one to which she has been accustomed.
Naturally parents wish to see the children, for whom perhaps they
have worked and slaved, comfortably settled in life; and it is folly for
men with barely sufficient money to keep themselves to rave against
fathers who refuse to sanction their daughters’ starving with them.
But the idea as to what constitutes starvation has risen with the
times. A little while ago, it used to be the clergyman with a large
family on eighty pounds a-year: a twelvemonth back it rose to the
celebrated ‘three hundred;’ and but a few weeks since I heard a lady
gravely affirm that any one who contemplated marriage now-a-days
with an income of less than two thousand, must be either a madman
or a fool.
Knowing my incompetence for the task, I have no intention in this
paper of trying to decide on how small a sum it is possible to
maintain a family in this luxurious age. I only wish to say a few
words upon what I consider to be the secret of the economy which
has need to be exercised in these days in the largest household as
well as in the smallest.
The order of her household is a true woman’s battle-field, and the
better she can manage it, the more comforts she can command, and
the more regularity she can enforce upon a small income and with
few servants, the greater is the triumph of her victory. If means are
unlimited the triumph is lost; and the woman who has a thousand a-
year for her housekeeping, and is content to let her husband enjoy
no more luxury upon it than his friend who spends five hundred,
allowing the surplus to be wasted for want of a little thought or
supervision, is not a true woman or a good one. For if prodigality is
not a sin in itself, it arises from the indulgence of a combination of
sins, amongst which selfishness holds chief rank.
Take the care of her household out of a woman’s hands and what
remains for her to do? As a generality she would sit in idleness, for
these are not the days when mothers nurse and look after their own
children, and, thanks to the sewing-machine, the toil of needlework
is over, even in the poorest families.
She would probably take up a novel the first thing in the morning,
thereby unfitting herself for any solid work for the remainder of the
day; or she would waste her time on fancy-work, or unnecessary
letter-writing, or on anything but what sensible people who know
they will be called to account hereafter for the use they have made
of the brains God has given them would do.
And, as a rule, I believe few women would like to be lightened of
their trouble in this respect. The sex is uncommonly fond of a ‘little
brief authority,’ and even those who have every aid at their
command, generally choose to dabble in their housekeeping affairs.
And it is just this ‘dabbling’ which does harm, which often increases
the expenses instead of lessening them.
I am not a second Mrs Warren; I have no ambition to try and
teach my sex how to manage their husbands, houses and children
on two hundred a-year, by wiping out the bread-pan every morning
with a clean cloth; and making one stick of wood do the duty of two
by placing it in the oven to dry the night before.
Mrs Warren’s plan of economy is the general one; or rather, she
follows the general idea of what economy consists of, namely, in
exercising a constant supervision over servants, and straining every
nerve to make the leg of mutton last a day longer than it does with
other people. And I for my part believe that the women of England
will never know the secret of true economy until they have dropped
all such petty interference with the kitchen, and learned to guard
their husbands’ interests with their heads instead of their eyes.
There is no doubt that in order to be thrifty it is necessary in a great
measure to limit one’s expenses, and it is a good plan habitually to
ask oneself before completing a purchase, ‘Can I do without it?’
In nine cases out of ten debts and difficulties are incurred
unnecessarily, for articles which added neither to our respectability
nor our comfort, and which, if seriously asked, we should have
acknowledged we could have done just as well without. Take the
generality of English families, cut off all the superfluities in which
they indulge, all the things which are necessary neither to their
existence nor their position as gentle-people, and, as a rule, it will be
found that such absorb a third at least of their income.
It is not only men who have interested themselves in the
questions which have lately sprung up respecting the general rise in
prices, and the increasing difficulties which assail the householder.
Women are constantly comparing notes with each other; wondering
‘where on earth’ the money can go to, and lamenting the exorbitant
weekly bills they are called upon to pay.
Some have tried to meet their increased expenses by diminishing
their number of servants; others by curtailing the kitchen fare (the
worst and most unprofitable species of domestic economy); a few
have gone another way to work, and simply tried with how many
superfluities they could dispense; and I think these few have
succeeded the best.
It was much the fashion a short time back for women to write to
the papers complaining of the worthlessness of their servants, and it
was not until more than one impertinent letter reflecting on their
mistresses had been published from the pens (or the supposed
pens) of servants themselves, that the correspondence was
perceived to be infra dig., and dropped. We all know that we are
very much in the power of our servants, both as regards comfort
and economy; and to regulate their actions, we must sway
themselves.
As a class, they are much what they have ever been; their
characters varying with the authority placed over them. If ignorant,
they are bigoted; if educated, presumptuous; they regard their
superiors as their natural enemies, and not one in fifty of them is to
be entirely trusted. They no longer look upon the house they enter
as their home; they think of it more as a boarding-house which they
can vacate at their convenience, and themselves as birds of passage,
here to-day and gone to-morrow.
 To deal with and to control such minds effectually, it needs to
show them that ours is infinitely the superior. If we let them perceive
that we have no means of keeping watch over them except we do it
personally, we lower ourselves to their level, and fail to gain their
respect.
Make your servants admire you; make them wonder at the
clearness of your perception, the quickness of your calculations, and
the retentiveness of your memory, and inwardly they will
acknowledge themselves the inferior, and be afraid to disobey.
You will always hear servants speak with admiration of a mistress
who has (to quote their own phraseology) ‘eyes in her back;’ the fact
being that it requires a mind not only educated in the popular sense
of the word, but sharpened by friction with the world, to enable one
to perceive without seeing; and that is a state to which the lumpish
minds of the mass never attain, and which consequently commands
their wonder and respect.
The ‘excellent housekeeper’ who trots round her kitchen every
morning as a rule, opening each dresser-drawer, and uncovering the
soup-tureen and vegetable-dishes, to see that no ‘perquisites’ are
concealed therein, may occasionally light on a piece of unhallowed
fat, but she loses a hundred-fold what she gains. While she imagines
she has made a great discovery, her servants are laughing in their
sleeves at her simplicity; for they have a hundred opportunities of
concealing to her one of finding, and are doubtless as cunning as
herself. And for such a mistress—for one who is for ever prying and
trying to find out something—the lower classes have the greatest
contempt; they will neither obey nor save for her; they will even go
the length of wasting in order to annoy.
But, by this, I have not the least notion of maintaining that the
members of that community, of whom I said, but a page before, that
not one in fifty is to be trusted, are to be left to do the housekeeping
by themselves.
 A lady of my acquaintance, married to an extremely obstinate
man, was asked how she managed to influence him as she did.
‘Because I never let him know I do it,’ was the reply. ‘I always have
my own way, but I make him think my way is his.’
Something of the same sort of management is necessary with
servants. Have your own way, but make them imagine that your way
is theirs. They are truly but ‘children of a larger growth.’
But, in order to do this, you must prove yourself cleverer than
they are.
Let no one grumble at the stir which has been made lately
regarding the improved education of women, nor that public schools
and colleges are being organised for their benefit. If the knowledge
thus acquired is never needed for the female doctors, and lawyers,
and members of Parliament, which, as fixed institutions, England
may never see, it will be only too welcome in domestic life; for the
usual style of conducting a woman’s education is sadly detrimental
to her interests in housekeeping.
What is the use of their being able to play and sing and
imperfectly splutter German and Italian, when they are puzzled by
the simplest bookkeeping? Hardly a woman of modern times
thoroughly understands arithmetic, either mental or otherwise; and
many have forgotten, or never properly acquired, even the
commonest rules of addition, subtraction, and division. How is it to
be expected then that they are fit to be trusted with money, or
having it in their hands to lay it out to the best advantage.
But to return to ‘head-economy,’ as it should be exercised with
regard to servants.
We will suppose that a mistress, desirous of keeping within her
allowance without curtailing the real comfort of her husband and
children, has asked herself that simple question,—‘Can we do
without it?’ on more than one occasion, and found it answer, in so
far that, though several superfluities, such as dessert after dinner,
and preserves and cakes for tea have disappeared, all the solid
necessaries remain, and the weekly bills are no longer higher than
they ought to be. How should she act in order to keep down her
expenditure to a settled sum; to be sure that as much, but no more
than is needful, is used in the kitchen, the dining-room, and the
nursery; and yet to prevent her servants resenting her interference,
or exclaiming at her meanness?
It is really very easy, far easier than the other plan, if women
would only believe it to be so. It needs no store-room full of hoarded
goods, with the key of which the servants are more familiar than
yourself; no stated times for measuring out half-pounds of sugar and
dispensing tea by ounces; no running down to the lower regions a
dozen times a day to give out what may have been forgotten; or to
satisfy oneself whether they really do cut the joint at the kitchen
supper, or revel in fresh butter when they should be eating salt.
But it does require the knowledge necessary to keep the
housekeeping books properly. A thorough acquaintance with the
prices of articles, and the different quantities which a household
should consume; and above all, to have what is commonly called
‘one’s wits about one.’
If every tradesman with whom you deal has a running account
with you; if nothing in his book is paid for but what you have written
down yourself; if your cook has orders to receive no meat without a
check; has proper scales for weighing the joints as they come in,
and makes a note of any deficiency (the checks being afterwards
compared with the butcher’s book); it is impossible that the
tradespeople can cheat you, and if your money is wasted, you must
waste it yourself.
It is an old-fashioned plan to pay one’s bills at the end of each
week; but it is a very good one. Little things which should be noticed
may slip the memory at a longer period. Besides, it is a useful
reminder; it shows how the money is going, and if the tradesmen
find you are careful, it makes them so.
 Following this plan, a quarter of an hour every morning sees the
housekeeping affairs settled for the day, leaving the mistress at
leisure to pursue her own avocations, and the cook to do her
business in the kitchen. It is simply a glance at the larder, and then
to write down all that will be required until that time on the morrow;
the dinner and breakfast orders on a slate, and the other articles in
the books appropriated to them. After a little while it will be found
that the labour is purely mechanical; in a quiet family the
consumption is so regular that the weekly bills will scarcely vary, and
the mistress’s eye will detect the least increase, and find out for
what it has been incurred.
At the close of each month the debit and credit accounts should
be balanced, and then, if the allowance is at any time exceeded, it
will generally be proved that it has gone on the superfluities before
mentioned, and not on the actual expense of maintaining the
household. When people talk of the difficulties of ‘living,’ the
thoughts of their listeners invariably fly to the cost of bread and
meat, and they unite in abusing the tradespeople, who send their
children to fashionable schools on the profits which they extort from
us. But there are various ways in which men and women can save,
besides dispensing with unnecessary eatables.
What woman, for instance, in these days, buying a dress, does not
pay twice as much for its being made and trimmed ready for her use
as she did for the original material? And who that has feet and
fingers, and a sewing-machine, could not sit down and make it in a
few hours for herself?
But she will tell you, most likely, that she cannot cut out properly,
that she has not the slightest taste for trimming, and that she was
not brought up to dressmaking like a dressmaker. Ah, my dear
sisters! are not these the days when we should all learn? Men may
go through life with the knowledge but of one thing—for if they are
acquainted with the duties of their profession, they succeed—but
women need to know everything, from putting on a poultice to
playing the piano; and from being able to hold a conversation with
the Lord Chancellor, to clear-starching their husbands’ neckties.
I don’t say we must do it, but I maintain that we should know
how.
Men are really needed but in one place, and that is, public life; but
we are wanted everywhere. In public and in private, upstairs and
downstairs, in the nursery and the drawing-room,—nothing can go
on properly without us; and if it does, if our husbands and our
servants and our children don’t need us, we cannot be doing our
duty.
Above all, we have the training of the mistresses of future
households, and the mothers of a coming generation—the bringing
up, in fact, of the ‘girls of the next period.’
If we cannot amend the faults we see in ourselves (an assertion
which should be paradoxical to anyone gifted with the least energy),
if we think it is too late to sit down in our middle age, and learn to
rub the rust off our brains, and to work our heads with our fingers,
we can rear them in a different fashion.
If we are wasteful and extravagant and useless—deserving of all
the hard things which have been said of us lately, let us at least take
heed that our daughters are not the same.
THE END.
 ‘MOTHER.’
It was close upon Easter. The long, dark days of Lent, with their
melancholy ceremonials, were nearly over, and, as if in recognition
of the event, the sun was shining brightly in the heavens. The
hawthorn bushes had broken into bloom, and the wild birds were
bursting their little throats in gratitude. The boys were almost as
wild and joyous as the birds, as they rushed about the playground,
knocking each other over in the exuberance of their glee, and
forgetting to be angry in the remembrance that the next day would
be Holy Thursday, when they should all go home to their fathers and
mothers to spend the Easter holidays. I alone of the merry throng
sat apart under the quick-set hedge, joining in neither game nor
gaiety, as I wondered, with the dull, unreasoning perception of
childhood, why I had been the one selected, out of all that crowd of
boys, to have no part in their anticipation or their joy. Even poor,
lame Jemmy, who had no remembrance of his father or his mother,
and who had been, in a way, adopted by our schoolmaster, and lived
all the year round, from January to December, in the same dull
house and rooms, looked more cheerful than I did. He was
incapacitated by his infirmity from taking part in any of the noisy
games that were going on around us, yet he smiled pleasantly as he
came limping up towards me on his crutches, and told me that Mrs
Murray (who bestowed on him all the mother’s care he would ever
know) had promised, if he were good, to give him a donkey ride
during Easter week, and some seeds to plant in his strip of garden.
 ‘What’s the matter with you, Charlie?’ he asked presently; ‘aren’t
you glad to be going home?’
‘Oh! I don’t care,’ I answered, listlessly.
‘Don’t care about seeing your father and mother again?’
‘I haven’t got a mother,’ I rejoined, quickly.
‘Is your mother dead, like mine? Oh, I am sorry! But your father
loves you for them both, perhaps.’
‘No, he doesn’t! He doesn’t care a bit about me. He never asks to
see me when I do go home; and he frightens me. I wish I might
stay all the holidays with Mrs Murray, like you do.’
‘That is bad,’ quoth the lame child. ‘Well, maybe they’ll forget to
send for you, Charlie, and then we’ll have fine times together, you
and I.’
I had not the same hope, however. I knew that if by any oversight
my father forgot to send the servant for me, that my schoolmaster
would take the initiative and despatch me home himself.
How I dreaded it. The gloomy, half-closed house, the garden
paths, green with damp and thick with weeds, the servants acting
entirely upon their own authority, and the master querulous,
impatient, and unjust, either shut up in his own room brooding over
the past and present, or freely distributing oaths, complaints, and
sometimes even blows, amongst the unfortunate inmates of his
household. As for myself, I seldom came within the range of his arm
without being terrified away, and it had been a great relief to me
when I returned home for the previous Christmas holidays to find
that he was absent, and the term of my penance passed peacefully,
if nothing else. But now he was at home again, so my master
informed me, my father had never dreamt of writing to me, and I
looked forward to the coming visit with dread. A strange, unnatural
state of things for a child of eight years old, who had never known a
mother’s love nor care, had never even heard her name mentioned
by any one with whom he was connected.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookfinal.com