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nur
 Chapter Two
Review of Measurement Systems (Sensors & Transducers)
for Mechatronics

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3.1 Introduction to Sensors
 In virtually every engineering application there is the need to
measure some physical quantities, such as
 displacements,  temperatures,
 speeds,  stresses,
 forces,  flows, and so on.
 pressures,

These measurements are performed using physical devices

called sensors.

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 Sensors are physical devices that detect physical phenomena
(e.g. temperature, pressure, displacement) and convert them
into a proportional output signals that can be measured or
interpreted.
Example:
 Electrical Resistance Thermometer (commonly known as a Resistance
Temperature Detector RTD).
• Quantity being measured – temperature.
• Sensor transforms it to change of resistance.
It is a temperature sensor that operates on the principle that electrical
resistance of certain materials changes with temperature.

The term transducer is often used in place of the term sensor.

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 Transducers are defined as elements that when subject to
some physical change experience a related change.
Transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into
another form of energy.
Thus, Sensors are transducers (when they sense one form of energy input and
output in a different form of energy).
Example:
 Thermocouple responds to a temperature change (thermal energy) and
outputs a proportional change in electromotive force (electrical energy).
Therefore, a thermocouple can be called a sensor and or transducer.
 Mercury-in glass thermometer in which heat energy is converted into
mechanical energy, forcing the mercury to move along the glass as it expands
or contracts. Sultan M.nur
 The most commonly used sensors and transducers, which are
specially suitable for automation and control purposes, make
extensive use of electrical signals (e.g. voltage, current,
charge).
 Transducers may be parts of complex sensors.
Example:
 A chemical sensor may have a part which converts the energy of a chemical
reaction into heat and another part, a thermopile, which converts heat into an
electrical signal. The combination of the two makes a chemical sensor a
device which produces an electrical signal in response to a chemical reaction.

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 The key issues in the selection of sensors are:

(a) the field of view and range;

(b)accuracy;
(c) repeatability and resolution;
(d)responsiveness in the target-domain;
(e) power consumption;
(f) hardware reliability;
(g)size; and
(h)interpretation reliability.

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3.2 Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors
o Displacement sensors: concerned with the measurement of the
amount by which some object has been moved;

o Position sensors: concerned with the determination of the

position of some object in relation to some reference point.

o Proximity sensors: are a form of position sensor and are used

to determine when an object has moved to within some
particular critical distance of the sensor.

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Potentiometer:
 A potentiometer is a mechanical device whose electrical resistance
can be varied by the position of the movable contact on a fixed
resistor.
The movable contact slides across the resistor to vary the resistance
and as a result varies the voltage output of the potentiometer.
The output becomes higher or
lower depending on whether the
movable contact is near the
resistor's supply end or ground end.

Sultan M.nur Linear potentiometer rotational potentiometer

 A voltage Vs is applied across the two ends A and B of the resistance
element and an output voltage Vo is measured between the point of
contact C of the sliding element and the end of the resistance element A.
The voltage across RL can be calculated by

If RL is large compared to the other resistances (like the input to an

operational amplifier), the output voltage can be approximated by the
simpler equation:
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 Example:

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Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT):
 LVDT is an electromechanical sensor used to measure linear
displacement directly in a number of situations involving motion.
Their high resolution, high accuracy, and good stability make
them an ideal device for applications involving short
displacement measurements.
It operates based on the transformer principle of
electromagnetism (electromagnetic induction).
It gives a continuous electrical signal (a.c. voltage) output
proportional to the displacement of a movable core within the
transformer.
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 LVDT consists of three coils symmetrically spaced along an
insulated tube. The central coil is the primary coil and the other
two are identical secondary coils which are
connected in series in such a way that their
outputs oppose each other.
When there is an alternating voltage input to the
primary coil, alternating e.m.f.s are induced in the
secondary coils. Since the magnetic core is at the
center the e.m.f. induced In each coil is the same.
However, when the core is displaced from the central position there is a
greater amount of magnetic core in one coil than the other. The result is
that a greater e.m.f. is induced in one coil than the other.
There is then a net output from the two coils. Sultan M.nur
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Capacitive Sensor:
 Sensors that measure displacement by detecting changes in
capacitance.
 Capacitive sensors consist of two
parallel metal plates in which the
dielectric between the plates is either
air or some other medium.
The capacitance C is given by
C= 𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓 𝑨 𝑫
Where, 𝜺𝒐 is the absolute permittivity,
𝜺𝒓 is the relative permittivity of the dielectric medium between the plates,
A is the area of the plates, and
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D is the distance between them.
 As an object approaches or moves away from the sensor, the distance
between the plates changes, altering the capacitance.
The change in capacitance is converted into a displacement
measurement.

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 One of the major benefits of capacitive sensors is their ability to sense
through low-dielectric materials.

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Strain Gauge:
 Strain gauges is a sensor that measures the amount of deformation (or
strain) experienced by an object when a force is applied.
 It consists of a thin, flexible electrical conductor that is bonded to the
surface of the material being tested.
When the material deforms, the strain gauge also deforms, resulting in
a change in its electrical resistance.
This change in resistance can be measured and correlated to the
amount of strain experienced by the material.

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 Resistance of an electric conductor varies according to the following
relation

Where, 𝑳 is the length of the cylindrical conductor,

𝝆 is the resistivity of the conductor material, and
A is the cross-sectional area of the conductor.

Electrical resistance strain gauge (metal foil strip)

When subjected to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional

change in resistance 𝛥𝑅 𝑅 being proportional to the strain 𝜀, i.e.
𝛥𝑅 𝑅 = 𝐺 ∙ 𝜀
Where G, the constant of proportionality, is termed the gauge factor. It is normally
supplied by the manufacturer from a calibration made of a sample taken from a batch.
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 Strain gauge can be used as Force, Torque, Pressure, Stress, and
Strain Sensors.
 Note: Their resistance changes with not only strain but also
temperature.
 In practice, the strain measurements rarely involve quantities larger
than a few mill strains (e x 10−3 ).
Therefore, to measure the strain requires accurate measurement of
every small changes in resistance. To measure such small changes in
resistance, strain gauges are almost always used in a bridge
configuration with a voltage excitation source.

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 The general Wheatstone bridge, illustrated below, consists of four
resistive arms with an excitation voltage 𝑉𝐸𝑥 , that is applied across the
bridge.

When 𝑅1 𝑅2 = 𝑅4 𝑅3 , the voltage output

𝑉𝑜 will be zero. Under these conditions, the
bridge is said to be balanced.

Any change in resistance in any arm of the bridge will result in a non-
zero output voltage.
The output voltage of the bridge 𝑉𝑜 will be equal to:
 Therefore, if we replace 𝑅4 in Figure with an active strain gauge, any
changes in the strain gauge resistance will unbalance the bridge and
produce a non-zero output voltage 𝑉𝑜 .
If the nominal resistance of the strain gauge
is designed as 𝑅𝑔 , then the strain-induced
change in resistance 𝛥𝑹𝒈 can be expressed as

𝜟𝑹𝒈 = 𝑹𝒈 𝑮𝑭 ∙ 𝜺
Assuming that 𝑅1 = 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 = 𝑅𝐺 , the bridge equation above can
be rewritten to express 𝑉𝑜 /𝑉𝐸𝑋 as a function of strain (see Figure).
𝑽𝒐 𝑮𝑭 ∙ 𝜺 𝟏
=− 𝜺
𝑽𝑬𝑿 𝟒 𝟏 + 𝑮𝑭 ∙
𝟐
 Ideally, we would like the resistance of the strain gauge to change only
in response to applied strain.
However, strain gauge material, as well as the specimen material to
which the gauge is applied, will also respond to changes in temperature.
Strain gauge manufacturers attempt to minimize sensitivity to
temperature by processing the gauge material to compensate for the
thermal expansion of the specimen material for which the gauge is
intended.
While compensated gauges reduce the thermal sensitivity, they do not
totally remove it.
By using two strain gauges in the bridge, the effect of temperature can
be further minimized.
 The next figure below illustrates a strain gauge configuration where
one gauge is active (𝑅𝑔 + 𝛥𝑅𝑔 ), and a second gauge is placed
transverse to the applied strain.
Therefore, the strain has little effect on
the second gauge, called the dummy
gauge.

However, any changes in temperature

will affect both gauges in the same way.
Because the temperature changes are identical in the two gauges, the
ratio of their resistance does not change, the voltage 𝑉𝑜 does not
change, and the effects of the temperature change are minimized.
Strain gauge: (a) as a serpentine structure, and (b) as a load sensor

Alternative use of a strain gauge for measuring the force applied to a cantilever
beam: (a) top view, and (b) side view
 Strain gauges attached to flexible cantilever.

During deformation tensile and compressive forces on the element

change the resistance (i.e. the strain); thus, it can be a measurement of
displacement or deformation of the flexible element.
Strain gauges are designed for maximum sensitivity by arranging the
strain gauge elements in opposing directions.
Optical Encoders:
Pneumatic Sensors:
Proximity Switches:
 Proximity Switch is a switch which can be activated by the presence
or absence of an object in order to give a proximity sensor with an
output which is either on or off.
They are widely used in industrial automation and various
applications for controlling machinery and processes.
 The most common types include microswitches, reed switches, and
photosensitive devices.
 Microswitch: is a small electrical switch which requires physical
contact (i.e. use a lever, plunger, or roller) and a small operating force
(or displacement) to close or open the electrical contacts (i.e. circuit).
 Microswitches come in various configurations, including:
 Figure: shows different ways such a switch can be actuated
 Microswitches used in
• household appliances (like microwaves or washing machines to detect the
door's position)
• industrial machines (like conveyor belts to determining the presence of an
item on a conveyor belt), and
• safety devices (like emergency stop buttons).
 Reed Switch: consists of two magnetic switch contacts sealed in a
glass tube. It closes when a magnetic field is applied, allowing current
to flow.

Figure: Reed Switch

 It is a non-contact proximity switch.
 Reed switch is very widely used in security systems (i.e. for
checking the closure of doors/windows)
 Photosensitive Devices: can be used to detect the presence of an
opaque object by its breaking a beam of light, or infrared radiation,
falling on such a device or by detecting the light reflected back by the
object.

Figure: Using photoelectric

sensors to detect objects by
(a) the object breaking the beam,
(b) the object reflecting light.

 Photosensitive device is widely used in automation for counting,

positioning, and safety applications
3.3 Velocity and Motion Sensors
o Used to monitor linear and angular velocities and detect
motion.

o Can be obtained by differentiating displacement.

o Some sensors give velocity directly

• e.g. measuring frequency of pulses gives speed rather than position

o Some sensors give acceleration directly

• e.g. accelerometers usually measure the force on a mass
Tachogenerators:
 Tachogenerator (Variable Reluctance Sensor, VRS) is a device that
used to measure position and speed of moving metal.
 This sensor consists of a permanent magnet, a ferromagnetic pole piece, a pickup
coil, and a rotating toothed wheel.
A variable reluctance sensor is
composed of a winding wound
around a cylindrical magnetic
material, typically made of some
type of ferrous material that is
referred to as a pole piece.
A magnet is attached behind the pole piece, creating a magnetic field through the
pole piece and winding.
 This magnetic field projects out from the pole piece front, also known as the
sensor tip. When ferrous material passes through and disrupts this magnetic
field, electricity (a sine wave) is generated.
 They are passive devices and do not require any external source of
power to generate a signal.
 The frequency of the signal is directly proportional to the speed of
rotation.
The amplitude of the signal is affected by the speed of rotation, the
material being sensed and the distance, known as the “air gap”,
between the sensor tip and the rotating object.
3.4 Force and Pressure Sensors
3.5 Fluid Pressure Sensors
3.6 Liquid Flow Sensors
3.7 Liquid Level Sensors
3.8 Temperature Sensors
3.9 Light Sensors
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Cont… Ch4