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On Interpreting Construction Schemas Nicole Delbecque
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Author(s): Nicole Delbecque, Bert Cornillie
ISBN(s): 9783110198652, 3110198657
Edition: Kindle
File Details: PDF, 1.55 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
On Interpreting Construction Schemas
≥
Trends in Linguistics
Studies and Monographs 198
Editors
Walter Bisang
(main editor for this volume)
Hans Henrich Hock
Werner Winter
Mouton de Gruyter
Berlin · New York
On Interpreting
Construction Schemas
From Action and Motion
to Transitivity and Causality
edited by
Nicole Delbecque
Bert Cornillie
Mouton de Gruyter
Berlin · New York
Mouton de Gruyter (formerly Mouton, The Hague)
is a Division of Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin.
앪
앝 Printed on acid-free paper which falls within the guidelines
of the ANSI to ensure permanence and durability.
ISBN 978-3-11-019865-2
ISSN 1861-4302
” Copyright 2007 by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, D-10785 Berlin
All rights reserved, including those of translation into foreign languages. No part of this
book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechan-
ical, including photocopy, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, with-
out permission in writing from the publisher.
Cover design: Christopher Schneider, Berlin.
Printed in Germany.
Table of contents
Introduction 1
Nicole Delbecque, and Bert Cornillie
Cristiano Broccias
Faculty of Foreign Languages and Literatures
University of Genova
Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
Bert Cornillie
Department of Linguistics
University of Leuven
Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]
Nicole Delbecque
Department of Linguistics
University of Leuven
Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]
Cathryn Donohue
Department of English
University of Nevada, Reno
USA
e-mail: [email protected]
Luna Filipović
Department of Psychology
University College London
UK
e-mail: [email protected]
viii List of contributors
José-María García-Miguel
Department of Translation and Linguistics
University of Vigo
Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
Rivka Halevy
Department of Hebrew language
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem
Israël
e-mail: [email protected]
Yuko Morimoto
Department of Humanities
Carlos III University, Madrid
Spain
e-mail: [email protected]
Eugeen Roegiest
Faculty of Arts
University of Ghent
Belgium
e-mail: [email protected]
Natalya Schmidt
Department of Linguistics
University of Trier
Germany
List of contributors ix
Dejan Stosic
Faculty of Arts
University of Artois, Arras
France
e-mail: [email protected]
Junichi Toyota
Department of Linguistics
Lund University
Sweden
e-mail: [email protected]
The theory of control has for a long time been syntax-oriented: it was only
concerned with the argument structure of the sentence. Since the success of
functionally oriented linguistics, conceptualization behind syntactic
realization has been gaining in importance. In their landmark book on the
ubiquity of metaphor in everyday language, Lakoff and Johnson (1980)
analyze how metaphors for causation grow out of a prototype for direct
manipulation which is, not surprisingly, similar to the transitive prototype
for physical world interaction. The need for a holistic approach to
controlled and moved complements has broadly been emphasized in several
publications in the framework of Cognitive Linguistics (e.g. Rice 1987,
Kemmer and Verhagen 1994, Goldberg 1995, Talmy 2000a and 2000b).
The interest for this topic is not limited to this framework, however.
Control and motion have recently become a real point of interest for a broad
Introduction 3
Augusto Soares da Silva describes how other important notions in the study
of language and logic such as enablement, permission and negation, can
also be approached in terms of force dynamics. Causation usually is a kind
of extended motion with a differentiation of domains. While the physical
domain of ‘causing’ and ‘letting’ includes simple caused motion, the
intersubjective domain yields an interactive schema that goes beyond mere
motion.
José M. García-Miguel shows that the study of transitivity can be
supplemented with that of projection and causation. In the Spanish
causative-reflexive construction, the combination of the weak transitivity of
the middle voice (cf. Kemmer 1993, Maldonado 1999) and the controlling
function of the causative verb yields conflicting forces inside the subject
entity. Yet, in the overall construal, each part is contributing with its
meaning into a coherent whole. This explanation is in line with Kemmer
and Verhagen’s (1994: 116) view that causative structures are “built up
from simpler structural conceptual units, in the sense that they relate (non-
derivationally) to more basic clause types”.
Yet, there are limits on the suitability of the transivity model for
analyzing complex structures. There are indeed cases in which the basic
clause type is susceptible of undergoing reduction and bleaching, e.g., into
an addressee-oriented causative discourse connector. A case in point is the
“soft-causative” introduced by deja ‘let-imperative’ in informal Mexican
Spanish analyzed by Ricardo Maldonado.
Several papers do not only study the origin of motion and causation in
terms of contained or unlashed forces, but also take into account the end
and effect of the process. Yuko Morimoto, Luna Filipoviü and Dejan Stosic
tackle the question of the boundaries of the motion and the change of state.
With intransitive verbs, control is exerted on the basis of the boundaries the
motion faces. For analyzing trajects and boundaries, space semantics
provides the analyst with specific evidence for the underlying direction
patterns (cf Vandeloise 1986; Borillo 1998).
Yuko Morimoto and Luna Filipoviü start off from the distinction
between directed motion and manner of motion verbs. As is well known,
Talmy (1985a) established a typological differentiation between English
and Spanish, among other languages, with regard to the different
lexicalization of the semantic components of the motion event. Yuko
Morimoto points out the similarity between resultative and manner of
motion constructions, thus arguing that motion cannot be seen apart from
causation and control. Furthermore, Luna Filipoviü argues that the
morphological marking (prefixing) and the combinatorial restrictions that
characterize motion verbs in Serbian/Croatian call for a refinement of the
Introduction 7
Summaries
'let', the lexical meaning of the infinitive verb, and, subsidiarily, the
contribution of yet other clausal elements.
Ricardo Maldonado explores the emergence of a soft-causative
construction in informal Spanish that runs counter to normal patterns of
causative formation: instead of taking subjunctive or infinitive marking, the
complement takes no complementizer, is finite and takes indicative mood,
as if it were an independent clause. It thus challenges the functional and
cognitive notion of “integration” by which complex sentences derive from a
basic verbal form. The author argues that the soft-causative involves a high
degree of subjectification (Langacker 2000) in the sense that the causative
verb dejar ‘let’ undergoes a process of attenuation to exhibit a high degree
of transparency. Causation is thus reduced to its minimal expression and the
asymmetry characteristic of subordination is not attested. The almost
completed bleaching process of dejar ‘let’ is controlled by pragmatic needs
and goes beyond general tendencies of weakening processes, as the
causative verb is reduced to keeping the hearer “connected” to the
communicative line as the speaker performs some alternative action.
Natalya Schmidt's paper discusses the English carry vs push type
constructions (e.g. He carried the box to the place vs He pushed /threw the
stick into the river). The point of departure is the idea that causal
understanding of a scene is performed by reference to one of the two
fundamental types of causal effect as identified by the psychologist A.
Michotte (1963), viz., “entraining” or “launching”. It is argued that the role
of the basic causal constructions in language is to support decoding (i) by
providing direct access to (the ‘image’ of) one of the basic scenes, and (ii)
by serving as a basis for derived causal constructions through metaphorical
projections. The author further discusses various possible correspondences
between derived scene and basic scene. For the resultative constructions,
she postulates a hierarchical system in which each construction is
characterized in relation both to a basic construction and to the construction
on the previous (more basic) level in the hierarchy of causal processing.
Yuko Morimoto examines the typological distinction between satellite-
framed and verb-framed languages (cf. Talmy 1985a) as it applies to the
manner of motion verbs in English vs. Spanish. The fact that the English
‘walk’, ‘swim’, ... verbs license a goal argument, whereas their Spanish
counterparts do not, raises problems for a hypothesis which is central to
various syntactic theories, not in the least for Lexical Semantics, viz., that
the lexical meaning of the verb strongly determines their grammatical
properties (Aske 1989; Jackendoff 1990, 1997; Mateu and Rigau 2000).
From a Construction Grammar perspective (cf. Goldberg 1995), the author
adduces arguments to consider the English “He swam to the boat”-
Introduction 11
The editors thank the authors for their confidence and their patience. A
special word of thanks is also due to Michel Achard, Frank Brisard, Hubert
Cuyckens, Ángela Di Tullio, Koldo J. Garai, Laura Janda, Karen Lahousse,
Béatrice Lamiroy, Augusto Soares da Silva, Eve Sweetser, David Tuggy,
Willy Van Langendonck, Marjolijn Verspoor and Margaret Winters, for
their generous participation in the reviewing process. And last but not least,
this project would never have been completed without the unfailing
assistance of Barbara De Cock, who took care of the technical editing.
References
Achard, Michel
1998 Representation of Cognitive Structures. Syntax and Semantics of
French Sentential Complements. Berlin/New York: Mouton de
Gruyter.
12 Nicole Delbecque, and Bert Cornillie
Alsina, Alex
1993 Predicate composition. Doctoral dissertation, Stanford University.
1996 The Role of Argument Structure in Grammar. Evidence from
Romance. Stanford: CSLI.
Aske, Jon
1989. Path and predicates in English and Spanish. Proceedings of the
Annual Meeting of the Berkeley Linguistics Society 10: 1–14.
Blume, Kerstin
2000 Markierte Valenzen im Sprachvergleich : Lizenzierungs- und
Linkingbedingungen. Tübingen: Niemeyer.
Borillo, Andrée
1998 L’expression de l’espace en français. Paris: Ophrys.
Comrie, Bernard, and Maria Polinsky (eds.)
1993 Causatives and Transitivity. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John
Benjamins.
Croft, William
1991 Syntactic Categories and Grammatical Relations: The Cognitive
Organization of Information. Chicago and London: The University
of Chicago Press.
2001 Radical Construction Grammar: Syntactic Theory in Typological
Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Delbecque, Nicole
1999 Two transitive construction frames in Spanish: The prepositional and
non-prepositional accusative. In Issues in Cognitive Linguistics.
Leon de Stadler, and Christoph Eyrich (eds.), 407–424. Berlin/New
York: Mouton de Gruyter
2002 A construction grammar approach to transitivity in Spanish. In The
Nominative/Accusative. Case and Grammatical Relations across
Language Boundaries, Kristin Davidse, and Béatrice Lamiroy (eds.),
273–322. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Downing, Angela
1996 The semantics of get-passive. In Functional Descriptions, Ruquiya
Hasan, Carmel Cloran, and David Butt (eds.), 179–205.
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
Dowty, David
1991 Thematic Proto-Roles and Argument Selection. Language 67 (3) :
547–619.
Fauconnier, Gilles, and Mark Turner
1996 Blending as a central process of grammar. In Conceptual Structure,
Discourse and Language, Adèle Goldberg (ed.), 113–129. Stanford:
CSLI.
Introduction 13
Goldberg, Adele
1995 Constructions: A Construction Grammar Approach to Argument
Structure. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Hawkins, John A.
1987 A Comparative Typology of English and German: Unifying the
Contrasts. London: Croom Helm.
Hopper, Paul J., and Sandra A. Thompson
1980. Transitivity in Grammar and Discourse. Language 56 (1): 251–299.
1. Introduction1
way across languages, while the non-ideal events are expressed in different
ways across languages and even within languages.” (Croft 1990: 53).
However, different languages do not necessarily behave alike. The
information gathered by Tsunoda (1985: 388) for English, Japanese and
Basque, leads us to consider not only kill, break and bend, but also see,
hear and find as prototypically transitive. In those languages, hit, shoot,
kick and eat, would be non-prototypical, since they present alternative non-
transitive patterns in addition to the canonical transitive construction.
However, if we take into account data from Avar, Tongan and Samoan,
then hit, shoot, kick and eat appear to be prototypical transitives, whereas
see, hear and find are not. This shows that the conclusions attained vary
notably depending on which languages are considered. Moreover, as the
number of languages compared increases, the group of verbs considered
prototypically transitive decreases, and, as a consequence, the examples
adduced in the literature are few and always the same.
Interlinguistic comparison permits to identify a small group of verbs that
function as predicates in prototypically transitive clauses. Nevertheless,
typological research does not explain why the candidates which are
universally preferred for the transitive coding are predicates like ‘kill’ or
‘break’.
Therefore, it is necessary to take a new perspective on the matter in
order to grasp the concept of the human experience that underlies the
transitive coding. Drawing on human experience, causation seems to be at
the heart of the matter (cf. Delancey 1987: 60; Croft 1990: 50; Goldberg
1995: 118).3 Insofar as the transitive construction symbolically represents
direct causation, it paradigmatically conveys such notions as control,
volition and responsibility of the agent, change of physical state perceptible
in the patient, physical contact between the agent and the patient, etc. (cf.
Lakoff 1970: 244).
There are reasons for considering causation as basic to human cognition
from birth on:
Piaget has hypothesized that infants first learn about causation by realizing
that they can directly manipulate objects around them – pull off their
blankets, throw their bottles, drop toys. There is, in fact, a stage in which
infants seem to ‘practice’ these manipulations, e.g., they repeatedly drop
their spoons. Such direct manipulations, even on the part of infants, involve
certain shared features that characterize the notion of direct causation that is
so integral a part of our constant everyday functioning in our environment –
as when we flip light switches, button our shirts, open doors, etc. (Lakoff
and Johnson 1980: 70).
20 Victoria Vázquez Rozas
‘grab’, ‘take’, ‘hit’, etc. –, and only later on in less transitive verbs, as ‘say’,
‘read’ or ‘see’.
To sum up, we can state that both typological data and data related to
the acquisition of transitive structures seem to support the notion of a
transitive prototype based on the relation of physical causation between an
agent and a patient.
After reviewing the most widely accepted ideas about the transitive
prototype, we will now focus on certain aspects of the configuration of
transitive clauses which have not been taken into account in the preceding
section. We will adopt a language usage-based model that views the
linguistic system internalized by the users as the result of successive
processes of abstraction drawn from concrete uses (cf. Barlow and Kemmer
2000). On the one hand, the usage-based models attach a great importance
to the role of learning from use in the child’s language acquisition. On the
other, these models attribute primordial relevance to frequency, since this
factor determines the degree of ‘entrenchment’ – as Langacker puts it – of a
unit or a linguistic construction. Both aspects will be dwelled on in the two
following sections.
As seen in section 2, Dan Slobin sets the hypothesis that the acquisition of
transitivity by the child is based on the association of the prototypical
transitive event with the canonical transitive construction – “Growth
proceeds from this initial pairing of prototypical event and canonical form”
(Slobin 1981: 410). If Slobin’s proposal is to be accepted, the ‘canonical
form’, in this case the transitive pattern, has to be assumed to be shaped in
the child’s mind prior to the first actual uses. However, Slobin attributes to
the child a knowledge of the language abstract patterns which does not fit in
with the research carried out on grammar acquisition in the last few years
(cf. Tomasello 1992; Lieven, Pine and Baldwin 1997; Pine, Lieven and
Rowland 1998).
These investigations show that the beginning of the child’s multiword
language use is founded on specific constructions of particular lexical
items:
22 Victoria Vázquez Rozas
they can never express an action that may cause a change of state in a
patient.5
Some of these verbs are semi-grammaticalized in Indoeuropean
languages. A clear example is the English auxiliary do, which also
functions as a proverb. The same holds for the Spanish hacer ‘make/do’.
Another case worth mentioning is that of the Spanish haber ‘have’, which
originally had the posessive value of tener ‘have/possess’ and functioned as
a transitive verb; historically, it has undergone a process of
grammaticalization, being converted first into an aspectual auxiliary before
developing into a temporal one, while being substituted by tener as verb of
possession. Interestingly, in contemporary Spanish tener can also be used
as (semi)auxiliary with a terminative value similar to the English to have
got (Tengo hechos todos los deberes ‘I’ve got all my homework done’) (cf.
Butt and Benjamin 1994: 222).6 Portuguese, which does not have
periphrastic uses of haver ‘have’, has gone further than Spanish in the
grammaticalization of ter ‘have/posses’ + participle periphrasis, since it
nowadays also combines with intransitive verbs.
In the same vein, verbs which usually take part in complex VERB-
OBJECT predicates, as illustrated in (1)–(5), are low transitive verbs with
generic meaning7:
(1) Siempre hay que tener cuidado con ellos (Sonrisa: 278, 35)
Always there-is that have.INF care with them
‘You always have to be careful with them’
(2) Para ser boticario no hace falta saber leer
(Coartada: 11, 11)
To be.INF apothecary not do.3SG lack know.INF read.INF
‘To be an apothecary there is no need to know how to read’
(3) Con estas memeces yo no me he dado cuenta
(Hotel: 31, 6)
With these absurdities I not 1SG.REFL have.1SG given account
‘With these absurdities, I haven’t noticed’
(4) Pasé revista acelerada a sus respectivos historiales
(Laberinto: 59, 9)
Passed.1SG review accelerated to their respective records
‘I fastly reviewed their respective records’
(5) En este tipo de relaciones no hay que tomar partido
(Hotel: 76 , 14)
In this type of relationships not there-is that take.INF side
‘We shouldn’t take sides in this type of relationship’
24 Victoria Vázquez Rozas
Besides the acquisition data exposed in the last section, frequency of use is
also a very relevant factor in a usage-based approach to transitivity.
No doubt transitive constructions play a central role in the syntax of a
language. As for Spanish, we can rely on the information provided by a
syntactic database (BDS) drawn from a corpus of contemporary oral and
written texts (cf. supra footnote 6). According to the data of the BDS
offered by Rojo (2003), the active biactant transitive pattern is the most
frequent one, covering 39,06% of the cases. Moreover, 70,44% of the verbs
in the corpus admit to a higher or lower extent, the pattern SUBJECT-
PREDICATE-DIRECT OBJECT. This fact appears to be all the more relevant
that the next pattern admitted by an important number of verbs – the active
SUBJECT-PREDICATE pattern – concerns 34,22% of the verbs in the corpus,
and accounts for only 12,26% of the cases. All the other patterns have a
frequency below 7%.
Rojo (2003) compares the Spanish data with the quantitative analysis of
English clauses made by Oostijk and de Haan (1994) on the Nijmegen
A usage-based approach to prototypical transitivity 25
corpus. The frequency data offered by these linguists are translated by Rojo
into percentages:
From this distribution it appears that transitive clauses do not play such a
main part in English as in Spanish, even though they represent 27,79% of
the total of clausal patterns.
As for the Spanish language, the quantitative data that we have just
evoked confirm the leading role that transitive constructions play in the
shaping of Spanish syntax. Yet, they say nothing about which transitive
clauses should be considered prototypical and which should not. In this
respect, the information contained in the BDS again proves to be very
illustrative, as it permits to verify which verbs are used more frequently in
the biactant transitive pattern. Table 2 groups the 20 most frequently used
verbs in the SUBJECT-PREDICATE-DIRECT OBJECT construction:
Relative frequency of
Verb Frequency
the transitive pattern
Tener ‘have’ 4810 83.52%
Hacer ‘do/make’ 2806 51.34%
Saber ‘know’ 2404 78.41%
Ver ‘see’ 2285 62.93%
Creer ‘believe’ 1551 81.03%
Querer ‘want’ 1165 90.38%
Mirar ‘look’ 871 67.89%
Decir ‘say’ 883 31.01%
26 Victoria Vázquez Rozas
Table 2 continued
As can be seen, the verbs involved are far from corresponding to the
transitive prototype as defined in section 2. Rather surprisingly, none of the
verbs usually mentioned in the descriptions of archetypical transitivity
figures among these twenty most frequent verbs, and the first of the verbs
habitually considered “prototypically transitive” – the verb matar ‘kill’– is
not found until the 39th position. Our Spanish corpus data thus challenge the
pervasiveness of high transitive clauses in discourse.
Thompson and Hopper’s (2001) findings corroborate the marginal role of
the high transitive clauses in discourse. These linguists analyzed a
conversational corpus made up by 446 clauses. In this corpus of informal
American English, not a single clause can be characterized as transitive
according to the ten parameters that compose Hopper and Thompson’s
(1980) scalar notion of transitivity. To start with, the majority of the clauses
has only one participant (73%), for 27% with two or more participants. And
among the two-participant clauses, only 14% contain an action predicate,
i.e., the vast majority are stative predicates. Other categories like aspect,
punctuality and object affectedness show very low indexes in transitivity,
as well: 86% of the clauses are atelic, 98% are non-punctual and 84%
include a non-affected object. Conversational data from different languages
further corroborate Thompson and Hopper’s findings (cf. 2001: 39, and
references therein) and warrant the conclusion that “the most frequent kind
of clause used by speakers in everyday conversational interactions is one
that is low in Transitivity”.
A usage-based approach to prototypical transitivity 27
3.3. Summary
The above presented usage data challenge the prototypical status of high
transitive clauses (in Hopper and Thompson’s terms). Both acquisition data
and data from corpora lead to an interpretation of the transitive prototype
that is different from the one discussed in section 2. We don’t mean to say,
however, that prototypicality emerges from frequency of use. Even though
Rosch (1975) formulated a ‘statistical hypothesis’ of the phenomenon of
prototypicality, we agree with Geeraerts (1988: 211-222) when he states
that “We can use linguistic frequencies to determine what instances of a
concept are prototypical [...], but explaining prototypicality on the basis of
linguistic frequency is putting the cart before the horse. Some kinds of
usage are not prototypical because they are more frequent; they are more
frequent because they are prototypical.”
At any rate, the information regarding the frequency of use makes it
necessary to revise the definition of what counts as a prototypical transitive
event.8
contact principle does not equally apply to all perceptible entities, since
animate entities can transcend it. Both humans and animals have perception
mechanisms that allow them to detect and respond to other entities at a
distance. People manifest intentions, make plans and pursue goals. They
can influence other people’s actions and cognitive states simply through
verbal and non verbal communication. There is no need for immediate
physical contact. According to Spelke et al. (1995), the contact principle is
already restricted to inanimate objects in seven-month-old babies.
Ninio (1999: 645), for her part, refers to Budwig (1989, 1995). This
author interprets the conception of prototypical agentivity in children not
only in terms of direct physical action but also as an attempt to persuade
others to act in favor of the subject and an attempt to communicate the
control over the objects.
In the same vein, Premack and Premack (1995: 191) defend two
conceptions of causality, one physical, the other intentional. Physical
causality occurs “when an object launches another by contacting it”,
whereas intentional or psychological causality takes place “when one object
either moves by itself or affects the movement of another without
contacting it”10. These authors clearly argue against the piagetian theory of
causality when they state that “the infants earliest encounter with cause is in
the psychological domain and occurs the moment that an infant attributes
intention to a goal-directed object” (Premack and Premack 1995: 191).
There is a conclusion to be drawn from the aforementioned studies. The
causality principle can be psychologically interpreted as having an
intentional nature, different from the physical dimension on which most
approaches to prototypical transitivity are based. The claim defended by
Premack and Premack, that psychological causality is prior to physical
causality in the child’s development provides a cognitive basis that sheds
light on the linguistic production data reported in section 3.1. At the same
time it seems to be consistent with the information on the most frequently
used transitive verbs in textual corpora (cf. section 3.2.).
of the discourse and provides the text with structural coherence. A highly
transitive expression corresponds to the foreground. This way high
transitivity would be the grammatical sign of a higher discursive
prominence, which at the same time would reflect the cognitive salience of
the codified event (cf. Delancey 1987: 56).
Nevertheless, there are no sound arguments that support the attribution of
a greater cognitive importance to the events expressed through highly
transitive clauses as opposed to low ones. On the contrary, both the
acquisition and the textual frequency data lead us to think that the clauses
that configurate the most relevant cognitive model are those characterized
by rather low transitivity. As Goldberg (1998: 207) indicates in regard to
verbs like put, get, do and make, “the fact that these ‘light’ verbs, which are
drawn from a small set of semantic meanings cross-linguistically, are
learned earliest and used most frequently is evidence that this small class of
meanings is cognitively privileged”.
Yet, as already said before, the idea is not to derive the prototypical
character of a category from frequency counts. Rather, the production rate
is to be interpreted as an index of experience rate, a factor closely related to
prototypicality. Geeraerts (1988: 222) illustrates the point with fruit terms:
“The apple is not a prototypical fruit because we talk more about apples
than about mangoes, but because we experience apples more often than we
encounter mangoes”.
At this point, we should turn our attention towards the type of discourse
that constitutes the original manifestation of linguistic activity: spontaneous
conversation. As seen in 3.2., Thompson and Hopper observe that English
conversational discourse shows very low indexes of transitivity. The reason
for this bias towards low transitivity lies in the clauses’ communicative
function. Thompson and Hopper (2001: 52) acknowledge that “Clauses of
low Transitivity are far more useful in the intersubjective interpersonal
contexts that make up most of our talking lives”.
Colloquial conversation indeed has as main objective the expression of
the speakers’ subjectivity, not the impartial report of the physical
interaction between the world’s entities. Conversation is a mechanism for
self-expression rather than for the objective description of the surrounding
physical reality. Obviously, human beings are interested in the actions and
the processes that take place in the world, at least – or especially – insofar
as they are affected by them. And we have to bear in mind that this occurs
more frequently in the psychosocial than in the material realm.
The prevalence of the indirect and subjective perspective, a low
transitivity feature, is not exclusive to spontaneous conversation, it can also
be found in the narrative genre. Hopper (1995), e.g., signals the lack of
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
— Se on suuri soturi! — kuului ääniä. — Koko valtakunnassa ei ole
sen suurempaa!… Kuulkaa, mitä hän puhuu!
— Kuka hän?
— Neiti Billewicz.
— Voitteko sanoa, kuka tuo on, joka ajoi juuri portaitten eteen? —
kysyi herra Wolodyjowski vieressään seisovalta aateliselta.
Levisi huhu, että sotahetmani Gosiewski oli vangittu siksi, ettei hän
suostunut yhdistämään joukkojaan Radziwillin joukkoihin, minkä
kautta koko sotaretki olisi tullut vaaranalaiseksi. Lähtövalmistukset,
kuten tykkien jyrinä, kun niitä vedettiin ulos linnan asekartanosta, ja
tuo ennen sotaretkelle lähtöä niin tavallinen sekamelska, saivat
kuitenkin herra Gosiewskin ja maltalaisritari Judyckin vangitsemisen
unohduksiin.
— Rauhoittukaa!
— Sanottu ja tehty!
He syleilivät toisiaan.
— Entä lippukunta?
— Odottaa käskyänne.
— Hyvä on! Minä tarvitsen juuri sellaisia miehiä kuin sinä, jotka
ovat valmiit kaikkeen… Vakuutan vieläkin, että luotan sinuun
enemmän kuin kehenkään muuhun.
— Teidän ylhäisyytenne!…
— Ei mikään… ei mikään…
— Entä lähetit?
— Myöskin.
— Avatkaa!
Ovet avautuivat selko selälleen, ja salista tulvahtava valo valaisi
hetmanin mahtavan vartalon, kun hän Kmicicin ja hovipoikien
seuraamana meni korokkeelle, jolle oli asetettu nojatuoleja
ylhäisimpiä vieraita varten.
— Ah Oleńka! Ah Oleńka!…
Usein oli Andrzej Kmicic ollut suutuksissaan itselleen entisten
tekojensa tähden, niin suutuksissa, että hänen olisi tehnyt mieli
käskeä omaa väkeään antamaan itselleen sata paria raippoja, mutta
milloinkaan hän ei kuitenkaan ollut ollut niin vihoissaan itselleen kuin
nyt nähdessään Oleńkan taas pitkästä aikaa ja kauniimpana ja
ihanampana kuin mitä hän oli kuvitellutkaan. Tällä hetkellä hän olisi
tahtonut purkaa kiukkunsa itseään vastaan, mutta kun hän oli
keskellä ihmisten paljoutta ja ylhäisessä seurassa, niin hänen täytyi
vain tyytyä puremaan hammasta ja ajattelemaan itsekseen ikäänkuin
omaa tuskaansa lisäten:
— Lähdepäs kanssani!
— Tehkää se ensin.
— Suo minulle edes toiveita, että kun olen sen tehnyt, olen
myöskin ansainnut sinut… Kyllä kelpaa sanoa: »Tee ensin!» Entä jos
teen sen, ja sinä sillä aikaa menet naimisiin toisen kanssa? Jumala
sellaisesta varjelkoon, sillä silloin tulisin hulluksi! Minä rukoilen sinua,
Oleńka, lupaa minulle, etten menetä sinua, ennenkuin olen sopinut
teidän aatelistenne kanssa. Muistatko, mitä kirjeessä kirjoitit? Minä
olen säilyttänyt kirjeesi ja luen sitä yhä uudelleen, kun mieleni käy
murheiseksi. En pyydä mitään muuta kuin että lupaat minua odottaa
ja olla menemättä toisen kanssa naimisiin?
— En ainakaan vielä.
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