The Historical Foundations of Education in Cameroon will help Bachelor in

Education (B.Ed), Master in Education (M.Ed.) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in

Education students and teachers understand how the past historical events shaped the
present education systems, theories and related phenomenon in the area of education
in particular and education in general. Secondly, it will enable education stakeholders
to appreciate the importance of education to mankind since time immemorial across
the generations. By so doing, education stakeholders will be able to critically examine
the fundamental part which education plays in the transformation of society. Note that
as a student or teacher, you are a change agent so learning the history of education
will prepare stakeholders in training to examine present trends and dynamics in
education, draw practical lessons from the past, avoid possible mistakes, and initiate
more viable plans for the benefit of Society. The teaching and learning of History of
Education in Cameroon is therefore justified for many reasons, some of these include
the fact that it would enable students and teachers in training to have adequate
knowledge of what our educational policies are and what they are not; the
philosophical ideas guiding the Cameroon education; the contributions of the ancient
nations and scholars to the development of the country’s education and the major
trends in the development of our education in Cameroon which may encourage them
to be willing to contribute their own quota to the development of education in the
country whenever they are in the position to do so.
Frederick Ebot Ashu is Senior Lecturer of Educational Leadership and Administration
at the University of Buea and President of the Cameroon Council for Education
Leadership and Management Society (CCELMS). His
research areas of interest are System reform and system
leadership, Organisation leadership, Community
leadership; Research into the job description of head
teachers; How a Cameroonian leadership development
process is implemented and what its content might be;
Global Implications of effective management and
leadership training programs. He has pioneered projects
across the United Kingdom and Cameroon in the above
research areas and presented Conference Papers, Invited
Lectures and Consultancies in different topics in
Cameroon and abroad. He has published over 10 peer-
reviewed papers, 10 authored books, 3 book chapters and
has held fellowship with the Commonwealth
Professional Fellowship. He is the founder and President of the Cameroon Council for
Educational Leadership and Management Society (CCELMS). He is the founding
editor of the International Journal like the Educational Leadership and Management
Studies (ELMS) funded by the Association of the Commonwealth Universities. He is
a member of many editorial boards and reviewing research applications in
Educational Leadership and Management Studies (ELMS), International Studies in
Educational Administration (ISEA), International Journal of Leadership in Education
(IJLE), International Peer Reviewed Journal and Book Publishing (IPRJB) and Syed
Journal of Education & Social Research (SJESR)
Historical Foundation of Education in
Cameroon

FREDERICK EBOT ASHU

 Historical Foundation of Education in
Cameroon

By
Frederick Ebot Ashu

PRESBOOK Plc. CAMEROON

By
Frederick Ebot Ashu, Senior Lecturer, Education Leadership, Management and
Administration, Faculty of Education, University of Buea. President of the Cameroon
Council for Educational Leadership and Management Society (CCELMS)
First published in 2020

PRESBOOK Plc. CAMEROON

P.O. Box 13, Limbe-South West Province, Cameroon. Email: [email protected]
Phone/Fax: 00237 33 33 23 88 or 00237 77 40 56 42.

Copyright © 2020 by Frederick Ebot Ashu, Cameroon Council for Educational

leadership and Management Society (CCELMS) Collection

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright
owner.

ISBN: 9956-409-49-9
 Table of Contents
Chapter Topics Page
Chapter 1 The Republic of Cameroon 19
Chapter 2 African Indigenous Education 25
Chapter 3 Education in Cameroon in the Pre- 45
Colonial (1844-1884) Era
Chapter 4 Education in Cameroon in the Colonial 54
Era (1884-1960/1961)
Chapter 5 Decolonisation of Education in 85
Cameroon since Independence in
1960/1961
Chapter 6 The Current State of Education in 110
Cameroon
Chapter 7 What is Education? What is the Purpose 180
of Education? The Goals of Education
in Cameroon
Chapter 8 Review of the Types of Education: 201
Formal, Non-Formal and Informal
Chapter 9 The Cameroon Educational Context: 216
Demographic, Economic, Resources,
Cultural, Violence, Health and Political
and Administration
Chapter 10 Ideological Phenomenon Influencing 225
Structural Reforms in Cameroon
Educational Systems
Chapter 11 Global Challenges Affecting Education 248
in Cameroon
Chapter 12 Wellness Education (Physical Wellness, 277
Social Wellness, Spiritual Wellness,
Intellectual Wellness, Emotional
Wellbeing)
 List of Tables

2.1 Curriculum Content of Cameroon Indigenous

Education
3.1 Western and Ejagham and Bakweri Curriculum
4.1 Prescribed Syllabus for Schools in Germany
Cameroon, April 25, 1910
8.1 Differentiate between Formal Education and Non-
Formal Education
8.2 The Difference Between Education and Schooling
10.1 General Data on Education
 Historical Foundation of Education in Cameroon
Preamble
The purpose of this book is to help Bachelor in Education (B.Ed), Master in
Education (M.Ed) and Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in education students and teachers
recognise the worth of the history of education, and examine their role and
significance in the whole process of education in Cameroon.
This book explores the historical development of education in Cameroon from the
Traditional (indigenous) Education in the sixteen century, through the post-colonial
era (1960-Present) in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, to current
concerns about the Cameroon educational system in the twenty-first century. It aims
to showcase a chronological list of educational administration and policy activities in
Cameroon as presented according to the following twelve areas of study:

• Chapter one provides a brief situation of the Republic of Cameron in the world
map;

• Chapter two will discuss about African indigenous education;

• Chapter three will tell us about education in Cameroon in the pre-colonial era
(1844-1884, which consists of missionaries’ participation in education);

• Chapter four will discuss about the colonial era (1884-1960/61) which
consists of: the German protectorate (1884-1914); the years of the First World
War and peace settlement (1914-1946); French and British mandates (1922-
1946); Education in French Cameroon Mandate (1916-1946); Education in
British Cameroon Mandate (1914-1946); French and British Trusteeship
(1946- 1960/1961); the trusteeship in French Cameroon; the Trusteeship
period in British Southern Cameroons;

• Chapter five informs us about the Decolonisation of Education in Cameroon

since Independence in 1960/1961. It will address education in the federation
period (1960-1972); education in the United Republic of Cameroon (1972-
1984); education in the Republic of Cameroon (1984-2004);

• Chapter six informs us about the current state of education in Cameroon and
where it is relevant to the development of education administration generally.

• In chapter seven, students and teachers will develop a comprehensive

understanding of the terms what is education in the light of the various
purpose and historical aims of education perspectives that have influenced
education in Cameroon. The goals of education are essentially basic ways of
thinking about schooling in Cameroon.

• Chapter eight reviews the different types of education: formal, informal and
non-formal processes of education in Cameroon.

• Chapter nine will dwell on the influence of the Cameroon educational context,
such as demographic, economic, resources, cultural, violence, health, political
 and administrative issues in teaching and learning.

• In chapter ten, students and teachers will examine the ideological phenomenon
influencing structural reforms in Cameroon’s educational systems (e.g.
Indigenous traditional African education, pre-colonial and colonial education;
uprising and revolts in Cameroon’s major cities; the formation of political
parties, ruralisation, harmonisation, bilingualism, information technology,
Cameroon Anglophone crisis, bilingualism and multiculturalism influencing
structural reforms in Cameroon’s educational system

• In chapter eleven, the significance of global challenges affecting the social

structure of education in Cameroon economically, politically, health wise,
environmentally, and social challenges are discussed. Other important global
issues are discussed (e.g. eradication of poverty, hunger, epidemics, and
underdevelopment (UN Millennium Goals); climate change and natural
disasters; human rights and human dignity; cybercrimes; terrorism (causes and
consequences); gender and minority issues (inclusion and social justice);
education and the middle class; human diversity (racial, tribal, linguistic,
religious, cultural, sexual orientation); stereotypes, bias and prejudice are
discussed in details;

• And finally chapter twelve considers the benefits of wellness education and in
return strengthens individuals, groups, organisations, country in the seven
dimensions of wellness. It includes: physical wellness, social wellness,
spiritual wellness, intellectual wellness, environmental wellness, occupational
wellness and the emotional wellness and fully supports in the realisation of the
fullest potential of an individual physically, psychologically, socially,
spiritually and economically, and the fulfilment of one's role as far as
expectations in the family, community, place of worship, workplace and other
settings are concerned.

From the above submission, it becomes clear in the conclusion that the education
system of Cameroon is very unique in Africa. A historical evolution of the country’s
educational system exposes the influence of indigenous, cultural colonialism in the
Cameroon education system, bringing out ideological phenomena that have either
directly or indirectly affected structural reforms in Cameroon’s education system.
Even though school enrolment continues to increase despite the economic
hardship, the country is still far from enjoying a strong positive nexus vis-à-vis
education and economic development. As the government tries to carry out
educational reforms that will uplift the country from these doldrums of mediocrity of
the French and the English systems, it must also try to improve on the private and
faith sectors which will play a vital part in linking education and economic
development.
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Virus
AIE African Indigenous Education
ANPP National Agency for Radiation Protection
APE African Philosophies of Education
ARCAM Representative Assembly of Cameroon
BAC Baccalaureate
BC Before Christ
BCE Before Common Era
B.Ed Bachelor in Education
BMP Bachelor, Master and PHD
BMS Baptist Mission Society
BSC British Southern Cameroon
CAP Certificate d'Aptitude Professionnel
CCTE Cameroon Council for Technical Education
CDC Cameroon Development Corporation
CE Common Era
CENAME The National Essential Drugs and Medical Consumables
Supply Centre
CNE National Centre for Education
CNF Cameroon National Federation
CPC Cameroon Protestant College
CPDM Cameroon People's Democratic Movement
EBMPS School Involvement of Children in Need of Special
Protection Measures
ENIR Rurally Oriented Applied Education or Curriculum
Development Centre
ESSP Education Sector Strategic Plan
FCWU French Cameroon Welfare Union
FCY French Cameroon Youth
FEA French Equatorial Africa
GCE General Certificate of Education
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GESP Growth and Employment Strategy Paper
HIV Human Immune Deficiency Virus
ICT Information Communication Technology
ILO International Labour Office
IMPMR Institute for Medical Research and Studies of
Medical Plant
INC The National Institute of Cartography
IRAD The Agriculture Research Institute for Development
IRGM Institute of Geological and Mining Research
KNC Kamerun National Congress
KNDP Kamerun National Democratic Party
KNUC Cameroon United National Congress
KUP Kamerun United Party
LACAM Legislative Assembly of Cameroon
LANACOME National Laboratory for Drug Quality Control
and Expertise
M.Ed Master in Education
MDG Millennium Development Goal
MINADER Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
MINEDUB Ministry of Basic Education
MINRESI Ministry of Scientific Research Innovation
MDGs Millennium Development Goal
NCFPBM National Commission for the Promotion of Bilingualism
and Multiculturalism in Cameroon
NCNC National Council for Nigeria and Cameroon
NGOs None Profit Organisation
NMCP National Malaria Control Programme
NTCP National Tuberculosis Control Programme
OCED Organisation for Economic Cooperation
and Development
ODA Official Development Assistance
OK One Kamerun
PD Parity Democrat
PhD Doctor of Philosophy
PI Paysans Independent
PPP Purchasing Power Parity
PSFE Forest and Environment Sector Programs, Ministry of
Forest and Wildlife, Cameroon
QIS Quality Improvement in Schools
R&D Research and Development
RIETS Regional Institute of Education and Training
RPEP Regional Primary Education Programme
RSA Royal Society of Arts
SCNC Southern Cameroon National Council
SCNPD National Civic Service for Participation in Development
SDF Social Democratic Front
SL School Leadership
STDs Sexual Transmitted Diseases
TACAM Territorial Assembly of Cameroon
UC Union Cameroonaise
UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UN United Nation
UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and
Cultural Organisation
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNICEF United Nations International Children's Education Fund
UNO United Nations Organsisation
UNPF United Nations Population Fund
UPC Union Des Population Camerunaise
USA United state of America
WHO Wealth Health Organisation
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, I have to thank you, Lord for giving me the courage,
strength and wisdom to reach out in order for our ancestors and historians to see the
history of educational development in Cameroon in many ways.

Sincere thanks are due to my friends, family and colleagues, who have given
encouragement and support through the process. In particular, it is important for me
to acknowledge the contributions of my undergraduate students and all the staff at the
Department of Educational Foundation and Administration, Faculty of Education,
University of Buea who have aided this research in terms of providing literature and
any moral support. It was originally intended that they should continue to help in
establishing good literature material for the Foundations of Education in Cameroon.

I truly appreciate the contribution of late Dr. Mac Ojong. May his soul rest in
perfect peace. He and Professor Fonkeng Epah both provided a range of knowledge-
transfer practices that contributed to the creation of this book.

I hope that the suggested study material in this book, therefore, contributes to
research in three specific ways.

Firstly, it provides for learning materials for B.Ed, M.Ed and PhD students
and teachers, who need to be aware of the comprehensive historical perspectives that
have influenced education, to have a foundation in scholarship and research (both
internationally and locally).

Secondly, it provides a model for understanding the historical development of

education in Cameroon from indigenous education in the sixteen century, through the
post-colonial era (1960-Present) in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, to
current concerns about the Cameroon educational system in the 21st century that could
be applied in other developing countries, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.

Thirdly, the historical research as a whole provides a methodological template

which other scholars might use for understanding such historical foundations of
education in the context of a developing country like Cameroon.
 CHAPTER ONE

The Republic of Cameroon (French: République du

Cameroun)
Introduction

The situation of Cameroon (The Republic of Cameroon; French: République

du Cameroun) in the world map.

The Republic of Cameroon

Cameroon (/ˌkæməˈruːn/; French: Cameroun, English: Cameroon), officially

the Republic of Cameroon (French: République du Cameroun), is a country in Central
Africa and western Africa. The country’s neighbours are Nigeria to the west; Chad to
the northeast; Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon,
and the Republic of the Congo to the south.

Cameroon's coastline lies on the Bight of Biafra, part of the Gulf of Guinea
and the Atlantic Ocean. Yaoundé is the capital city, Douala the economic capital and
the current Head of State is His Excellency Paul Biya.

The constitution divides Cameroon into ten regions: Adamawa, Centre, East,
Far-North, Littoral, North, North-West, West, South and South-West with a total
landmass of over 475,440 sq km (53rd in the world) with an estimated population of
19.4million. Population growth rate is 2.3%/year average over 2003-08 (High
Commission for the Republic of Cameroon, 2010). Further composition shows that
52% of the population is female and 48% male.

The country is often referred to as "Africa in miniature" for its geological and
cultural diversity. Natural features include beaches, deserts, mountains, rainforests,
and savannas. The highest point at almost 4,100 metres (13,500 ft.) is Mount
Cameroon in the South-West Region of the country, and the largest cities in
population-terms are Douala on the Wouri River, its economic capital, and main
seaport, Yaoundé, its political capital, and Garoua.
The country is well known for its native styles of music, particularly Makossa
and Bikutsi, and for its successful national football team, Indomitable Lions.
Cameroon’s legacy of ethnic diversity dates back to 8,000 BCE with the
migration of the Baka people into the country’s modern-day borders. By 200 BCE, an
influx of Bantu-speaking tribes into the southern and eastern regions of the country
had pushed the Bakas off arable land and into the nearby forests. Meanwhile, Arabic
and Hamitic migratory groups began to settle in the dry, arid north. Several important
civilisations grew in the north surrounding the Chad basin, including strongholds of
power belonging to the Karem, Bournou, and Sou peoples. But at the beginning of the
15th century, these northern ethnic groups were joined by the nomadic, Islamist Fulani
tribe who, by the 1700’s, had established a powerful presence in the region.
Early inhabitants of the territory included the Sao civilisation around Lake
Chad and the Baka hunter-gatherers in the southeastern rainforest. Portuguese
explorers reached the coast in the 15th century and named the area Rio dos Camarões
(Shrimp River), which became Cameroon in English. Fulani soldiers founded the
Adamawa Emirate in the north in the 19th century, and various ethnic groups of the
west and northwest established powerful chiefdoms and fondoms. Cameroon became
a German colony in 1884 known as Kamerun.

After World War I, the territory was divided between France and the United
Kingdom as League of Nations mandates. The Union des Populations du Cameroun
(UPC) political party advocated independence, but was outlawed by France in the
1950s, leading to the Cameroonian Independence War fought between French and
UPC militant forces until early 1971.

In 1960, the French-administered part of Cameroon became independent as

the Republic of Cameroun under President Ahmadou Ahidjo. The southern part of
British Cameroons federated with it in 1961 to form the Federal Republic of
Cameroon. The federation was abandoned in 1972. The country was renamed the
United Republic of Cameroon in 1972 and the Republic of Cameroon in 1984.

Cameroon had experienced relatively high political and social stability over
the past years but since 2016 there has been continuous drama in most of the
Anglophone Regions of the country. This has limited the development of agriculture,
roads, railways and large petroleum and timber industries. Large numbers of
Cameroonians live as subsistence farmers.

Since 1982, Paul Biya has been President, governing with his Cameroon
People's Democratic Movement, CPDM, party. The country has experienced tensions
coming from the English-speaking territories. Politicians in the English-speaking
regions have advocated for greater decentralisation and even complete separation or
independence (as in the Southern Cameroons National Council, SCNC) from
Cameroon.

Cameroon has a rich and diverse culture made up of a mix of about 250
indigenous languages and customs. Cameroon culture is emblematic of the country’s
diversity.
The mother-tongue of most children is one of more than 250 African
languages native to the region. These include Ejagham, Fulfulde, Duala, Ewondo and
Fang. But French and English are also learnt from a young age. With a population of
just under 20 million people living on 50% of Cameroon’s land size (475, 442 square
kilometres). This diversity is marked by a variety of behaviours, activities, cultures
and languages. The people of Cameroon are so diverse that it is usually not that easy
to predict a person's reaction upon meeting him/her for the first time.

The different populations of Cameroon can roughly be categorised into groups

of the south, west, east and north.
In the north, the Fulani are dominant (making up around a tenth of Cameroon’s
population). Originally cattle herders, most of these Islamic people are no longer
nomadic, having settled in one place as farmers and merchants. The Choa, Katoko
and Kirdi live in the northernmost regions.
In the western highlands, groups include the Bamoun and the Bamiléké. The Bamiléké
are particularly known for their farming skills and their spirit-focused traditional
religion.
 Across the south, groups of Bantu-speakers spread into Cameroon over the
centuries. They include the Bassa, Duala, Ehjagham, Bakweri, Batanga, Ewondo and
Fang, among many others. But the first settlers were the ‘pygmies’, many of who
retained their traditional nomadic lifestyle in the rainforests of the south. Officially
known as the Baka (or by the names of other minority ethnic groups such as the
Bakola and Bofi) they were called ‘pygmies’ because of their small stature.
Reflecting the old colonial split of the country, Cameroon has two official
languages; French and English. French is spoken by roughly four-fifths of the
population, English by a fifth. However, locals often speak both languages. The
approximately 250 local languages include Ewondo and Bulu, Douala, the Bamiléké
languages, and Fulfulde. Among the less educated, the dialect of Pidgin English
functions as a lingua franca in the English-speaking
area and in many neighbourhoods in Douala.
Both French and English are taught in school, but only those with a secondary
education are fluent in both. Most people speak at least one local language and one
official language, and many people are multilingual.

The population of Cameroon is made of over 250 ethnic groups, each with its
distinctive dress style, dance style, music, songs, foods, drinks, language, beliefs, etc.
The major African ethnic groups are: Bantus, consisting of the following major tribes:
Beti, Bassa, Ejagham, Bakweri, Bakundu, Maka, Duala, Pygmies and the Semi-Bantu
groups consisting of the follow notable tribes: Bamileke, Gbaya, Bamoun, Tikar.
Sudanese groups consisting of the follow notable tribes: Fulani (Fulbe or
Fula), Mafa, Toupouri, Shoa-Arabs, Moundang, Massa, Mousgoum were among the
first settlers in Cameroon. Fulani soldiers founded the Adamawa Emirate in the north
in the 19th century, and various ethnic groups of the west and northwest established
powerful chiefdoms and fondoms.

Religion is an active component of the culture of Cameroon. Christianity

makes up 40% of the Cameroonian population with all Christian faiths being actively
represented, both Catholic and Protestant groups. The visits to Cameroon by the
former and current Popes show how active Christianity is in Cameroon. Muslims
make up 20% of the Cameroonian population. The Islamic community in Cameroon
is very strong and active all over the nation and more so in the northern region.
About 40% of Cameroonians practice indigenous religions or ancestral worship,
commonly referred to as traditional African religions.

The richness of the Cameroonian gastronomy does not stop obviously there.
One can also quote in bulk: eru, koki, mbongo tchobi, dole, achu, corn fufu, roasted
fish, okra soup, chicken. Cameroonian gastronomy varies by region. Overall it is
spicy but simply delicious.
Cameroonian cuisine is one of the most varied in Africa due to its location on
the crossroads between the north, west, and centre of the continent; added to this is
the profound influence of French food, a legacy of the colonial era. Staple foods in
Cameroon include cassava, cocoyam, yam, rice, plantain, potato, maize, beans, millet,
ndole, and achu. The French introduced French bread and Italian pasta, which are not
as widely consumed, however, due to their price. The main source of protein for most
inhabitants is fish, with poultry and meat being too expensive for anything other than
special occasions. Bush meat, however, is commonly consumed, some of the most
sought-after species being pangolin, porcupine and giant rat. There is also a thriving,
illegal trade in endangered bush meat species such as chimpanzee and gorilla.
 CHAPTER TWO
African Indigenous Education
Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to develop an understanding of African Indigenous

Education (AIE). The word indigenous refers to specific groups of people defined by
ancestral territories, collective cultural configuration, and historical locations (Njoki
et al., 2015). As Njoki et al. go on to point out, “indigenous denotes that the
knowledge is typical and belongs to peoples from specific places with common
culture and societies” (p. 134) and such knowledge, beliefs, practices, customs, etc.
are passed down from the past to the present, especially by word of mouth or by
practice. In this context, MacOjong (2008) and Mushi (2009) define African
Indigenous Education (AIE) as a process by which inherited knowledge, skills,
cultural traditions norms, values and attitudes of the tribe, were passed from elders to
children, by means of oral instructions and practical activities.

In this regard, indigenous education is a form of education that specifically

focuses on and encourages teaching indigenous leadership knowledge, beliefs,
practices, customs, models, methods and content within both formal and non-formal
educational systems (Horschemke, 2017; Owuor, 2007); Wilkinson and Purdie, 2008;
Ebot Ashu, 2016; Waghid, 2016).

African tribes and communities are increasingly seeking to reclaim and

revalue their leadership, languages and traditions, and in so doing, improve the
educational success of indigenous students, educational practitioners, schools and
educational systems, thus ensuring their survival as a culture (Wilkinson and Purdie,
2008; Ebot Ashu, 2016; Mohammed et al., 2018).

Characteristics of African Indigenous Education

Fafunwa (1974), MacOjong (2008), Njoki et al. (2015) and Ebot Ashu (2016)
identified seven cardinal goals of African Indigenous Education (AIE). These goals
are: to develop intellectual, physical and social skills; to understand, appreciate and
promote the cultural heritage of the community at large; to develop character and
moral training; to develop a sense of belonging and encourage active participation in
family and community affairs; to acquire specific vocational training (e.g. training a
child to know how to farm, hunt, carve, weave); to develop a healthy attitude towards
honest labour, and to inculcate respect for elders and those in positions of authority.

This type of education can also be said to have nine key characteristics as
documented (MacOjong, 2008; Njoki et al., 2015; Ebot Ashu, 2016):

It is a lifelong process whereby a person progressed through predetermined

stages of life of graduation from cradle to grave. This implies that African indigenous
education is continuous throughout one’s lifetime from childhood to old age, in which
an individual acquires skills, knowledge and values, that are not separated from the
societal culture, from womb to tomb.

It is community-oriented, and geared to solving the problems of the

community. The instructional activities were therefore directed towards the social life
of the community, so as to prepare the learners to fit into their community. This
encourages every person in the community, whether young or old, to put their
competence and skills into the community.

It is not dependent on literacy in that the learning experiences are delivered

orally and the knowledge is stored in the heads of elders. The instructors are carefully
selected from the family or clan to impart knowledge, skills and attitudes to the
young, informally at the didactic and practical levels. MacOjong (2008) says that, at
the didactic level, the teaching process took the form of the great man, behaviours,
stories, legends, riddles, songs; while at the practical level individuals enacted what
they had learnt didactically, by imitating and watching what their elders performed.

It places emphasis on practical learning whereby the young adult earned by

watching, participating and executing what they learnt. Skills like carving, masonry,
clay-working, cloth-making, canoe-making, cooking, and home management are
insisted upon among the children in the community. These are skills open to all, since,
traditionally, they were the basic skills, knowledge and attitudes that enabled
individuals to live and function effectively in their tribe.

The question of learning by doing is very important. The best way to learn
sewing is to sew; the best way to learn farming is to farm; the best way to learn
cooking is to cook and the best way to learn how to teach is to teach. It was not
separated from other spheres of community activity and it had no special time of a
day or life when it took place.

It is functional in the sense that the knowledge skills and values that are
imparted are relevant to the socio-economic, political and cultural activities of an
individual and the local community. Learners learn skills that are useful for
immediate and long-term activities like guards, leaders or teachers, and received
training around the chief’s residence. Historically, the compulsory subjects comprised
fighting, religion, law, history, agriculture and animal husbandry. Upon completion of
their training, they were appointed as guards, teachers and warriors.

There were basically no formal exams at the end of a specific level of

training, but a learner was considered a graduate when he/she was able to practise
what he or she had learnt throughout the period of training. A ceremony was held to
mark the completion of training and thus the assumption of more community
responsibilities. This was common, especially during what the Africans refer to as
‘coming of age’ ceremonies and ‘rites of passage’.

The Holistic Nature of African indigenous education simply means that

everyone is bound to learn about all the activities of society, like farming,
craftsmanship, hunting and fishing, without specialisation. This holistic approach to
indigenous education ensures that children grow as jacks of all trades and masters of
all.

It is a way to protect, preserve and develop the traditional indigenous skills

and cultures of Africa. The acknowledgement of traditional owners’ language
protection, and the preservation and celebration of their heritage is important to
enable the people to gain employment, develop professional skills and participate in
the nation's and international development.
African Philosophies of Education (APE)

The indigenous education above did not develop in a vacuum; it had its own
philosophical bases on which it was built. MacOjong (2008), Ebot Ashu (2016) and
Horsthemke (2017) identified the following underlying principles of APE within AIE:
Preparedness/Preparationism, Utilitarianism/Functionalism, Communalism;
Holisticism and Perennialism. Waghid (2016) and Horsthemke (2017) discussed
Ethnophilosophy, Ubuntu, Community, Reasonableness and Moral Maturity. Graness
(2016), on the history of philosophy in Africa, talks about Maat or Ma’at and Imhotep
(ca. 2700 BCE), architect of the pyramids of Sakkara, who was the first philosopher
known to history and proposed other forgotten African philosophies discovered from
papyrus manuscripts, e.g. Imhotep, The Teachings of the Vizier Ptahhotep, The Tale
of the Eloquent Peasant, and The Dialogue of a Man with his Soul, Imhotep, Kemetic
and As Above so Below. These are reviewed in turn below.

Preparedness/preparationism: This is a preparing philosophy. Children were

prepared to assume adult cultural, social, economic and political roles and functions
in the family, the tribe or the clan. Children are prepared to play the role of husband
and wife, bread provider, councillor in the village. Children learned farming to
become farmers, hunting to become hunters; fishing to become fishermen and
fisherwomen.

Utilitarianism/Functionalism: The utilitarian or functionalist philosophy of

indigenous education required the child to work while learning or learn while
working. Children learnt moral and spiritual ways of living, social and economic
activities, as well as communal participation in order to be useful in the social,
economic and political life of the society in which they were growing. A child, who
learned how to cook, cooked; a child who learnt how to farm, farmed, a child who
learnt how to build, built or participated in effective building.

Communalism: In African traditional society, learners learned/acquired a common

spirit to work and life and that the means of production were owned communally. The
education was also an integral part of culture and history. For example, children’s
upbringing was the task of the whole community. If a child misbehaved, for instance,
in the absence of his/her parents, any adult member of the community was responsible
to correct him/her on the spot. That implies that even children belonged to the society.
African parents sought to raise their children within the community where each
individual saw his/her wellbeing as tied to the welfare of the group, clan and tribe.

Holisticism/multiple learning: In this philosophical base, learners were required to

acquire multiple skills. They were either not allowed to specialise in specific
occupations, or very little room for specialisation existed. When a learner learnt about
a certain skill, say farming, she/he was obliged to learn all other skills related to
farming such as, how to prepare farms, hoeing, food preservation, how to fight
diseases attacking crops and so on. Also, they had to learn other skills like hunting,
house building, cookery and the principles required for the wellbeing of an individual,
clan and ethnic groups. The learner learnt multiple skills and mastered them all.

Perennialism was a philosophical approach that required children to learn in order to

perpetuate culture. It was founded on the belief that cultural knowledge should not be
left to decay and disappear. This philosophical base ensures that the traditional
communities in Africa use education as a tool for preserving the status quo of the
tribe. This is the basis of the transfer of heritage from one generation to another.
Children learned and practice their culture to ensure continuity. If culture disappears,
the whole society disappears spiritually.

Ethnophilosophy was first used by Kwame Nkrumah and was coined by many other
Africa philosophers like Léopold Sédar Senghor’s philosophy of négritude, who
viewed it as a combination of ethnography and philosophy. Ethnophilosophy is based
on the works of ethnographers, sociologists and anthropologists who interpret
collective world views of African peoples, their myths and folklores as a constitutive
part of African philosophy. Ethnophilosophy is associated with the cultural artefacts,
narratives, folklore and music of Africa’s people. Most of the literature on African
ethnophilosophy takes the view that African cultures can have a philosophy that is not
applicable and accessible to all peoples and cultures in the world. Ethnophilosophy
can be used today in research that examines the systems of thought of existing and
pre-colonial African communities in order to determine what might be the ideal forms
of ‘authentic’ African philosophy and praxis in the emerging postcolonial situation
(Karp and Masolo, 1998; Horsthemke, 2017).

Ubuntu is a concept in which one’s sense of self is shaped by one’s relationships with
others. It is often translated as "I am because we are," or "humanity towards others,"
but is often used in a more philosophical sense to mean "the belief in a universal bond
of sharing that connects all humanity”, as documented by McLean et al. (2016). “We
would not know how to think, or walk, or speak, or behave as human beings unless
we learned it from other human beings. We need other human beings in order to be
human” (Tutu, 2004:25).

Community Philosophy in ancient Africa steadfastly focuses on process, not

outcomes. Community Philosophy process is caring, collaborative, critical and
creative. Together, people work out what really matters, what’s possible, and what
they can do; it is a rich, deeply rewarding experience (Waghid, 2016; Horsthemke,
2017). Graeme (2010) and Evans (2012), agreed that Community Philosophy
empowers people in any context to be active citizens and to generate ideas at a
grassroots level. This is about thinking together in a non-confrontational and truly
democratic way.

Reasonableness is the quality of being plausible or acceptable to a reasonable person.

The concept of reasonableness is well documented by Boettcher (2014) and Waghid
(2016a) in the context of John Rawls's political liberalism, and especially its main
ideas of public reason and liberal legitimacy. Waghid (2016b) and Horsthemke (2017)
summarised that the reasonableness of African knowledge(s) is guided by an
appreciation of African cultures. When these cultures are at risk, however, the
potential exists that African knowledge(s) will become misguided.
Moral Maturity is a requirement in the person who is to apply a body of knowledge
or a skill to the solution of a problem, or to the understanding of a situation, if the
knowledge is not to remain abstract and the skill potential unrealised. Mathieson
(2003) offers an image of moral maturity that consists of seven elements: moral
agency, harnessing cognitive ability, harnessing emotional resources, using social
skill, using principles, respecting others, and developing a sense of meaning. For
Waghid (2016a), moral maturity in this regard is that one understands that one’s
behaviour now is going to serve as role model for the upcoming generation.

Maat or Ma’at refers to the ancient Egyptian concepts of truth, balance, order,
harmony, peace, love, unity, law, morality, and justice. Our ancestors believed that
Maat could be represented by a goddess who personified these concepts, and who
regulated the stars, seasons, and the actions of mortals and the deities who had
brought order from chaos at the moment of creation. The most well-known image of
Maat is with a feather on her head. Her ideological opposite was Isfet (Egyptian jzft),
meaning injustice, chaos, violence or to do evil (Graness, 2016; Horsthemke, 2017).
The African myths in indigenous religion, however, believe that Monotheistic God
'has left', allowing humankind to pursue the duty of organising society into a peaceful
paradise. Maat is regarded as the oldest completely preserved doctrine of wisdom,
according to Graness (2016). Some ancient African philosophies are discussed in
Graness’ paper, that are relevant to school leadership: e.g. The Teachings of the Vizier
Ptahhotep, The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, and The Dialogue of a Man with his
Soul, Imhotep, Kemetic philosophy and As Above so Below.

The Teachings of the Vizier Ptahhotep is regarded as the oldest completely

preserved doctrine of wisdom. As explained by Graness (2016), the core of the
Teachings is concerned with morality, social propriety (duties toward superiors,
duties towards equals, and duties towards inferiors), and respect for Maat as the unity
of cosmos and society, order and justice. The central concern of the teachings is how
to lead a truly ethical life. Here, a wise teacher, head teacher, principal, father or king
speaks to his son, presenting his experiences in a didactic and reflective way. While
this form of wisdom literature is a monologue, the discourse is usually presented as a
dialogue often in the form of a lament on the hardship of life and how this can be
improved by improving our ethical values.

The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant, according to the analysis of Graness (2016),
categorises it as a classic piece of political philosophy. The text sees three roles of
political authority in the speeches of the peasant: the role of the leader, the role of the
protector, and the role of the creator of good as described by Graness. These role
models are based on the concept, values and norms of Ma’at as the fundamental idea
of the order of the world that must be applicable to school leadership.

The Dialogue of a Man with his Soul is, on the one hand, a form of criticism of the
traditional cult of the dead. On the other hand, it is a very life-affirming text which
expresses an appreciation of this mortal world despite all its social problems. Graness
(2016) writes that ancient Egyptians believed the soul was made of different parts,
namely Ka, Akh and Ba.

Imhotep (27th century BCE), or "he who cometh in peace", was born in Ankhtowe, a
suburb of Memphis, Egypt. Imhotep was an intellectual, scientist, theologian,
moralist, architect, high priest and physician, inventor of the pyramid, author of
ancient wisdom, astronomer and writer, and his many talents and vast acquired
knowledge had such an effect on the Egyptian people that he became one of only a
handful of individuals of non-royal birth to be deified, or promoted to the status of a
demi-god. Asante (2000) draws from a number of primary sources to reveal that
Imhotep, Ahmenhotep, Akhenaton, and many other African intellectuals were great
philosophers long before the arrival of the Greeks.

The Kemetic Philosophy, or authentic Kemetism, from the native name of Ancient
Egypt, refers to submission to the authority of the laws of the creation and to the order
of the universe. A Kemetic is a follower of Maat and one who organises his existence
in accordance with these laws to preserve life (Asante, 2000; Graness, 2016). In
ancient Kemet, there were also seven cardinal principles/virtues of the Goddess Maat
to achieve human perfectibility. These principles are Truth, Justice, Balance, Order,
Compassion, Harmony and Reciprocity (Asante, 2000; Graness, 2016).
As Above So Below explains that, throughout authentic Africa, human societies
(below) have been organised according to the (above) world universal order. The
phrase derives from a passage in the Emerald Tablet, explains that which is Below
corresponds to that which is Above, and that which is Above corresponds to that
which is Below, to accomplish the miracle of the One Thing. As humans, we must
learn to find that philosopher's stone that is within each one of us. The Message
intended as a version of the New Testament translation of the Lord's Prayer from
Matthew 6:10. (The prayer's phrase is traditionally rendered "on earth, as it is in
heaven”).

Curriculum of Cameroon Indigenous Education

I terminate this chapter with an important distinction about African indigenous
curriculum and its contributions to education in Cameroon. Mac Ojong (2008, p28)
presents in table 1, “the content of education-“curriculum” below was drawn from the
physical, economic, social and cultural environments, the norms, values, customs,
beliefs and religions of the Cameroon indigenes”.

Table 2.1: Curriculum Content of Cameroon Indigenous Education

Subject Content of Curriculum

Physical Education Children intuitively learn to jump, climb and dance.

Sports such as wrestling and competitive games served
to test the physical, intellectual and social capabilities of
the individual.

Social Code It’s traditional that a Cameroonian child is taught

honesty, humility and moral rectitude. Character
development in the child is taught through proverbs
which are intended to enable the child understand
practical truths, love, affection, obedience, respect,
gratitude, submission and so on, particularly to the
father, mother, and elderly.

Academic Curriculum Cameroon indigenous education, in particular, made the

child to develop intellectually. It enabled the child to
engage in the process of abstract reasoning, to improve
his or her intellectual growth and development.

History Children were taught the origin of the tribe, its ancestors
and its evolution. The extended family system was
 understood by the child. A Duala or Ejagham child was
required to recite, by heart, the genealogical tree up to
the twelfth generation. The Ejagham tribe in Manyu
division of the South Wes region taught the military
history of the tribe, laying emphasis on wars won.

Geography Children were taught boundaries of the clan, tribe,

village or quarter. Weather was taught; the child was
told the cloud that caused rain; time could be told by the
length of the shadow on a sunny day. The direction of
the wind was taught by telling the child to look at the
direction towards which leaves and trees are blown by
the wind. The child was made to be familiar with hills,
fertile and unfertile areas. He/she is taught the seasons
for planting specific crops, hunting and fishing. Rivers
and their names are taught.

Literature Literature was an evening intellectual exercise. After the

day’s work, young people come together to listen to
stories told by elders. They learn myths, folklore,
riddles, proverbs, legends, folktales, poetry and lyrics.
Literature is regarded as the source of wisdom.

Music This is one of the important subjects in the “curriculum”

of the Cameroonian indigenous education. The
Cameroonian child begins singing at a very early age.
The boy learns how to beat the drum and sing together
with the girls. Songs are sung during new and full moon
and when rowing boats, fishing, farming or during
traditional wrestling, marriages, rituals, funerals, child
birth etc.

Mathematic The Cameroonian child is introduced to mathematics

very early in life. Mathematics was taught in games. The
use of cowries as currency before the advent of
Europeans offered effective practice in Mathematics.
There were native names for numbers. In the Ejagham
tribe of Manyu Division, for instance, one is called,
“njet”, 10 “bofo”, 20 is “esam”; 100 is “nsam elo” (five
twenties). Children are taught fractions which also have
names: 1\2 = “ebat” or “ekh”, 1\4 is “ebat ekh”. They
have concepts of mathematical processes of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division using objects,
animals and persons.

Natural Science Children learnt the rudiments of traditional science from

about the age of six. Biology in its various branches
(Zoology, Botany, Human Biology) was taught.
Children were taught different kinds of plants and their
various uses (medicinal and edible), parts of animals
 particularly when an animal is being slaughtered for
some rites or festivals. Knowledge of Botany opened the
way for higher training and knowledge in traditional
medicine.

Chemistry was taught during cooking and in palm wine

production. In cooking, the girl child was taught the
proportionate mixture of certain ingredients to produce
different dishes. Boys were taught the fermentation of
palm wine to produce spirits. Youths were also taught
the mixture of different herbs to cure certain diseases;
they knew the chemical composition of each herb and
the disease it could cure

Physics was also taught in cooking. Hitting two stones to

produce fire was well known. Lengths were measured
using arms of the hand; volumes measured by containers
of liquid. In the Ejagham tradition there are such names
as, “otu”, “eribe” which tell the child the quantity of
liquid in containers such as calabashes, gourds, cups,
tins, jugs and so on.

Languages Children learned to speak the language of the tribe

through interaction with parents who constantly correct
them when they make errors. Children are made to listen
to stories from their parents, or made to tell theirs using
their dialect.

Vocational Training Vocational education was very important in the culture

of indigenous Cameroonians. Agriculture, trade and
crafts as a profession were some of the trainings handed
down from generation to generation.

Agriculture: Children were taught different food crops,

suitable and unsuitable soil, when to clear bushes, when
to till and when to plant and harvest different kinds of
crops in different seasons. There is little wonder
therefore that agriculture remains the mainstay of the
indigenous Cameroon economy. There was division of
labour. The males cleared the farms and the females did
the tilling.

Trade and crafts, which constituted the curriculum of the

vocational Cameroonian traditional education system,
included weaving (baskets, cloth thatches for the roof of
houses), smelting (iron, silver, gold etc), hunting,
carving (wood) sculpture, painting and decoration,
carpentry, building, hair cutting, drumming, dancing,
and acrobatics, hair plaiting, boat making, mat making,
brass-working, dyeing, iron –ore working, brass
working, wine tapping, trading, cooking, dressmaking,
 threshing, glass making and so on. These trades and
crafts were taught on apprenticeship basis or by families.
They were gender-oriented. Trade and crafts varied from
tribe to tribe.

Source: Mac Ojong T. T. (2008).

Table 1 demonstrates how African tribes and communities are increasingly seeking to
reclaim and revalue their languages, customs and traditions, and in so doing, improve
the educational success of indigenous students and communities. Universities,
educational practitioners, schools and educational systems must ensure the survival of
their culture (Wilkinson and Purdie, 2008; Ebot Ashu, 2016; Mohammed et al., 2018).
The African continent will be a better place when the Iindigenous people specifically
focuses on teaching indigenous knowledge, models, methods, and content within
formal or non-formal educational systems.

African Philosophy of Education and its Relevance to School Leadership

This section explores the relevance of the above African Philosophies of

Education (APE) for a School Leadership (SL) that enhances peace, harmony and
democracy in the African continent (Ekanem and Ekefre, 2014; Alshurman, 2015;
Ebot Ashu, 2016; Mohammed et al., 2018). It is important for educational
practitioners to understand how APE might be able to change undesirable situations
and conditions of SL. APE enhances mutual understanding amongst the African
people irrespective of tribe, class, sex or religion. It promotes the dignity of the
African people and allows SL, students, institutions and educational systems to search
for meanings that relate to their chosen field (Ekanem and Ekefre, 2014; Alshurman,
2015; Ebot Ashu, 2016; Mohammed et al., 2018).
The application of APE to SL studies offers a discourse to address the
continent's many problems (Graness, 2016). These include selfishness, tribalism,
bribery and corruption, famine, hunger, poverty, abuse, violence and exclusion of the
other. It encourages every African country to develop and implement Maat
philosophies. It encourages their citizens to live in unity and harmony as one,
indivisible, indissoluble, democratic and sovereign nation founded on the principle of
freedom, equality and justice, while promoting inter-African solidarity and world
peace through dialogue and mutual understanding (Ekanem and Ekefre, 2014; Ebot
Ashu, 2016; Graness, 2016). APE in SL is assumed to be a basic welfare pillar in
achieving religious values, humanitarian goals and peace in the education system
(Alshurman, 2015). The main features of APE in SL include equality, social and
political participation, freedom of decision via voting, the rejection of violence in the
realisation of social and political goals, the practice of compromise. In addition, it
includes the elementary value of humans as a human being and a free atmosphere to
ensure this value (Ekanem and Ekefre, 2014; Alshurman, 2015).
This chapter advocates that educational policies need to be founded on the
integration of APE, enabling those philosophies to drive the re-development of basic
social values anchored on certain imperatives of social justice (Ekanem and Ekefre,
2014; Ebot Ashu, 2016). It follows from this that these values need to shape every
aspect and dimension of leadership theory, policy and practice, as has been explained
by Ekanem and Ekefre (2014), Ebot Ashu (2016) and Mohammed et al. (2018).
Ekanem and Ekefre (2014), in particular, have strongly argued that philosophy
constitutes a potent mode of inquiry and epistemic activity that enriches the capacity
for reflection and rational thinking and which is vital for democratic development.

How African Philosophies of Education ‘Fit’ into Today’s School Leadership

World

This chapter has highlighted a number of key issues regarding how African
Philosophies of Education (APE) might help to address contemporary challenges of
School Leadership (SL). APE can be such a powerful tool for the continent’s post-
colonial educational systems as they work to become producers of knowledge that has
a public and international relevance.
Yusef Waghid, a distinguished professor of the Philosophy of Education at
Stellenbosch University, writes that adopting an APE can be a powerful tool to help
the continent's school system at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels by creating
real social change and justice. The continent’s citizens have to be initiated into ways
of being and living that emphasise human cooperation, openness to debate and
discussion, and responsibility towards one another (Ekanem and Ekefre, 2014;
Alshurman, 2015; Waghid, 2016b; Ebot Ashu, 2016). Ebot Ashu (2014) has explored
a number of leadership theories and examined their applicability to school
administration and leadership. The researcher notes that, very often, theories of
leadership in African countries follow the so-called ‘great man’ theory (that great
leaders are extraordinary people, born with natural qualities, destined to lead and with
no need to be trained to become leaders), trait theories (people are born with inherited
leadership capabilities), behavioural theories (people can learn to be leaders),
situational theories (leaders emerge as a result of time and place).
It is worth noting here that the points raised by Maat Philosophy support
school leadership capacity building of indigenous school leaders in remote project
education settings. For our community, and the future of our nation as a whole, school
leaders must be given the opportunity to be trained as such (Ebot Ashu, 2014).

Its explain above that successful school leaders are underpinned by the core
values and beliefs of the members of the school community, and this feeds directly
into the development of APE in SL school vision, which shapes the teaching and
learning, student and social capital outcomes of schooling. APE in SL are achieved by
building the capacity of social capital in the community, by working closely with
parents and care-givers to ensure they understand and support what the school is
endeavouring to accomplish, and, at the most basic level, to ensure that they send
their children to school (Ebot Ashu, 2014). The indicators for each form of capital
(intellectual, social, spiritual, financial) illustrate the complexity of leadership and
governance if APE in SL is to be achieved in most African countries, as explained.
Whether labelled APE in SL, visions and goals, community values, or simply moral
purpose, a shared moral purpose has been consistently identified in most literature as
one of the fundamental necessities for bringing about the kind of change and
improvement that will deliver desirable school leaders, teachers and student learning
in schools in most African countries.